! " #!# 

    
  
     

  ! "

#!# 
$%  


   







 

  


 

 

 


 
   


 

    
 

 
 
   




 
 
 
 
 

 
 
   

 
 





 






   







  

  

 

 


   
   

 


 

  

  
  
  

  

!"#$
 
 


 

% 
" 
&
' 


' ( 
($
 
 

)*+
,
$ 
# 
- 
 
.*
/#%
0 
1

(
   
*23)

)
 
!%4*+)*
$ 

!  
#
 


 



 

 
5
6  
%  
7  
(

 
$ 
 
5
*+*8
% 
" 
&
' 


' ( 
($
 
 
TEXTILE TESTING & ANALYSIS
(FIBER, YARN & FABRIC)
Laboratory manual

-¦Authors¦-
Gopalakrishnan Duraisamy
Dr.S.Yamunadevi
Dr.R.Pragadheeswari
 -¦About the Authors¦-

Gopalakrishnan Duraisamy is an M.Tech (Textile Chemistry) qualified Textile

Technologist. Currently He pursuing his Academic Research (PhD) in Technology.
Also having experience in academic and industry. He has published several articles
and books to his credit.
Dr.S.Yamunadevi is Working as Assistant Professor (Temp) at Department of
Textiles and Clothing, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher
Education for Women, Coimbatore, INDIA. She also has Several years of
experience in Academic. She has published many articles in National and
International Journals to her credit.
Dr.R.Pragadheeswari is working as Assistant Professor in Fashion Design,
Tamilnadu Open University, Chennai. She has a doctorate in Costume Design and
Fashion. She has 12+ years of teaching experience. Her areas of special interest
are Specialty textiles, apparel designing, surface ornamentation and apparel
manufacturing.
Experiment No. Title of the Experiment Page No.
1. Identification of fibres by feel, microscopic view, 1
burning behaviour and solubility
2. Determination of density of various fibres by density 8
gradient column
3. Determination of denier of synthetic fibres by 10
gravimetric method
4. Determination of moisture content and regain of 13
fibres
5. Determination of spin finish % of synthetic fibres 15
6. Determination of wax content of the cotton fibres 17
7. Determination of the blend proportion 19
8. Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) of fibres 21
9. Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) of polymers and 25
fibres
10. Determination of count of yarn and CV% 27
11. Determination of cotton yarn strength (C.S.P) and 29
CV%
12. Determination of yarn appearance (in grades) 31
13. Determination of yarn evenness and imperfections 33
14. Determination of single yarn twist and CV% 35
15. Determination of crimp of yarn 39
16. Determination of Tensile strength of the given fabric 42
17. Determination of Stiffness of the given Fabrics 45
18. Determination of Fabric Abrasion Resistance of the 48
given fabric
19. Determination of Fabric crease recovery of the given 52
fabric
20. Determination of Fabric Drape of the given fabric 54
21. Determination of bursting strength of the given fabric 57
22. Determination of colour fastness of the given fabric 60
by crock meter
23. Determination of colour fastness of the given fabric 62
by perspirometer
24. Determination of colour fastness of the given fabric 65
by Laundrometer
25. Determination of shrinkage of the given fabric 67
TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

1. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBRES BY FEEL, MICROSCOPIC VIEW, BURNING

BEHAVIOUR AND SOLUBILITY

Aim:
To identify the given fibres by feel, microscopic view, burning behavior and solubility tests.
Procedure:
Technical Tests for Fiber Identification
There are two types of methods that are used for identifying different fibers - the
nontechnical tests and the technical tests. The nontechnical tests include the feeling test and the
burn test. The technical tests include microscope test and chemical test. The technical tests for
fiber identification are carried out in laboratories and require technical knowledge and skills. As
such, they are much more reliable methods for testing end product as compared to the non
technical tests.
Nontechnical Tests
Feeling Test
Feeling test involves touching a fabric and feeling the fabric to know its component
fibers. For example, wool fabrics will feel warm when touched because the heat generated by
wool, which is a nonconductor of heat, will remain in the touched area itself. On the other hand,
the fabrics made up of plant fibers such as cotton fabrics, linen fabrics and even the rayon
fabrics, that are made from the cellulose of wood pulp or cotton fiber, feel cool to touch. As they
are conductors of heat, the heat generated by the finger passes off making the fabric cold.
However, it requires a long experience of handling different fabrics over a period of time for
such skillful perception. Also, it is difficult to examine and compare the fabrics made of different
fiber contents with the feeling test.
Burning Test
The other nontechnical test for fiber identification by the burn test- involves burning a
sample of fabric and observing the various characteristics shown by it after burning in order to
determine its fiber content. The burning test is more efficient than the feeling test but it also has
its limitations. For example, fabrics made of bi-constituent fibers, that are combination of two
different textile polymers, cannot be identified with this test.

1 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Burning Test procedures:

™ Remove a snippet of fabric from an inconspicuous area.

™ Hold snippet by the end with tweezers over an ashtray or safe surface.
™ Slowly bring the flame of lighter to the tip of the snippet.
™ Once the snippet is burning, evaluate flame color, flame motion, and smoke.
™ Blow out flame and evaluate odor.
™ When burnt snippet is cool, evaluate the bead or ash.
™ Compare test results with the Burn Test Chart.

2 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Technical Tests
The technical tests for fiber identification done with the help of laboratory equipment are
far more reliable than the nontechnical tests. However, technical knowledge and skill,
particularly while handling chemicals, are the basic requirements for conducting these tests.
Microscope Test
Microscopes having magnification of at least 100 power, can be successfully employed
for testing and identifying the fiber contents of a fabric. Microscope test is very effective for
testing the natural fabrics. Difficulties can be faced while testing synthetic fabrics as many of
them have similar appearance. However, one must know, what the fibers look like under a
microscope as many finishing processes like mercerizing and delustering, change the appearance
of fibers under microscope. Apart from it, dark colored fabrics also cannot be tested with
microscope as light cannot pass through dark substances. For such fabrics, either the textile
dyes haveto be removed by stripping, bleaching etc. or they have to be chemically tested.
Natural fibers have their own peculiar structures, spots, lines and other marks that help in
identifying them. Following are some examples of natural fibers and how they look like under a
microscope:
Cotton: The cotton fiber is a single elongated cell. Under a microscope, it looks like flat, spirally
twisted ribbonlike tube with rough granular surface. However, mercerized cotton doesn't have
natural twist. The finishing process makes them swollen, straight, smooth and round with a
shining surface.
Linen: Linen fiber, under a microscope, looks like having multiple sided cylindrical filaments
with fine pointed edges. The filaments show nodes at intervals. It, in fact, looks like a bamboo
stick having joints that results into a little unevenness.
Wool: Wool fiber has irregular, roughly cylindrical, multi cellular structure with tapered ends.
Under a microscope, three basic layers are shown- epidermis (outer layer), cortex (middle layer)
and medulla (inner layer). Medulla is seen only in coarse and medium wool fibers and that too
under a highly powerful microscope.
Silk: Raw silk fiber, composed of two filaments, has elliptical shape under the microscope. The
two fine and lustrous filaments are shown clearly looking like transparent rods with triangular
shape. Wild silk or tussah fiber has different appearance than the cultivated silk. It is flattened,

3 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

coarse, thick and broader fiber having fine, wavy lines all across its surface whereas cultivated
silk is narrower fiber with no marks on it.
Manmade fibers are difficult to identify through microscope because of similar appearance of
many fibers. However, their certain distinguishable characteristics under a microscope have been
mentioned below.
Rayons: Rayon fiber has uniform diameter with glass like shine. If delustered then rayon fiber
shows marks similar to pepper, when viewed cross sectionally. Viscose fiber of rayon looks
irregular when viewed cross sectionally.
Acetate: Acetate fiber looks lesser irregular than viscose rayon when viewed cross sectionally. It
has indentations that look like occasional marks when viewed longitudinally.
Nylon: There are many variants of nylon fiber. However, generally it appears fine, round,
smooth and translucent. Sometimes it has shiny appearance. If it looks dull, it will also be dotted
under the microscope.
Aramid: If viewed longitudinally, aramid fiber looks smooth and straight. If viewed cross
sectionally, it may be round or like peanut's shape.
Polyester: Generally, polyester fiber is smooth, straight. It looks round cross sectionally.
However, with various finishing processes, its appearance changes in context of texture and
luster.
Spandex: Spandex fiber have the outstanding characteristic of appearing like groups of fibers
fused together. However, different variants of spandex show different characteristics too. The
Lycra fiber looks like fused multifilaments cross sectionally. Individual fibers are dotted and in
shape like that of dog-bone. If viewed longitudinally, they appear straight.
Polypropylene: When viewed cross sectionally, polypropylene fiber looks somewhat round but
it looks straight and smooth when viewed longitudinally.
Glass: The glass fiber looks smooth, round, translucent, shiny and flexible.
Fibre Identification (Microscopic View)
Flax:
Longitudinal View : Long,Transparent,cylindrical,sometimes striated appearance.It has
harrow lumen running through centre.
Cross sectional view : The cell wall appears thick and polygonal in shape.
Jute:

4 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Longitudinal View : Cross wise marks called nodes or joints.

Cross sectional view : The fibres have a small central canal similar to the lumen in cotton.
Several sided or polygonal with rounded edges.
Wool:
Longitudinal View : Irregular and roughly cylindrical, prominent scale marking or flattened
plates..
Cross sectional view : Oval to circular with variation in diameter medulla is concentric and
variable in size.
Viscose:
Longitudinal View : Uniform diameter with striation running parallel to the fibre axis.
Cross sectional view : Differ in cross sectional appearance according to the process used.
Basically has a irregular cross section.
Polyester:
Longitudinal View : Very regular, rod like appearance.
Cross sectional view : Circular in cross section.
Nylon:
Longitudinal View : Very regular, rod like appearance.
Cross sectional view : Circular in cross section.
Acrylic:
Longitudinal View : Rod like with smooth surface and profile.
Cross sectional view : Nearly round or bean shaped.
Chemical Tests
Chemical tests for fiber identification can only be conducted in well equipped
laboratories. There are two primary methods to conduct chemical testing- stain and solvent.
Stain Method:
Stain technique uses acid and alkali on different fabrics to identify their fiber contents.
Most of the fibers have two color reactions when treated with stain. A fiber stained with
dilute acetic acid turns to a specific color. The same fiber when stained with mild alkali like soda
carbonate turns to a different color again specific to that fiber only. Acetate changes to light
green color when acetic acid is used and turns orange when dilute carbonate of soda is used.

