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PART A
The Nervous System

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation by Jerry L. Cook, Sam Houston University

ESSENTIALS
OF HUMAN
ANATOMY
& PHYSIOLOGY
EIGHTH EDITION

ELAINE N. MARIEB

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Functions of the Nervous System

§ Sensory input – gathering information
§ To monitor changes occurring inside and
outside the body
§ Changes = stimuli
§ Integration
§ To process and interpret sensory input and
decide if action is needed
§ Motor output
§ A response to integrated stimuli
§ The response activates muscles or glands
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 Functional Classification of the Peripheral
Nervous System
§ Sensory (afferent)
division
§ Nerve fibers that carry
information to the
central nervous
system
§ Motor (efferent) division
§ Nerve fibers that carry
impulses away from
the central nervous
system
Figure 7.1
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Organization of the Nervous System

§ Central nervous system (CNS)
§ Brain
§ Spinal cord
§ Peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
§ Nerve outside the brain and
spinal cord
§ Motor (efferent) division
§ Two subdivisions
§ Somatic nervous system =
voluntary
§ Autonomic nervous system
= involuntary
Figure 7.2
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 What Cells Are Unique to the Nervous
System?

Nervous systems have two categories of cells:

Neurons generate and propagate electrical
signals or nerve impulses, called action
potentials.
Glial cells provide support and maintain
extracellular environment.

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Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Neurons = nerve cells
§ Cells specialized to
transmit messages
§ Major regions of neurons
§ Cell body – nucleus
and metabolic center
of the cell
§ Processes – fibers that
extend from the cell
body
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 Neuron Anatomy
§ Extensions outside
the cell body
§ Dendrites –
conduct impulses
toward the cell
body
§ Axons – conduct
impulses away
from the cell body

Figure 7.4a
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Neuron morphology

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 Dendrite branching pattern can vary

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Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

(Neuroglia)
§ Astrocytes
§ Abundant, star-shaped cells
§ Brace neurons
§ Form barrier
between capillaries
and neurons (BBB)
§ Control the chemical
environment of
the brain
§ Microglia
§ Spider-like phagocytes
§ Dispose of debris Figure 7.3a
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 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells
(Neuroglia)
§ Schwann cells
§ Form myelin
sheath in the
peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
§ Oligodendrocytes
§ Produce myelin
sheath around
nerve fibers in the
central nervous
system (CNS)
Figure 7.3a
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Axons and Nerve Impulses

§ Axons end in axonal terminals
§ Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
§ Axonal terminals are separated from the next
neuron by a gap
§ Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
neurons
§ Synapse – junction between nerves

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 Functional Classification of Neurons
§ Sensory (afferent) neurons
§ Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
§ Cutaneous sense organs
§ Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
§ Motor (efferent) neurons
§ Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
§ Interneurons (association neurons)
§ Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
§ Connect sensory and motor neurons
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Structural Classification of Neurons

§ Multipolar neurons – many extensions from
the cell body (all motor & associations
neurons)

Figure 7.8a
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 Structural Classification of Neurons

§ Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite

(rare, found only in eye and nose)

Figure 7.8b
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Structural Classification of Neurons

§ Unipolar neurons – have a short single process
leaving the cell body (sensory neurons)

Figure 7.8c
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 Starting a Nerve Impulse

§ Depolarization – a
stimulus depolarizes the
neuron’s membrane
§ A depolarized membrane
allows sodium (Na+) to
flow inside the
membrane
§ The exchange of ions
initiates an action
potential in the neuron

Figure 7.9a–c
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Nerve Impulse Propagation

§ The impulse
continues to move
toward the cell body
§ Impulses travel faster
when fibers have a
myelin sheath

Figure 7.9d–f
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 The Action Potential
§ If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts,
it is propagated over the entire axon
§ Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the
membrane
§ The sodium-potassium pump restores the
original configuration
§ This action requires ATP

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Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between

Neurons
§ Impulses are propagated across the synapse to
another neuron
§ Neurotransmitter is released from a
nerve’s axon terminal
§ The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
§ An action potential is started in the
dendrite

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 How Neurons Communicate at Synapses

Figure 7.10
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Neuron Cell Body Location

§ Most are found in the central nervous system
§ Gray matter – cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers
§ White matter – dense collection of myelinated fibers
§ Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies in the central
nervous system
§ Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system
§ Tracts- bundles of nerve fibers in running through
the CNS
§ Nerves- bundles of nerve fibers in running through
the PNS

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 Neuron Classification

Figure 7.6
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The Reflex Arc

§ Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary
responses to stimuli
§ Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory
neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Figure 7.11a
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 Simple Reflex Arc

Figure 7.11b–c
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Types of Reflexes and Regulation

§ Autonomic reflexes
§ Smooth muscle regulation
§ Heart and blood pressure regulation
§ Regulation of glands
§ Digestive system regulation
§ Somatic reflexes
§ Activation of skeletal muscles

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 Lobes of the Cerebrum
§ Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum
into lobes
§ Surface lobes of the cerebrum
§ Frontal lobe
§ Parietal lobe
§ Occipital lobe
§ Temporal lobe

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Regions of the Brain

§ Cerebral hemispheres
§ Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
§ Include more than half of the brain mass
§ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
§ Diencephalon
§ Sits on top of the brain stem
§ Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
§ Made of three parts (Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus)
§ Brain stem
§ Attaches to the spinal cord
§ Parts of the brain stem (Midbrain-Pons-Medulla oblongata)
§ Cerebellum
§ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
§ Provides involuntary coordination of body movements
Figure 7.12b
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 Lobes of the Cerebrum

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Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

§ Cerebral areas involved in special senses
§ Gustatory area (taste)
§ Visual area
§ Auditory area
§ Olfactory area
§ Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
§ Speech/language region
§ Language comprehension region
§ General interpretation area
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 Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum

Figure 7.13c
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Layers of the Cerebrum

§ Gray matter
§ Outer layer
§ Composed mostly
of neuron cell
bodies
§ White matter
§ Fiber tracts inside
the gray matter
§ Example: corpus
callosum connects
hemispheres
Figure 7.13a
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 Diencephalon

Figure 7.15
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Diencephalon
§ Thalamus
§ Surrounds the third ventricle
§ The relay station for sensory impulses
§ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation
§ Hypothalamus (Under the thalamus)
§ Important autonomic nervous system center
§ Helps regulate body temperature-water balance-metabolism
§ An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
§ The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
§ Epithalamus
§ Forms the roof of the third ventricle
§ Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
§ Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid
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 Brain Stem

Figure 7.15a
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Brainstem
§ Midbrain
§ Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
§ Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral peduncles
§ Has four rounded protrusions – corpora quadrigemina
§ Reflex centers for vision and hearing
§ Pons
§ The bulging center part of the brain stem
§ Mostly composed of fiber tracts
§ Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing
§ Medulla Oblongata