5 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Likewise, nylon turns beige in one and bright red in other. As double testing is done in this
method, it is sometimes referred to as double-barreled stain identification.
Solvent Method:
Various solvents are used in this method to distinguish one kind of fiber from another.
However, there is no single solvent or chemical that can be used on all fibers. Additionally,
different solvent procedures are adopted to separate and identify the fibers that are combined
together. It becomes very difficult to use solvent methods in view of fibers that have similar
chemical characteristics. Also, when more fibers are mixed to produce blended fabric, then also
it becomes tough to identify the fibers with the help of solvent method. However, it is a very
effective method for cross checking but in order to have accurate reports, the fabric has to be
cleaned thoroughly and the finishing chemicals should also be removed completely. The fabric
has to be unraveled, yarns have to be untwisted and the fibers have to be put in the solutions in as
loose a condition as is possible.
As an example of solvent method, consider differentiating animal fibers from plant fibers
with alkali. If wool or silk fiber has to be eliminated from a blended fabric then strong alkalies
can be used because animal particles are destroyed in it. Five percent of caustic soda or sodium
hydroxide is used in water. The action of the chemical is hastened by boiling the solution before
immersing the sample fabric in it. The wool or silk fiber gets completely dissolved in it. The
plant fibers remain unaffected. For differentiating them, acid has to be used as the dilute acids
destroy plant fibers. A drop of sulfuric acid has to be put on the sample fabric which, in turn, is
placed between two blotters and pressed with hot iron. If it contains cotton, linen or rayon then
the fabric gets charred at the spot.

6 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Cross sectional and longitudinal view of fibres

Results:
Sl. No. Sample Reference Identified fibre as Remarks
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

RESULTS:
Fiber identification is done with the help of burning, chemical, microscopic and feel test.
************

7 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

2. DETERMINATION OF DENSITY OF VARIOUS FIBRES

BY DENSITY GRADIENT COLUMN

Aim:
To determine the density of given fibre using Density Gradient Column.
Density Measurement:
The definition of density is derived from the relationship volume X density = mass, i.e.
density is the mass per unit volume of a substance and its units, are gm/cm3 . It can be accurately
measured using a density gradient column (described in suggested reading at no. 4). The density
data on common fibres are shown in
Fibre Density in (gm/cm3) :
Cotton 1.52-1.55
Viscose rayon 1.49-1.52
Linen 1.53-1.55
Jute 1.49-1.50
Polynosic 1.50-1.52
Cellulose diacetate/Triacetate 1.30-1.35
Wool 1.30-1.33
Silk 1.25-1.34
Nylon 6/Nylon 66 1.14
Polyester 1.38-1.40
Acrylic 1.16-1.19
Modacrylic 1.29-1.34
Spandex 1.20-1.25
Polyethylene (Low density) 0.92-0.94
Polyethylene (High density) 0.95-0.97
Polypropylene 0.91
Glass 2.50-2.54
Density Testing Procedure of a Textile Fiber
In textile industry; quality control department is responsible to carried out various types of
quality test. Density test is one of them. Density test is important for fabric manufacturing.

8 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Density of a textile fiber is important to know. Density is measured by the following steps.
Density gradient is prepared as the following:
™ Clamp the density gradient glass in a firm vertical stand.
™ Pour into the tube 25 ml of tetrachloroetylene.
™ Now prepare mixture of xylene and tetrachloroetylene in descending order of percent
tetrachloroetylene: 90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, 50/50, 40/60, 30/70, 20/80 and 10/90.
™ Pour 25 ml of each in order carefully down the side of the gradient tube.
™ Finally put 25 ml of xylene on top.
™ Take short fragments of dyed reference fibers and tie in a knot snipping off loose ends.
™ Boil for 2 minutes in xylene solvent to remove moisture and air.
™ After about a half hour they should come to the rest in a level representing their density.
™ Calibrate glass sphere may be used to determine the actual density at various levels.
™ Prepare the unknown fiber in like manner, place in the gradient column and note at what
level it floats.
Result:
The density of the given fibre is………………………….

************

9 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

3. DETERMINATION OF DENIER OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES

BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD

Aim:
To determine the denier of given synthetic fibre using Gravimetric method.
Methods of Measurement
Thermogravimetric analysis is a technique that measures the mass of a sample while it is heated,
cooled or held isothermally in a defined atmosphere. It is mainly used for the quantitative
analysis of products. The technique of using the mass to calculate the quantity of the original
analyte. The technique involves converting analyte to an insoluble product and then isolating the
precipitate. Gravimetric methods are quantitative method based on determining the mass of a
pure compound to which the analyte is chemically related. It is a destructive technique and
requires the careful conversion of the analyte to a suitable product that can be analyzed.
Procedure
™ A typical TGA curve shows the mass loss
steps relating to the loss of volatile components (moisture, solvents, monomers), polymer
decomposition, combustion of carbon black, and final residues (ash, filler, glass fibers).
™ The method allows us to study the decomposition of products and materials and to draw
conclusions about their individual constituents.
™ The first derivative of the TGA curve with respect to time is known as the DTG curve; it
is proportional to the rate of decomposition of the sample.
™ In a TGA/DSC measurement, DSC signals and weight information are recorded
simultaneously. This allows endothermic or exothermic effects to be detected and
evaluated.
™ The DSC signal recorded in TGA/DSC measurement is, however, less sensitive than that
obtained from a dedicated DSC instrument and the DSC curves are less well resolved.
™ The upper diagram of Figure 12 shows TGA and DTG curves of PET. The two lower
diagrams are the corresponding DSC curves measured in a nitrogen atmosphere.
™ The DSC curve on the right in the range up to 300 °C shows the glass transition, cold
crystallization, and the melting process.

10 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ The DSC signal can be corrected for the mass lost by the sample during the measurement
(left); the blue curve is the uncorrected curve and the red curve is corrected for the loss of
mass.
Decomposition
In a decomposition process, chemical bonds break and complex organic compounds or polymers
decompose to form gaseous products such as water, carbon dioxide or hydrocarbons. Under non-
oxidizing (inert) conditions, organic molecules may also degrade with the formation of carbon
black. Volatile decomposition products can be identified by connecting the TGA to a Fourier
transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) or a mass spectrometer (MS).

Figure shows Measurement curves of PET recorded from 30 to 1000 °C at a heating rate
of 20 K/min using a TGA/DSC 1 equipped with a DSC sensor. The TGA curve shows the
change in mass of the sample and the DSC curve the endothermic or exothermic effects.
a) Gravimetric method (Cotton):

™ From comb sorter diagram, fibre tufts are taken and at spacing of 1 cm tufts sections are
sliced out with the help of razor.
™ 100 fibres are counted and weighed on a sensitive micro-balance.
™ Convert into mass/length.
b) Gravimetric method (for wool)
™ Wool has almost circular cross-section.

11 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ After completing a fibre length test the fibres are collected and thoroughly cleared of oil,
allowed to condition and then weighed on microbalance.
™ The total fibre length is calculated and knowing the number of fibres weight/unit length
is derived.
Mean Wt/unit length = W / ∑hn
where, h = the class length (cm)
n = number of fibres in each class
W = total wt of all the classes (mg)
dgrav (microns) = √(97190×W / ∑hn)
Assuming wool cross section is circular and density of wool is 1.31 g/cc

Result:
Denier of given synthetic fibre using Gravimetric method is done.

12 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

4. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT AND REGAIN OF FIBRES

Aim:
To determine moisture content and Moisture regain of fibres using woven Dry weight.
Procedure:
™ Place not less than 1 gram of the textile to be tested in a previously tared weighing bottle
and immediately replace the cover.
™ Weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg using the analytical balance and record the weight.
™ Place the uncovered weighing bottle containing the specimen in an oven maintained at
105 to 110C for 1.5 hours.
™ At the end of the time period, remove the bottle from the oven, immediately replace the
cover and put it in the desiccator.
™ When the bottle and contents have cooled to room temperature, remove them from the
desiccator and reweigh. Repeat the heating and reweighing process for periods of 30
minutes until the weight is constant to within k 0.001 g and record the constant weight.
Conditioning oven:
A conditioning oven, as shown in figure, is a large oven which contains the fiber sample
in a mesh container. The container is suspended inside the oven from one pan of balance, the
mechanism of which is outside the oven.

13 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Working:
™ This ensures that the weight of the sample can be monitored without disturbing the
system.
™ A continual flow of air at the correct relative humidity is passed through the oven which
is maintained at 105o C.
™ The main advantage of using a conditioning oven for carrying our regain determinations
is that all the weighing is carried out inside the oven. The use of the conditioning oven to
dry a sample is correct standard procedure; any other method of sample drying has to be
checked for acuracy against it.
™ The method is based on the assumption that the air drawn into the oven is at the standard
atmospheric condition. If this is not the case the correction has to be made

Percentage correction = 0.5 (1 - 6.48 x 104 x E x R) %

Where R = relative humidity % / 100, and E = Saturation vapour pressure in pascals at the
temperature of the air enter the oven (taken from a table of values)
Calculations:
Calculate the moisture content of the specimen as follows:
Moisture content is defined as the weight of water in a material express as a percentage of
the total weight of the material.
Moisture content, C = W/(W+D) X 100
Calculate the moisture regain of the specimen as follows:
Moisture regain is defined as the weight of water in a material as a percentage of the oven
dry weight.
Moisture regain, R = W/D X 100
Let, Oven dry weight of a material = D
Weight of water in this material = W
Results:
The Moisture content and regain of the given fibre is ………….. & ………………

*********

14 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

5. DETERMINATION OF SPIN FINISH % OF SYNTHETIC FIBRES

Aim:
To determine the % of spin finish of synthetic fibres
Spin finish:
In the production of artificial fibres such as polyamide and polyester, the fibres are sprayed with
an oil-based coating to reduce static electricity and friction as well as enhance other physical
characteristics. This coating is known in different countries as spin finish, oil pickup (OPU) and
finish on yarn (FOY). Measurement of the applied spin finish by low resolution Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is fast, simple and solvent free and allows tighter control of the
manufacturing process. This translates, in real terms, to fewer out of specification products and
lower production costs due to less finish material being used.
Method:
The traditional method of testing is to dissolve the coating in an organic solvent and then
determine the amount of dissolved oil in the solvent either gravimetrically (following distillation)
or by use of infra-red spectroscopy. All these methods are time consuming, use hazardous
solvents and require skilled operators. Some variations also require the use of mercury-
containing catalysts. Low resolution pulsed NMR provides an alternative method which is quick
and easy to perform, simple to calibrate, and is capable of determining finish levels below those
accurately measurable by solvent extraction. For instance, the measurement of mineral oil on
staple polyester is particularly difficult because of the low levels of finish and therefore is an
ideal application for NMR.
Calibration:
After setting the relevant method parameters, a calibration must be generated before unknown
samples can be measured. This is done by measuring a set of standards of known coating weight
using the Easy Cal calibration software. Samples are weighed, and pushed into a sample tube,
then inserted into the instrument. Measurement time is approximately one minute per sample.
Weights can be entered manually or automatically from an electronic balance, into the
application software. It is recommended that at least six, preferably 12, calibration standards
should be used, with coating weights evenly spread over the range of interest. When all the
standards have been measured, the calibration can be edited on-screen using the RI Calibration
software. Calibrations can be stored on disk and recalled later for editing or to add extra

15 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

measurement points. If reference values are not known at the time of measurement, they can be
added later if the file has been saved to disk.
Interpretation
Results are shown here from four separate sets of samples – two polyester, one
polyamide and one nylon-based fibre.
Sample set 1 (polyester): A set of nine calibration standards between 0.06% and 0.75% finish
(water/oil emulsion) were measured twice. The two sets of results are shown opposite.
Sample set 2 (polyester): A set of 7 calibration standards between 0.33% and 0.74% finish
(water/oil emulsion) were measured twice, with the results shown opposite.
Sample set 3 (polyamide): The polyamide set comprised 31 calibration standards of which six
wer e a ver y poor fit to the calibration line and were deleted. The finished calibration was as
shown below. One sample was then measured seven times in succession to determine the
repeatability which was shown to be 0.023.
Sample set 4 (nylon): This set comprised of 14 calibration standards between 0.72% and 1.55%
finish (water/oil emulsion). There was some doubt about the accuracy of the reference values, so
the NMR repeatability was the main interest.
The instrument repeatability was obtained using one polyester sample measured 10 times,
removing and re-inserting the sample tube before each measurement. Instrument repeatability
was shown to be 0.001 (at the 0.375% level). The full set of 14 samples were run twice, the
results of which are shown at the top of the next column. A further nine samples were measured
using the calibration produced using sample set 2 and compared against values determined by
solvent extraction followed by infra-red assessment of oil in the solvent. The results are shown
opposite.
Results:
The spin finish % of given fibre is determined by available method is ………………..%

***********

16 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

6. DETERMINATION OF WAX CONTENT OF THE COTTON FIBRES

Aim:
To determine the wax content of the given cotton fibre.

Fiber Wax Content

The weight of solvent extractables per unit mass of fibers is known as wax content. Wax content
has the following affects:
Yarn Strength: There may be up to 30% increase in strength by the removal of wax from yarns
spun from normal cottons.
Yarn Elongation: There may be up to 4% decrease in elongation by the removal of wax from
yarns spun from normal cottons.
Ends Down: With increasing levels of wax, ends down rate in spinning increases Wax content.
Procedure:
™ The waxes were removed from the lint by conducting 6−h Soxhlet extractions with
1−1−1 tri−chloroethane solvent.
™ A single extraction consisted of the use of 100 mL of solvent to 2.50 g of sample. At least
15 extractions/cotton were conducted.
™ After extraction, residual boiling flask solvent and extracted waxes were poured into a
pre−weighed container.
™ The solvent was evaporated from the container overnight in a 105°C oven, the container
was sealed and removed from the oven, placed in a dessicator and allowed to cool to
room temperature before re−weighing.
™ The final wax content was calculated from averaging all 15 extractions. Total surface
extractables (wax and other noncellulosic surface materials) were removed using the
same Soxhlet extraction procedure as with wax removal, except the solvent used was
absolute ethanol.
™ The standard deviation for wax and alcohol extractions was ±30 g/kg (3%) of the amount
determined.

17 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ Wax content, reported as the fraction (w/w) present on the conditioned fiber, was
determined by Soxhlet extraction. Six replicates were performed for each of the grouped
cotton samples.
™ Extractions were performed using trichloroethylene as a solvent on 2.5-g samples of
cotton.
™ The resultant solutions were evaporated to dryness at 105o C, which left a wax residue
that was subsequently weighed.

Results:
Wax content of the given cotton fibre is determined as………….

*************

18 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

7. DETERMINATION OF THE BLEND PROPORTION

Aim:
To determine the blend proportion of given yarn.
Blending:
Blending is the combining of different fibres together intimately to achieve a desired product
characteristic. Blends can influence coloring, strength, softness, absorbency, ease of washing,
resistance to wrinkling, ease of spinning, cost, etc.
™ When two different types of fibres are blended, the properties of these two different
fibres are synergized. For instance, in the blend of cotton and polyester, cotton
provides the absorbency and polyester provides the strength.
™ Blending is done to produce a fabric, which is economical by combining the aesthetic
comfort properties of the natural fibres with the easy care and strength properties
of synthetic fibers.
™ Blending also helps to provide the fabric’s light weight with all desirable
characteristics. Improving spinning, weaving and finishing efficiency and the
uniformity of product.
Blend of Acrylic with Wool, Silk, Cotton, Viscose, Polyester or Nylon:
1. Dissolve the acrylic fibres with (Dimethyl Formamide - DMF). Acrylic Fibres will
dissolve in DMF.
2. Filter, rinse and weigh carefully to get the ratio of Acrylic Fibres.
Blend of Protein Fibres (Wool or Silk) with cotton, polyester, nylon or acrylic:
1. Take the blended fibres (Carefully weighed) in a conical flask.
2. Add a solution of 5% (w/w) solution of Sodium Hydroxide or Potassium Hydroxide and boil
for 10 minutes. Protein fibres will dissolve in Sodium Hydroxide or Potassium Hydroxide.
3. Rinse the leftover fibres with water and neutralize with dilute Acetic Acid.
4. Weigh the fibres after drying and find the ratio of protein fibres.
Blend of Polyester with Cotton or Viscose:
1. Weigh the blend and heat it with Meta cresol. Polyester fibres will dissolve.
2. Weigh the residual fibres after rinsing thoroughly and drying and find the percentage of
polyester fibres.

19 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Blend of Elastane (Spandex or Lycra) with Cotton or Viscose

1. Treat the blend with DMF. Elastane will dissolve in DMF.
2. Filter, Rinse, dry and get the weight of residual fibres to get the percentage of Elastane.

Sample Identified fibre as Remarks Reported as Discovered as

Result:
Blend proportion of given yarn is identified by using solubility method.

*********

20 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

8. THERMO GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS (TGA) OF FIBRES

Aim:
To analyze the fibres by using Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA).
The TGA Technique
x TGA measures the amount of weight change of a material, either as a function of
increasing temperature, or isothermally as a function of time, in an atmosphere of nitrogen,
helium, air, other gas, or in vacuum.
x Thermal gravimetric analysis can be interfaced with a mass spectrometer RGA to identify
and measure the vapors generated, though there is greater sensitivity in two separate
measurements.
x Inorganic materials, metals, polymers and plastics, ceramics, glasses, and composite
materials can be analyzed.
x Temperature range from 25°C to 900°C routinely. The maximum temperature is 1000°C
on our instrument. We have access to an instrument with an upper temperature limit of
1500°C when you need it.
x Sample weight can range from 1 mg to 150 mg. Sample weights of more than 10 mg are
preferred, but excellent results are sometimes obtainable on 1 mg of material.
x Weight change sensitivity of 0.01 mg.
x Samples can be analyzed in the form of powder or small pieces so the interior sample
temperature remains close to the measured gas temperature.
Applications of Thermogravimetry:
x Determines temperature and weight change of decomposition reactions, which often
allows quantitative composition analysis.
x May be used to determine water content or the residual solvents in a material.
x Allows analysis of reactions with air, oxygen, or other reactive gases (see illustration
below).
x Can be used to measure evaporation rates as a function of temperature, such as to
measure the volatile emissions of liquid mixtures.
x Allows determination of Curie temperatures of magnetic transitions by measuring the
temperature at which the force exerted by a nearby magnet disappears on heating or reappears
on cooling.

21 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

x Helps to identify plastics and organic materials by measuring the temperature of bond
scissions in inert atmospheres or of oxidation in air or oxygen.
x Used to measure the weight of fiberglass and inorganic fill materials in plastics,
laminates, paints, primers, and composite materials by burning off the polymer resin. The fill
material can then be identified by XPS and/or microscopy. The fill material may be carbon
black, TiO2, CaCO3, MgCO3, Al2O3, Al(OH)3, Mg(OH)2, talc, Kaolin clay, or silica, for
instance.
x Can measure the fill materials added to some foods, such as silica gels, cellulose, calcium
carbonate, and titanium dioxide.
x Can determine the purity of a mineral, inorganic compound, or organic material.
x Distinguishes different mineral compositions from broad mineral types, such as borax,
boric acid, and silica gels.
ASTM Test Methods Using Thermo gravimetric Analysis
™ ASTM D2584 – Standard Test Method for Ignition Loss of Cured Reinforced Resins
™ ASTM E1131 – Standard Test Method for Compositional Analysis by Thermogravimetry
™ ASTM E1641 – Standard Test Method for Decomposition Kinetics by Thermogravimetry
Using the Ozawa/Flynn/Wall Method
™ ASTM E2008 – Standard Test Method for Volatility Rate by Thermogravimetry
Preparation of sample:
This depends on the nature of your sample. Below are six (6) suggestions to consider when
preparing a sample.
™ The sample size should be between 2 and 50 mg.
™ If you have minimum amount of sample, run at least 1 mg.
™ If possible, cover the bottom of the pan with the sample material.
™ The sample pans, ceramic or platinum, can accommodate liquids, powders, films, solids
or crystals.
™ Once you have decided on the sample form, then for best results, use approximately the
same sample weight during each experiment. This will ensure reproducibility.
™ Many small pieces of sample are better than one large chunk. It is better to have a large
surface area exposed to the sample purge.

22 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

TGA Application curves

™ Most TGA experiments use an inert sample purge gas. This is done so the sample only
reacts to temperature during decomposition. When the sample is heated in an inert
atmosphere this is called pyrolysis.
™ Pyrolysis is the chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of
oxygen or any other reagents.
™ There are times when you may want to use a reactive sample purge gas, such as oxygen.
When using oxygen as a purge gas you may want to switch gases from nitrogen to
oxygen during the experiment.
™ This is a common technique to identify the percent carbon in a material.
Determination of weight % of material components
™ Thermo gravimetric analysis was used as one of several complementary techniques in the
identification of an unknown polymer composite, which microscopy revealed had
fiberglass content.
™ XPS identified the composition of the fiberglass and revealed the presence of CaCO3as
residues of a lower temperature TGA run than the high temperature run shown below.
™ FTIR indicated a polymer consisting of polyester and, probably, polystyrene.
™ TGA was then performed on the material to find the weight percent of each material. The
sample was heated from room temperature to 900°C at a rate of 5°C/min in air.
™ The TGA curve (below) is labeled in terms of the identity of the components. Here
polyester (71% of the polymer), polystyrene (29% of the polymer), fiberglass (22.9% of
the whole) and CaCO3 (49.3% of the whole) were easily identified by their different
temperatures of combustion or evaporation.
™ The combustion of the styrene polymer component produced enough energy that the
temperature momentarily increased more than the programmed rate, which accounts for
the unusual shape of the curve due to the cooling that followed the reactive overheating.
™ The remaining material after the TGA analysis was completed was confirmed by XPS to
consist only of CaCO3. The results obtained for the polymer matrix match the common
blend co-polymer of 70% polyester and 30% polystyrene by weight.

23 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

1500°C TGA
™ Sample capacity of 200 mg
™ Ideal sample weight from 10 to 50 mg
™ Balance sensitivity of 0.1 microgram
™ Temperature range from ambient to 1500°C

Results:
Analyze the fibres by using Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) is done.

**********

24 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

9. FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRA-RED (FTIR) OF POLYMERS AND FIBRES

Aim:
To analyze the polymer and fibre by using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR).
FTIR:
FTIR spectrometers are the third generation infrared spectrometer. They have been
widely used in structure elucidation, which are either of natural origin or synthesized chemically.
It is a measurement technique which collects spectra based on the measurements of the
coherence of a radiative source, using time-domain or space-domain measurements of the
electromagnetic radiation or other type of radiation. It collects and digitizes the interferogram of
a sample signal using an interferometer, performs the FT function, and displays the spectrum. It
can be applied to a variety of types of spectroscopy including optical spectroscopy, infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR, FT-NIRS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance
spectroscopic imaging (MRSI), mass spectrometry and electron spin resonance spectroscopy.
Preparation and Testing:
A polymer is a long-chain molecule formed when individual units, called monomers, are
linked together. Fibers are polymers that can be categorized into two broad groups, natural and
synthetic. Due to the range of chemical compositions, different fibers exhibit a range of chemical
and physical behaviors. Two of the most significant types of molecular motion are stretching and
bending of bonds within the molecule. To cause a particular bend or stretch, a specific wave
number of infrared light is required. Other combinations of bonded atoms will absorb photons of
-1
other infrared frequencies. The collection of all absorbance between 600 and 4000 cm
constitutes the infrared spectrum for that molecule. This can be thought of as a molecular
fingerprint. Just as people have unique fingerprints, molecules also have unique fingerprints.
Identical molecules have identical fingerprints. Since every molecule has a unique arrangement
of bonded atoms, every molecule absorbs a different set of infrared frequencies. FT-IR spectra
for O-H group based cotton fiber and ester group based polyester as an example. The bands
represent cellulose can be seen at 2906 cm- 1 (CH, CH2 stretch), 1478 cm-1 ( H-C-H and H-O-C
bend), 1379 cm-1 , 1334 cm-1 (H-C-C, H-C-O, and H-O-C bend), 1108 cm-1 (C-C and C-O
stretch), 910 cm-1 ( C-O-C in plane, symmetric), and 516-379 cm-1 (skeletal C-OC, C-C-C, O-C-

25 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

C and O-C-O bend). Types of bonds present in the chemical structure of polyester, has made
execution of absorbency peaks and intensity totally different than cotton. This is purely
influenced by the presence of ester group in its structure. Thus knowledge of chemical structure,
natural as well as manmade fibers can be easily distinguished with FT-IR. Besides structural
elucidation, another qualitative application of infrared spectroscopy is the identification of a fiber
or finish (chemical) with a reference infrared spectrum. If all the peaks of the unknown match
those of the reference, the fiber or finish can be identified.
FT-IR can be used in chemical analysis by matching the spectra with a known database
and monitoring the chemical reactions. Thus it makes possible the analysis of changes in
molecular structure and intermolecular interactions. This can provide authentic proof for polymer
degradation, positive or negative effect of various finishes, even at Nano scale, on the
performance of fiber, yarn or fabric etc. Difference in the stretch band size can also help in
defining the presence of crystalline and amorphous region in the chemical structure of the textile
fibres.
Results:
Analyze the polymer and fibre by using Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) is done.

**********

26 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

10. DETERMINATION OF COUNT OF YARN AND CV%

Aim:
To determine the count and count CV% for given yarn.

Preparation:
Yarn Count:
It indicates the weight per unit length or length per unit weight. In English system count denotes
the number of hanks of 840 yards that will weight one pound.
Lea:
A continuous length of yarn in the form of a coil of 80 loops
made on the reel of girth of 1.5 yards.
Sampling:
Take 10 cops or 5 cones per sample.
Automatic Wrap Reel:
It is designed for preparing leas of 120 yards of
definite length with uniform tension, it helps in preparing
more number of leas in short time.
Conversion table for yarn counts

Tex Den Nm Grains/yd

Tex den/9 1000/Nm gr.yd x 70.86
Ne 590.54/tex 5314.9/den Nm x .5905 8.33 / gr/yd
Den tex x 9 9000/Nm gr/yd x 637.7
Nm 1000/tex 9000/den 14.1 / gr/yd
Grains/yd tex / 70.86 den / 637.7 14.1/Nm
Where, Nm – metric count, Nec – cotton count

Preparation of test specimens:

1. Number the selected cones/cops and fix them on the bobbin holder of the wrap reel.
2. Reel out the required length of 120 yards for wrap reel.

27 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Cut and tie the trailing end of the lea to its leading end.
4. Similarly take 30 leas making a total of 40 leas from the same 10 bobbins.
5. Condition the sample in a conditioning box for about 12 hours.
6. Determine the mass in grams of the leas and calculate the count
Cotton count = 64.80 / Weight of lea in gms
Observation:

Test No. Weight of the lea Count (x) = x–x =d d2

in gms (64.80 / Weight of lea in gms)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Average(x)
∑ d2

Standard deviation (SD) = √ ∑ d2

N

Coefficient of Variation (CV) = SD x 100

x
Results:
The given yarn count is…………. & CV% is…………..

**********

28 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

11. DETERMINATION OF COTTON YARN STRENGTH (C.S.P) AND CV%

Aim:
To determine the yarn strength, Count strength product and their CV%.
Apparatus:
1. Cotton yarn
2. Wrap reel
3. Lea strength tester
4. Electrical balance
Testing atmosphere:
™ Temperature – 29 oC and relative humidity – 76%
™ Standard atmosphere: temperature – 20 oC
™ Relative humidity - 65%.
Sample:
™ Size - One lea cotton yarn (1 lea =120 yards).
™ No. of sample – 20.
Working procedure:

1. At first one lea cotton yarn is measured by wrap reel and in this way 20 samples are taken

for testing.

2. Now, the first sample is fixed with the upper jaw J1 and the lower jaw J2.

3. The m/c is started and observed the dial until the sample is torn out.

4. When the sample is torn out the m/c is stopped and the reading is taken.

5. By this way the others’ reading are taken.

6. Then all the samples are weighted and counts are calculated.

7. C.S.P of the all samples are calculated.

8. At last average and CV% are calculated.

29 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Data:

Reading Yarn Yarn Sample Yarn C.S.P of Avg SD% CV%

length strength Wt Count the C.S.P
(yds) (lbs) (gms) (Ne) given
sample
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation:
Suppose for first sample, we find length = 120 yards and weight = ………. gm.
Now we know, 1 lb = …….. gm.
Then Count = ……….. » ……. Ne
And C.S.P = …… X ……… = 2141.39
In this way others are calculated.
Here CV% = …….%
Result:
x The strength of cotton yarn is ……97 lb
x C.S.P is ………….
x C.V% for C.S.P is ……..%

*************

30 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

12. DETERMINATION OF YARN APPEARANCE (IN GRADES)

Aim:
To determine the grades of yarn appearance board.

Standard
An important factor contributing yarn quality is grade & appearance. The appearance
grade of yarn is determined by visual comparison with standard sample within same range of
yarn numbers. Standard yarn appearance boards are supplied by American Society for Testing &
Materials (ASTM).Yarn appearance is tested by using yarn appearance winders & ASTM
standard appearance boards.
Assessment of Yarn Appearance
The instrument is designed for winding the yarn evenly spaced on black board for visual
inspection. The winder is operated with step pulley driven mechanism with traversing motion.
The winding density can be adjusted by shifting belt on stepped pulleys. In the good brand make
winding density is adjusted by choosing particular combination of wheels depending upon count
as given below.
Count No of Wheel
range wraps/cm combination
70s-135s 19 A+F
36s-70s 15 A+E
16s-36s 10 B+E
7s-16s 8 B+D
3s-7s 6 B+C

A & B are driver wheels

C, D & E are driven wheels
Sampling:
Select 5 cops per sample.
Test procedure:
1. Select wheel combination suitable for particular count.
2. Bring bobbin holder of winder to starting position.

31 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

3. Fix bobbin to bobbin holder.

4. Take free end of yarn, pass through the yarn guide, make a firm wrap.
5. Wind yarn with even spacing.
6. Take out bobbin as soon as it is fully covered with yarn.
7. Repeat same procedure for remaining bobbins.
8. Place the board against ASTM appearance grade photographs for appropriate count group.
9. Compare it & match it to find nearest grade (Comparison with photographic standards should
be done in the yarn grading cabinet in which adequate lighting arrange mean is made.
10. Yarns falling between adjacent grades are indicated by + sign grades. For ex. C+ means
better than C but poorer than B.
11. Give boards to two other observers & ask them to grade.
12. Give numerical values to boards as given below:
A & Below
Grade above B+ B C+ C D+ D D
Index 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60
Calculation:
Find average index of both observers separately & determine mean averages of best two.
Index Range
A &
130 above
120-129 B+
110-119 B
100-109 C+
90-99 C
80-89 D+
70-79 D
60-69 Below D
Results:
Appearance grade of yarn is normally expressed as ………………….. with appropriate
index value of…………………

********

32 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

13. DETERMINATION OF YARN EVENNESS AND IMPERFECTIONS

Aim:
To determine the yarn evenness and imperfections for given yarn.
Diagram:
The graphical representation of mass per unit length variation along the length of sliver, roving
or yarn is referred as diagram. It indicates the nature of variability present in the material.
Information from diagram:
1. Long wavelength variations, even with periodic variation which spectrogram cannot confirm.
2. Extreme thick and thin places.
3. Slow changes and step changes in the mean value.
4. In many cases, it can confirm the numerical values of instrument.
Imperfections:
Staple fibre yarns, at a number of places along their length, contain large variations in mass per
unit length which are referred to as “imperfections” -thick, thin, neps
1. Thick places: +50% If the counter is actuated, the mass per unit length (cross section) at the
thick place is 150% or more of yarn mean value (> 4 mm length)
(Ranges: +100%,+70%,+50%,+35%)
2. Thin places: -50% only 50% of yarn mean value or less.
(Ranges: -60%, -50%, -40%, -30%)
3. Neps: +200% The thick place based on 1 mm length, is 300% of the yarn mean value or more.
Length shorter than 4 mm (however refers as a reference length of 1 mm)
(Ranges: +400%,+280%,+200%,+140%)
Spectrogram:
™ Amplitude of periodic mass variation is plotted against the wavelength in a spectrogram.
™ From the speed at which the yarn is running (through capacitance type sensor) the
frequencies are converted to wavelengths and plotted into a finite number of discrete
wavelength steps.
™ Histogram is then plotted automatically.
™ Amplitude is a measure of the number of times a fault of that repeat length occurs.
™ Helps in locating the generating point of a periodic fault.

33 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ Spreading of humps are due to periodic faults generated due to “drafting waves” and the
wavelength due to drafting wave will be around 2.5 – 3.0 inch for cotton.

Fibre
assembly

Capacitor
Electronic Display
signal
Processing

Printing

Theoretical spectrogram:
For yarn with its staple fiber all the same length L (but in actual practice it is different, due to
fault induced during processing)

S = f( λ ) = (1/√ π n)×sin ( π l0 / λ ) / √ ( π l0 / λ )
Where,
n = No. of fibers in cross section,
l0 = Fiber length,
λ = Wavelength

Result:
Yarn evenness and imperfections of given yarn is determined by using evenness tester.
**********

34 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

14. DETERMINATION OF SINGLE YARN TWIST AND CV%

Aim:
To determine the single yarn twist by using twist tester and calculate CV% of twist.
Specimen preparation:
™ 2-5% random sample is taken from bags that are selected from the consignment. Say if
there are 100 bags, then select 5 bags randomly for testing. From each bag select one
cone for testing and from each cone 10 tests are to be made thus total 50 testing.
™ After conditioning, outer few layers from cone are removed.
™ Then it is side-end withdrawal and mounted on the tester.
Continuous twist tester:
™ On twist testers, tests on consecutive lengths of yarn are not easily made because of the
instrument design and the amount of yarn handling involved.
™ So this tester has the extra advantage of allowing twist tests at fixed intervals.
™ The straightened fibre principle is still used for the actual measurement of the twist.
™ The yarn passes from the sample package, through a guide, through non-rotating jaw,
then through rotating jaw and finally wound on to a (clockwork-driven) drum.
™ Assuming that a 1'' length of yarn is gripped between the jaws, the twist is taken out and
the number of turns noted.
™ The handle is then turned until the counter reading is again zero. The spring loaded jaws
of the rotating clamp are opened and the clamp moved 1'' forward to touch the fixed
clamp.
™ Fixed jaw is then opened; rotating clamp is pulled back to its work position which pulls a
new 1'' sample into the test zone.
™ The drum is allowed to take up the slack yarn, fixed clamp is again closed and the next
test can be made.
For a longer test length say 5-10'' the sequence after a test is then:
Slide the fixed clamp upto the rotating clamp, open the rotating clamp and allow the drum to take
up the slack yarn, close it again, slide the fixed clamp back to its original position, close it and
make the next test.

35 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Twist measurement
Several methods of twist measurement are available. We will describe two methods
which are applicable to the more common type of yarns - first for single yarn and the second for
double or multi ply yarns. Twist tester for single yarn: We will describe a single yarn twist tester
based on the twist contraction method. The yarn is first gripped in the left hand clamp which is
mounted on the pivot & carries a pointer. After being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn is
pulled through until the pointer lies opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale; the jaw is then
closed. At this stage the specimen is under a small tension and a nominal length of 10” (or any
other chosen test length). As the twist is removed the specimen extends and the pointer assumes
a vertical position. Eventually all the twist is taken out but the jaw is kept rotating in the same
direction until sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to zero mark again. The
total number of turns registered on the revolution counter is divided by two i.e. twice the number
of inches on the test length. This gives the total twist in the yarn. To get the twist level per inch
of the yarn, this number is again divided by ten.
Method
This method is based on the fact that yarns contract in length as the level of twist is
increased. Therefore if the twist is subsequently removed, the yarn will increase in length
reaching a maximum when all the twist is removed. The method uses a piece of equipment such
as that shown in Fig. in which the end of the yarn distant from the counter is attached to a pointer
which is capable of magnifying its changes in length.

36 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

At the start of the test the yarn is placed under a suitable tension, either by a clip-
onweight or by a weighted arm as shown. The test procedure is to untwist the yarn until all its
twist has been removed and then to continue twisting the yarn in the same direction, until it
returns to its original length. The basis of the method is the assumption that the amount of twist
put in is equal to the twist that has been removed. However, this is not necessarily the case. For
woolen yarns the method may give results up to 20% below the true value, whereas for worsted
yarns the results may be 15% higher owing to fibre slippage. One source of error in the method
is that at the point of total twist removal the fibres in the yarn are unsupported so that any tension
in the yarn may cause the fibres to slip past one another, so increasing the length of the yarn. The
difference in length if unnoticed will cause an error in the measurement of turns per unit length.
Another source of error is the fact that with some yarns, when the twist is removed, the amount
of twist to bring it back to the same length is not equal to the twist taken out.
Because of these problems the method is not recommended for determining the actual
twist of a yarn but only for use as a production control method. There is a US standard for this
method but it warns that the measured values are only an approximation of the true twist. It
suggests that 16 samples are tested using a gauge length of 250 or 125 mm. However, the
method is easy to use and has less operator variability than the standard method so that it is often
used for measuring the twist in single yarns.
Untwist-twist method or Twist contraction method
™ This method is based on the fact that yarns contract in length as the level of twist is
increased and it increases in length on twist removing, at last reaching a maximum length
when all the twist is removed.
™ The instrument shown is used for this method.
™ The yarn is first gripped in the left-hand clamp which is mounted on a pivot and carries a
pointer.
™ After being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn is pulled through until the pointer lies
opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale; jaw is then closed.
™ At this stage the specimen is under a small tension and has a nominal length of 10''.
™ As the twist is removed, the yarn extends and the pointer assumes a vertical position, so
removing the tension.

37 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ Eventually all the twist is taken out but the jaw is kept rotating in the same direction until
sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to the zero mark again.
™ The total number of turns recorded on the revolution counter is divided by 20.
™ The method is based on the assumption that the amount of twist put in is equal to the
twist that has been removed. However, this is not necessarily the case.
Sample Twist per Inch Remarks Sample Twist per Inch Remarks
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10
Mean Mean

Result:
The Single yarns twist by using twist tester is done and CV% of twist calculated.

********

38 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

15. DETERMINATION OF CRIMP OF YARN

Aim:
To determine of crimp percentage in warp and weft yarn of a given fabric.

Specimen:
When warp and weft yarns interlace in fabric they follow a wavy or corrugated path.
Crimp percentage is a measure of this waviness in yarns. Warp and weft crimp percentages are
two of the eleven structural elements in fabric construction discussed by Peirce. The
relationships between the geometry of a cloth structure and its physical behavior in use are
complex. Although much pioneer work has been done there are many unresolved problems still
to be investigated.
Theory:
Percentage crimp is defined as the mean difference between the straightened thread
length and the distance between the ends of the thread while in the cloth, expressed as a
percentage. From the definition of crimp two values must be known, the cloth length from which
the yarns is removed and the straightened length of the thread. In order to straighten the thread,
tension must be applied, just sufficient to remove all the kinks without stretching the yarn. In
practice it is seldom possible to remove all the crimp before the yarn itself begins to stretch. The
standardized tensions recommended are given below:
From those two values we can calculate the crimp percentage with the following formula:
C=(l-p)/p*100%
where, c = crimp, l = uncrimped length and p = crimped length.

39 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Five groups of threads selected for test are two warp way and three weft way groups. The
mean crimp percentage is calculated warp way and weft way. Rectangular strips are carefully
marked on the cloth and each strip cut into the form of a flap. From each strip ten threads will be
removed. Removal of threads is as follows: the central part of the first thread is separated from
the flap fringe by means of a dissecting needle, but the two extreme ends are left secured. One
end is then removed and place in the grip of the tester, and the other end is removed and placed
in the second grip. In this way the thread is transferred from the cloth to the crimp tester without
loss of twist and with a minimum handling. Several crimp testers are available, Shirley crimp
tester is one of them.
Atmosphere:
Temperature – 25oC and relative humidity – 67%
Standard atmosphere: temperature – 20oC and relative humidity - 65%.
Sample:
Cotton woven fabric. Length = 10².
Procedure:
1. At first we have to select the warp or weft way of the fabric. Then we should select the test
length of the yarn. Here it is 10².
2. According to test length we will cut the flap of fabric.
3. Now a single yarn is to remove from the flap of fabric carefully as discussed in theory.
4. One end of the yarn is gripped in the fixed gripper of the m/c and the other end is gripped in
the other setting the test length.
5. Now the tension for the sample is found out from its count and it is set in the m/c.
6. After that we will apply tension along the yarn length with hand by taking away the other end
of yarn far from the first end.
7. As soon as the white marl on the tension bar is on the same line of its both sides white mark,
we will stop far away the other end.
8. The length of the yarn after applying tension is taken from the scale.
9. Now from this two lengths crimp percentage is calculated from the given formula.
10. In this way at least 10 crimp percentage for warp and 10 for weft is taken and average crimp
percentage is calculated from them.

40 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Data:
Warp Yarn Weft yarn
S/n Crimped Uncrimped Crimp Crimped Uncrimped Crimp
Mean Mean
length p length l %c length p length l %
1
2
3
4
5

Tension Calculation: (for example)

Result:
Average warp crimp percentage ………%
and average weft crimp percentage ………..%

**************

41 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

16. DETERMINATION OF TENSILE STRENGTH OF THE GIVEN

FABRIC
Aim
To measure the tensile strength of the given fabric by using textile strength tester.
Apparatus
Tensile strength is the most important property of a fabric. In almost every fabric development
and manufacturing, tensile properties are reported. Modulus, breaking strength and elongation at
break are widely used for quality control. A tensile testing machine working on one of the
following principles is used.
a) Constant–rate–of–traverse (CRT)
b) Constant–rate–of–loading (CRL)
c) Constant–rate–of–extension (CRE)
The load range of the machine shall be such that all the observed values would lie between 20
and 80 percent of the full–scale load. There are different types of fabric tensile tests that are used
depending on the fabric and purpose: strip tensile test, grab tensile test and wide width tensile
test.

42 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

™ In the strip tensile test, a narrow strip of fabric sample is used (ASTM D5035 Breaking
Force and Elongation of Textile Fabrics). The jaws of the tensile testing machine, which
are wider than the fabric sample, clamp the sample on both ends and a tensile load is
applied until fabric breaks. In the grab tensile test, the jaws are narrower than the fabric
width to reduce the effect of Poisson’s ratio (ASTM D5034 Breaking Force and
Elongation of Textile Fabrics).
™ Grab tensile test is more widely used for heavy industrial fabrics such as geotextiles.
™ Wide width tensile tests are also used mostly for industrial textiles (e.g. ASTM D4595 for
geotextiles). Narrow fabrics such as webbings, ribbons, etc., are usually tested at full
width. Fabric modulus is measured using ASTM Test Method D 885. Specifications of
textile machines for tensile testing are described in ASTM D 76.

The terminology of tensile properties of textiles is given in ASTM D4848. Other ASTM test
methods related to tensile testing include:
™ ASTM D 1775 Standard Test Method for Tension and Elongation of Wide Elastic
Fabrics (Constant Rate-of-Load Type Tensile Testing Machine)
™ ASTM D 4964 Tension/Elongation of Wide/Narrow Elastic Fabrics by Constant Rate of
Elongation Type Tensile Testing Machine
Sampling
1. Test at least five warps way and five weft way test specimens.
2. As far as possible, only one test specimen shall be drawn from a piece in the test sample.
Incase the lot size is small, more than one test specimen may be drawn from a piece in the test
sample.

43 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Calculations
1. Calculate the mean breaking load separately for warp way and weft way test specimens.
2. Calculate the elongation at break separately for warp way and weft way test specimens and
calculate the mean percentage elongation at break as follows:
Formulae
Tensile strength = load at break/ (Original width x original thickness)

% Elongation = (Elongation at rupture / gauge length ) x 100

Sl.No Breaking load Elongation scale Tensile strength % Elongation

For WARP
1
2
3
4
5
For WEFT
1
2
3
4
5

Result
Tensile strength and Elongation % of the given fabric is identified and measured.
****************

44 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

17. DETERMINATION OF STIFFNESS OF THE GIVEN FABRICS

By cantilever principle test
Aim
To find out the stiffness of given fabric by using shirley stiffness tester.
Method
For the purpose of the test method, the following definitions shall be used.
1. Stiffness: Resistance of the fabric to bending.
2. Flexural Rigidity: This quantity is the measure of the resistance of cloth to bending by
external forces. It is related to the quality of stiffness that is, the cloth having a high
flexural rigidity tends to feel stiff.
3. Bending Length: Bending length equals half the length of a rectangular strip of fabric that
will bend under its own weight to an angle of 41.50. It is also equal to the length of a rectangular
strip of material that will bend under its own weight to an angle of 7.10. It is expressed in
centimetres.
Standards – IS 6490: 1971
This method is used for determination of stiffness of fabric made from any textile fibre or a
blend of two or more textile fibres. This method of test is not suitable for fabrics which are very
limp or which curl or twist badly when cut in to small pieces. In general, this method is more
suitable for testing woven fabrics than for testing knitted ones.

45 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Preparation of Test Specimens

1. From the samples cut rectangular warp way and weft way test specimens of 25 mm × 200 mm
size with the help of the template.
2. Specimens cut in each direction shall be scattered as far as possible so that no two warp way
specimens contain the same set of warp yarns and no two weft way specimens contain the same
set of weft yarns.
3. Avoid selvedge (within 10cm), end portions, creased or folded parts of the specimen. The
specimen shall be handled as little as possible.
Tabulation:
Sl.No Bending length Flexural rigidity Overall flexural rigidity Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Avg
Procedure
1. Place the tester on a table or bench so that horizontal platform and inclined reference line are
at eye level of the operator.
2. Adjust the platform with the help of a spirit level so that it is horizontal.
3. Place one of the specimens on the platform with the scale on top of it lengthwise and the zero
of scale coinciding with the leading edge of the specimen.
4. Start pushing the specimen and the scale slowly and steadily when the leading edge of the
specimen projects beyond the edge of the platform. An increasing part of the specimen will over
hang and start bending under its own weight.

46 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

5. Keep an eye in such a position that the two inclined line (of the inclined plane making an
angle of 41.50 with the horizontal) of the tester coincide.
6. Stop pushing the specimen when its tip reaches the level of the inclined plane.
7. Note down the length of the overhanging portion from the scale to the nearest millimeter.
8. Take four readings from each specimen with each side up, first at one end and at the other.
9. The weight per unit area can be determined by weighing all the warp way and weft way test
specimens together after completion of stiffness test.
Calculations
1. Determine the bending length, the flexural rigidity for warp way and weft way specimens and
the overall flexural rigidity by the following formula:
a) Bending length C = L/2 cm
Where, L = the mean length of over–hanging portion in centimeters.
b) Flexural rigidity G = W × (L/2)3 mg–cm
Where, W = weight per unit area of the fabric in milligrams per square centimeter.
c) Overall flexural rigidity G0 = √Gw × Gf
Where, Gw = warp way flexural rigidity, and Gf = weft way flexural rigidity.
Result
The stiffness of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods.

************

47 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

18. DETERMINATION OF FABRIC ABRASION RESISTANCE OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC
by the Martindale Method
Aim
To find out the Abrasion Resistance of given fabric by the Martindale Method.
Method
Abrasion resistance is the ability of a fabric to resist surface wear caused by flat rubbing contact
with another material. There are two different test methods commonly used by the textile
industry to assess abrasion resistance: Wyzenbeek and Martindale (described in detail below).
Because both of these test methods are limited to measuring flat abrasion resistance of a textile,
they do not consider edge abrasion or other types of surface wear that may occur in actual
upholstered applications.
ASTM D4966-98** Martindale
The Martindale testing process requires fabric samples to be mounted flat and rubbed in an
enlarging elliptical T shape using a piece of worsted wool cloth as the abradant. The end point is
reached when two yarn breaks occur or when there is an appreciable change in shade or
appearance. Shade change is assessed as the AATCC gray scale rating of 3 or lower.
Atmospheric status
Testing atmosphere: Relative humidity - 65%+/-2% & Temperature - 270+/-20C.
Present atmosphere: Relative humidity - 68% & Temperature - 290.
Sample Preparation
1. When cutting specimens, avoid wrinkles, folds or creases.
2. Avoid getting oil, water, grease, etc. on the specimens when handling.
3. Using the smallest cutting die, cut six circular specimens from the fabric to be tested with each
specimen being 1.5 inches (38mm) in diameter. Take care not to apply too much pressure on the
cutting die as it will break the razor blades. 4. Weigh one specimen to determine pre-test mass.
5. Also use this measurement to determine mass/unit area.
6. At first cut the fabric into 4 pieces according to the measurement of the instrument.
7. Weigh these 4 pieces of fabric samples.
8. Now place these samples in the instrument under a certain load as supplied in the instrument.

48 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

9. Now start the machine and observe the counter of abrasion no.
10. After an abrasion of 200 bring out the first sample and weigh it.
11. After an abrasion of 300 bring out the second sample and weigh it.
12. Similarly after abrasion of 400 and 500 bring out the third and fourth sample and take their
weight.
13. Now put the weights before and after abrasions in a table and find out their wear index.

Preparation of Test Apparatus

1. Make all tests in the standard atmosphere for testing.
2. Remove the specimen holders from the Martindale tester by
a. Loosening and lifting off the black knobs on top of the tester.
b. Removing the silver covers held on by the black knobs. c. Lifting the specimen
holders out
3. Note that all three parts of the specimen holders (handle, face, and ring) are numbered 1-6
and correspond to numbers on top of the Martindale tester.
4. Assemble the holder by:
a. Placing the cut specimen with the technical face down into the gold ring.
b. For specimens having a mass/unit area of less than 500 grams per square meter,
place a disk of polyurethane foam between the specimen and the metal face.
c. The face must sit flush and square inside the ring. d. Screw the handle back on.
5. Place the assembled holders into the machine, replacing silver caps and black knobs.

49 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

6. Add the required weight (9kpa for apparel, 12kPa for upholstery) by resting the weights on
the ends of the handles. (kPa = 1 kilo Pascal = # pounds) Note that the weights are also
numbered 1-6.
7. Set the counter system to record the desired movements using the third black button from the
right.
Starting the abrasion tester
1. Turn the power on.
2. The machine should already be programmed to run a batch of 500 movements.
3. Push the green button to start the batch
4. After the first batch is complete take specimen holders off of the machine and observe And
record the results and changes in specimens.
5. Put specimens back on the machine and continue with the test.
6. Observe and record the results after each batch of 500 movements until you have Reached the
desired number of movements (total of 3500).
The end point if reached for a woven when two or more yarns have broken, or for a knitted fabric
when a hole appears.
Tabulation
Sample wt. before No. of abrasion Sample wt. before
S/No Wt. loss Wear index
abrasion (mg) cycle abrasion (mg)
1
2
3
4

Calculation
Wear index for 200 cycle = .........
Wear index for 200 cycle = .........
Wear index for 200 cycle = .........
Wear index for 200 cycle = .........
Remark
It is easily understood that the more is no. of abrasion cycle the more will be the wt. loss of
fabric. That is when a fabric is used more it losses its weight more. Now depending on yarn
quality, fabric design and above all end use this loss may be less or more, again may be quickly

50 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

or lately. But indeed the fabrics will loss its weight and serviceability.
Result
The abrasion resistance of given fabric is measured as per the fabric prepared according
to ASTM D1776 and the specimens were tested as directed in Test Method D4966.

************

51 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

19. DETERMINATION OF FABRIC CREASE RECOVERY OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC
by Shirley Crease Recovery tester
Aim
To find out the crease recovery of given fabric by the Shirley Crease Recovery tester.
Method
Crease is a fold in fabric introduced unintentionally at some stages of processing. Crease or
crushing of textile material is a complex effect involving tensile, compressive, flexing and
torsional stresses. Crease recovery is a fabric property which indicates the ability of fabric to go
back to its original position after creasing. Crease recovery is a measure of creases resistance,
specified quantitatively in terms of crease recovery angle. To measure this, the popular
instrument is Shirley crease recovery tester. The instrument consists of a circular dial which
carries the clamp for holding the specimen. Directly under the centre of the dial there is a knife
edge and an index line for measuring the recovery angle. Crease recovery is determined
depending upon this recovery angle. If the angle is 0° then recovery is zero and if the angle is
180° then recovery is full. Crease recovery depends on the construction, twist of yarn, pressure,
time etc. Usually crease recovery is more in warp way than in weft way. This is because warp
yarns are well in quality, strength, treated with sizing, kept in more tension during weaving etc.

Sample
x Cotton woven fabric.
x Size: 4.4 X 1.5cm.

52 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Atmosphere
x Temperature – 25°C and relative humidity – 67%
x Standard atmosphere: temperature – 20°C and relative humidity - 65%.
Procedure
1. The specimen is cut by template and carefully creased by folding in half.
2. The crease is imparted on fabric by placing it between two glass plates and adding to
500gm weight on it.
3. After 1 min the weight is removed and the creased fabric is clamped on the instrument.
4. Then it is allowed to recover from the crease. The recovery time may vary to suit
particular creases. Usually it is 1 min.
5. When crease recovers the dial of the instrument is rotated to keep the free edge of the
specimen inline with the knife edge.
6. The recovery angle is read from the engraved scale.
7. In this way 10 tests are done in warp way and 10 for weft way.
8. The mean value of recovery angle is taken and thus crease recovery is measured.
Tabulation
Sl.No Warp Remarks Weft Remarks
Recovery angle Average Recovery angle Average
1
2
3
4
5

Result
Crease recovery is determined depending upon the recovery angle. If the angle is 0° then
recovery is zero and if the angle is 180° then recovery is full. Here the recovery angle for the
given fabric sample is the middle of the range. So it is to say that the crease recovery of the
sample fabric is average.
Crease recovery angle in warp way is ............0 °
Crease recovery angle in weft way is .............0 °

************

53 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

20. DETERMINATION OF FABRIC DRAPE OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

by drape meter
Aim
To find out the Drape of given fabric by the drape meter.
Method
Fabric drape characteristics and behaviour are manifested in the appearance and fit of the
garment and are usually assessed subjectively. Nevertheless, considerable research and
development has been directed to the routine objective measurement and characterization of
drape and to relate drape, so measured, to objectively measured fabric mechanical properties,
notably bending stiffness and shear stiffness. The following are some of the standard test
methods used to measure fabric drape:
x BS 8357;
x BS 5058/EN 9073;
x UNI 8279;
x AFNOR G07-109;
x ERT 90-1.

54 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

• Fabric drapability is a morphological characteristic occurring when fabric is hanging

down for its gravity.
• It is one of the important indicators to measure clothes close fitting.
• Some fabrics like dresses, curtains, table cloths are required to a good drapability.
• In the test a circular specimen is held concentrically between two smaller horizontal discs
and is allowed to drape into folds under its own weight.
• A light is shone from underneath the specimen and the shadow that the fabric casts, is
traced onto an annular piece of paper the same size as the unsupported part of the fabric
specimen.
• The stiffer a fabric is, the larger is the area of its shadow compared with the unsupported
area of the fabric.
• To measure the areas involved, the whole paper ring is weighed and then the shadow part
of the ring is cut away and weighed.
• The paper is assumed to have constant mass per unit area so that the measured mass is
proportional to area.

• The higher the drape coefficient the stiffer is the fabric.

• At least two specimens should be used, the fabric being tested both ways up so that a total
of six measurements are made on the same specimen.
• There are three diameters of specimen that can be used:

55 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

1. 24cm for limp fabrics; drape coefficient below 30% with the 30cm sample.
2. 30cm for medium fabrics.
3. 36cm for stiff fabrics; drape coefficient above 85% with the 30cm sample.
It has a parallel light source that causes the shape of the draped fabric to be projected onto a
circular paper disc. The drape of a fabric is popularly defined as the area of the annular ring
covered by the vertical projection of the draped fabric expressed as a percentage of the area of
the flat annular ring of fabric, this being termed the ‘drape coefficient’. In practice, the contour
of the shadow is often traced onto the paper and cut out for weighing. the drape coefficient
(DC%) as the weight of the paper of the drape shadow (W2) expressed as a percentage of the
paper weight (W1) of the area of the full annular ring;
DC% = W2/W1 × 100
™ The drape geometry, i.e. the configuration of the draped sample, the drape measurement
being employed to study the effects of fabric geometry.
™ The drape diagrams, i.e. the projected 2D simplification of the 3D draped sample,
which contains three significant items:
™ The area, which is the basis of the drape coefficient;
™ the number of nodes – formed as a result of material buckling, the phenomenon of
buckling, the type of load applications and the boundary conditions;
™ the shape of the nodes – when the nodes are uniform, the drape diagram is a cyclic
function in polar co-ordinates. Converting these polar coordinates into rectangular co-
ordinates simplifies the analysis between the shape factor and the drape coefficient.
Result
Drape depended upon three basic fabric properties, namely Young’s modulus (Y), cross-
sectional moment of inertia (I) and fabric weight (W).
[drape coefficient = f(B/W), where B = YI].

***********

56 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

21. DETERMINATION OF BURSTING STRENGTH OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC
by Diaphragm of Bursting Tester
Aim
To find out the bursting stregth of given fabric by the Diaphragm of bursting strength tester
Method
Bursting strength is an alternative method of measuring strength in which the material is stressed
in all directions at the same time and is therefore more suitable for such materials. There are also
fabrics which are simultaneously stressed in all directions during service, such as parachute
fabrics, filters, sacks and nets, where it may be important to stress them in a realistic manner. A
fabric is more likely to fail by bursting in service than it is to break by a straight tensile fracture
as this is the type of stress that is present at the elbows and knees of clothing.
Sampling
Lot Sample
As a lot sample for acceptance testing, take at random the number of rolls of fabric directed in an
applicable material specification or other agreement between the purchaser and the supplier.
Consider rolls of fabric to be the primary sampling units.
Laboratory Sample
As a laboratory sample for acceptance testing, take a full width swatch 1 m (1 yd) long from the
end of each roll of fabric in the lot sample, after first discarding a minimum of 1 m (1 yd) of
fabric from the very outside of the roll. From each roll or piece of circular knit fabric selected
from the lot sample, cut a band at least 305 mm (1 ft) wide.
Test Specimens
Cut ten test specimens from each swatch in the laboratory sample with each specimen being.
x 30mm Dia
x 113mm Dia
Conditioning
Bring the specimens from the prevailing atmosphere to moisture equilibrium for testing in the
standard atmosphere for textile testing Measurement.

57 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Diaphragm of Bursting Test

The British Standard describes a test in which the fabric to be tested is clamped over a rubber
diaphragm by means of an annular clamping ring and an increasing fluid pressure is applied to
the underside of the diaphragm until the specimen bursts. The operating fluid may be a liquid or
a gas. Two sizes of specimen are in use, the area of the specimen under stress being either 30mm
diameter or 113mm in diameter. The specimens with the larger diameter fail at lower pressures
(approximately one-fifth of the 30mm diameter value). However, there is no direct comparison
of the results obtained from the different sizes. The standard requires ten specimens to be tested.

In the test the fabric sample is clamped over the rubber diaphragm and the pressure in the fluid
increased at such a rate that the specimen bursts within 20 ± 3 s. The extension of the diaphragm
is recorded and another test is carried out without a specimen present. The pressure to do this is
noted and then deducted from the earlier reading.
Hand Driven Tester
1. Insert the conditioned specimen under the tripod, drawing the specimen taut across the
plate, and clamp specimen in place by bringing the clamping lever as far to the right as
possible. Rotate the hand wheel, clockwise at a uniform speed of 120 rpm until the
specimen bursts. Stop turning the hand wheel at the instant of rupture of the specimen .
2. Immediately after rupture and in rapid succession, release the clamping lever over the
specimen.
3. Immediately release the strain on the diaphragm by turning the wheel counterclockwise
to its starting position and record the pressure required to inflate the diaphragm (tare
pressure). Record the total pressure required to rupture the specimen.

58 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Motor-Driven Tester
1. Insert the specimen under the tripod, drawing the specimen taut across the plate, and
clamp specimen in place by bringing the clamping lever as far to the right as possible
2. Inflate the diaphragm by moving the operating handle to the left.
3. While the diaphragm is inflating, take hold of the latch that is located below, or to the
right, of the operating
4. At the instant of rupture of the specimen, swing the latch as far as it will go to bring the
operating handle to an idling (neutral) position. Record the total pressure required to
rupture the specimen.
5. Immediately after rupture, and in rapid succession, release the clamping lever over the
specimen.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Bursting strength Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean

Result
Mean bursting strength measured in.................... Kn/Sq.mts .

**************

59 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

22. DETERMINATION OF COLOUR FASTNESS OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC BY CROCK METER
Aim
To find out the rubbing fastness of given fabric by using crock meter.
Method
Crockmeter
In order to determine the color fastness of dyed or printed textiles or leather, this test is used for
the determination of color fastness against rubbing, either under dry or under wet conditions.

Features of Crock meter

1. To determine the Color Fastness of Textiles.
2. The equipment consists of a counter.
3. It is provided with a flat peg.
4. It also consists of an operating handle.
5. Tests the color fastness of the textile in a very accurate manner.
6. It gives not only accurate but quick results also.
Specifications of Crock meter
x Diameter of the Rubbing Finger : 16 mm & 25 mm
x Load on the Finger : 9 N & 20 N
x Size of Crocking Cloth : (5 x 5) Cms & (7 x7) cms
x Length of the Traverse : 100 ±5 mm
x Counter (Re-settable) : 4-Digit Counter

60 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

x Size of Test Specimen : 25 x 5 Cm

x Overall Dimension of the Unit : 600 (W) x 190 (D) x 200 (H) mm
x Net Weight of the Unit : 4 Kg. (9 lbs.)
x Construction : Cold-rolled steel
Working Principle of Crock meter
1. The crock meter consists of a rigid flat metallic platform on which the test specimen can
be held firmly and a abrading finger which rubs against it under a specified load.
2. The platform is fixed over the base of the equipment and lies in a horizontal plane.
3. The test specimen is held firmly over an abrasive paper which is pasted on the upper face
of the platform, with the help of two pins holding it at both ends.
4. The abrading finger has a flat circular rubbing face which is covered with 4 piece of
white abradant fabric during the test.
5. The abradant fabrics picks up color lost by the test specimen during rubbing.
6. It is held over the finger with the help of a tapered ring.
7. Motion to the finger is given through a reciprocating arm with runs an two ball bearings
to minimize friction and to apply a uniform load on the finger.
8. The arm is moved by a manually operated crank and connecting lin The equipment is
finished in dark metallic paint and bright chrome plating to give it a corrosion resistant
finish.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Fastness rating Remarks
1
2
3
4
5

Result
The rubbing fastness of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods in crock
meter.
************

61 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

23. DETERMINATION OF COLOUR FASTNESS OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC BY PERSPIROMETER
Aim
To find out the colour fastness of given fabric by using perspirometer.
Method
Perspirometer
In order to determine the color fastness of dyed or printed fabrics against perspiration,
Perspirometer is used. the fabric sample is exposed to the action of both alkaline and acidic
reagents while in contact with undyed adjacent fabrics is placed between plastic plates under a
fixed load inside an oven maintained at 370° centigrade. All the components of the
Perspirometer are manufactured quality stainless steel and are finished in black stoving enamel
paint to give them a corrosion resistant finish.

Features of Perspirometer
1. Can also be used for testing color fastness against sea water and water.
2. Made of stainless steel frame.
3. A different load for AATCC standards is available on request.
4. User friendly and corrosion resistant.
5. Smooth precision engineered components for excellent performance.
Specifications of Perspirometer
x Frame Construction : Stainless steel
x Load on the Test Specimen : 5 kg.
x Size of Test Specimen : 100 mm x 40 mm
x Size of Acrylic Separator Plates : 115 mm x 60 mm
x Number of Separator Plates : 21 Nos.

62 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

x Dimensions of the Unit : 225 mm (L) x 72 mm(W) x 182 mm(H)

x Net weight of the Unit : 8.3kg
Reagent for Perspiration Test
1. Solution freshly prepared, containing 0.5g 1-histidine mono-hydrochloride mono-hydrate,
5g sodium chloride, and 2.5g disodium hydrogen ortho phosphate per litre brought to PH
8.0 with 0.1N sodium hydroxide.
2. Solution freshly prepared, containing 0.5g 1-histidine mono-hydrochloride mono-hydrate,
5g sodium chloride, and 2.2g sodium dihydrogen ortho phosphate per litre brought to PH
5.5 with 0.1N sodium hydroxide.
3. Two undyed cloths for each specimen each 6×6cm of the same kind of fibre as the
sample. Place the specimen between the two pieces of white cloth and sew along one side
to form a composite sample.
Working Procedure :
Thoroughly wet one composite sample in a solution of PH8.0 at the liquor ratio of 20:1 and
allow it to remain in this solution at room temperature for 30min. pour off the solution and place
the composite sample between two glasses plates measuring about 7.5×6.5cm under a force of
about 4.5kg.
1. Treat the other sample in the same way but with the solution at PH 5.5.
2. Place the apparatus containing the samples in the oven for 4 hour at 37±2C˚
3. Separate the sample from the white cloth and dry them apart in air at the temperature not
exceeding 60C˚
4. Assess the change in colour of the specimen and the staining of the white cloth with the
gray scale.
Working Principle of Perspirometer
1. The perspirometer consists of a number of acrylic plates and which can be kept in
suitable loading frame.
2. The loading frame consists of two steel plates between which the acrylic plates placed.
3. The test specimen are stitched between suitable white cloth pieces and dipped in either
alkaline or acidic test solutions.
4. The composite sample is placed in between any two acrylic plates.

63 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

5. A number of test specimens can be loaded simultaneously between different sets of

acrylic plates by stacking them one above the other.
6. Loading is done by keeping a standard dead weight on top of the upper plate assembly,
which consists of two parallel plates separated by suitable compensating springs.
7. The guide rod attached to top plate of this assembly is locked while under load and the
load removed.
8. The springs compensate for subsequent variations in load due to variation in thickness of
the test specimens on drying The test is continued for the required time under the
specified condition of temperature.
9. After this the samples are removed from the frame and dried.
10. The degree of staining of the while pieces of cloths and change in color of the test
specimens are evaluated using grey scales and compared against standard rating cards.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Fastness rating Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
Fastness to perspiration
The details of the values assigned for these properties are:
5 =Negligible (Excellent)
4 =Slightly changed (Good)
3 =Noticeable changed (Fairly good)
2 =Considerably changed (Fair)
1 =Much changed (Poor)
Result
The colour fastness of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods in
perspirometer.
************

64 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

24. DETERMINATION OF COLOUR FASTNESS OF

THE GIVEN FABRIC BY LAUNDROMETER
Aim
To find out the colour fastness of given fabric by using laundrometer.
Method
Wash fastness
Features of Washing Fastness Tester:
™ It is fabricated out of quality stainless steel.
™ Possess electric heater to heat water in water bath.
™ The microprocessor based programmer is provided for temperature control.
™ Buzzer to indicate the completion of the process cycle or step.
A specimen of the textile to be tested, with the adjacent fabric attached is subjected to washing
under specified conditions. Te extent of any change in color and that of the staining of the
adjacent fabric are assessed and the rating is expressed in fastness numbers. There are two types
of adjacent fabrics; (1) single fibre fabric and multiple fibre fabric. In the case of multi fiber
fabric only one specimen is required and in the of single fiber fabric two adjacent fabric are
required. There are various colorfastness tests. Details of washing fastness tests are given below.
Fastness to Washing:
In the test, change in color of the textile and also staining of color on the adjacent fabric are
assessed. A 10 x 4 cm swatch of the coloured fabric is taken and is sandwiched between two
adjacent fabric and stitched, The sample and the adjacent fabric are washed together. Five
different types of washing are specified as different washing methods.

Fastness to Wash
S.No Method Washing Soap + Soda Time in Temp Steel
severity in minutes balls
grams/liter
1 IS:687:79 Very mild like 30 40+/- 2 Nil
hand wash 5
2 IS:3361:79 5 times severe 45 50+/- 2 Nil
than method 1 5
3 IS:764:79 Mild washing 5+2 30 60+/-2 Nil

65 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

4 IS:765:79 Severe washing 5+2 30 95+/-2 10

5 IS:3417:79 Severe washing 5+2 4 hrs 95+/-2 10

The solution for washing should be prepared to the required temperature of washing. The liquor
material ratio is 50:1. After soaping treatment, remove the specimen, rinse twice in cold water
and then in running cold water under a tap. Squeeze it and air dry at a temperature not exceeding
60°C. The change in color and staining is evaluated with the help of grey scales.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Fastness rating Remarks
1
2
3
4
5

Result
The durability of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods.

************

66 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

25. DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Aim
To find out the shrinkage of the given fabric by using template method.
Method
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the process in which a fabric becomes smaller than its original size, usually through
the process of laundry. Cotton fabric suffers from two main disadvantages of shrinking and
creasing during subsequent washing.There are two types of shrinkage occurs during washing;
1) Length wise
2) Width wise
Cause
Due to high tension during preparation of fabric which result in excess stretch in yarn. This type
of shrinkage is known as London shrinkage. Due to swelling of fibers for fiber structure.

Working Procedure
The sample which is done shrinkage test, spread on table. Then a glass template put on sample
fabric which is square size. There are six mark on glass template and distance between two mark
is 35 cm. Marking the sample fabric by unchangeable marker. Then sample is sewn by hand
sewing machine. Sample is ready for washing. Simple wash the fabric at 60˚c temp for 90 min.
after washing the fabric is taken out. Dry the sample as per any of the method. It can either be
Line Dry or Flat Dry or Tumble Dry. To find the dimensional change read the Shrinkage/Stretch
on 3 points on the Wrap side and 3 points on Weft Side. Get the mean value of wrap-wise and
weft wise readings to get the Accurate Shrinkage or Stretch.

67 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

TEXTILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS LABORATORY MANUAL

Shrinkage is determined as
Shrinkage % =
(length of fabric before wash)-(length of fabric after wash)) x 100
(length of fabric after wash)
Example,

length of fabric before wash (X) = ..............cm

length of fabric after wash (Y)= ............cm

Now, Shrinkage % = ((X-Y) / Y) X 100

= ...........%

Here, Shrinkage is ............ Normally shrinkage is acceptable less than 5%. But it can be change
in case of buyer requirement.

Result
The shrinkage of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods..

************

68 Authors: Gopalakrishnan D, Dr.S.Yamunadevi & Dr.R.Pragadheeswari

 REFERENCES
1. Behera, B. K. 1999. Fabric quality and apparel industry. In Testing and Quality
Management, ed. V. K. Kothari, IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 386–402.
2. Further, R. 1982. Evenness Testing in Yarn Production: Part I. The Textile Institute,
Manchester. Further, R. 1985. Strength and Elongation Testing of Single and Ply Yarns.
The Textile Institute, Manchester.
3. Booth, J. E. 1986. Principles of Textile Testing: An Introduction to Physical Methods of
Testing Textile Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics. 3rd Edition, Butterworths, London.
4. Morton, W. E. and Hearle, J. W. S. 1975. Physical Properties of Textile Fibers. William
Heinemann Ltd., London and The Textile Institute, Manchester.
5. Anderson, S. L. 1983. Textile Fibers: Testing and Quality Control. The Textile Institute,
Manchester.
6. Slater, K. 1999. Thermal comfort properties of fabrics. In Testing and Quality
Management, ed. V. K. Kothari. IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 360–385.
7. Geralds, M. J., Lubos, H., Araujo, M., Belino, N. J. R. and Nunes, M. F. 2008.
Engineering design of the thermal properties in smart and adaptive knitted structure.
Autex Research Journal 8:30–34.
8. Kothari, V. K. 1999. Physical testing of fabrics. In Testing and Quality Management, ed.
V. K. Kothari. IAFL Publications, New Delhi, 201–231.
9. Lord, E. 1961. The Characteristics of Raw Cotton, Manual of Cotton Spinning, Vol. II,
Part I. Textile Institute, Manchester and Butterworths, London.
10. Meridith, R. 1950. The effect of the rate of extension on the strength and extension of
cotton yarns. Journal of Textile Institute 41:T199–T224.
11. Midgley, E. and Peirce, F. T. 1926. Tensile test for cotton yarns-The rate of loading.
Journal of Textile Institute 17:T330–T341.
12. Mohsin, M. 2017. Textile dyed and finished fabric. In Advanced Textile Testing
Technique, ed. S. Ahmad, A. Rasheed, A. Afzal, and F. Ahmad. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL, 189–207.
13. Pac, M. J., Bueno, M. A. and Renner, M. 2001. Warm cool feeling relative to tribological
properties of fabrics. Textile Research Journal 71(9):806–812.
14. Peirce, F. T. 1926. Tensile tests for cotton yarns, Part V: The weakest link theorems on
the strength of long and composite specimens. Journal of Textile Institute 17:T355–T368.
15. Saville, B. P. 1999. Physical Testing of Textiles. Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge
and CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Sensora, 1990. Instruction Manuals of the Alambeta,
Pretest Instruments. SENSORA Liberac registered company, Liberac.
16. Gupta, V. B. and Kothari, V. K. 1997. Manufactured Fibre Technology. Springer,
Netherlands.
17. ISO 105-C06. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part C06: Color fastness to domestic
and commercial laundering. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
18. ISO 105-D01. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part D01: Color fastness to dry
cleaning using perchloroethylene solvent. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
19. ISO 105-E01. 2013. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E01: Color fastness to water. ISO
Geneva, Switzerland.
20. ISO 105-E02. 2010. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E02: Color fastness to sea water.
ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
21. ISO 105-E03. 2010. Textiles-test for colour fastness-part E03: Colour fastness to
chlorinated water (swimming pool water). ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
22. ISO 105-E04. 2013. Textiles-test for color fastness-part E04: Color fastness to
perspiration. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
23. ISO 12945-1. 2000. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling-
part 1: Pilling box method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
24. ISO 12945-2. 2000. Determination of fabric propensity to surface fuzzing and to pilling –
part 2: Modified Martindale method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
25. ISO 12945-3. 2014. Determination of the fabric propensity to surface pilling, fuzzing or –
part 3: Random tumble pilling method. ISO Geneva, Switzerland.
26. USTER® ZWEIGLE 2009. TWIST TESTER 5 Application Report. USTER News
Bulletin 2010. No. 47, July.
Buy your books fast and straightforward online - at one of world’s
fastest growing online book stores! Environmentally sound due to
Print-on-Demand technologies.
Buy your books online at
www.morebooks.shop
Kaufen Sie Ihre Bücher schnell und unkompliziert online – auf einer
der am schnellsten wachsenden Buchhandelsplattformen weltweit!
Dank Print-On-Demand umwelt- und ressourcenschonend produzi
ert.
Bücher schneller online kaufen
www.morebooks.shop

[email protected]
www.omniscriptum.com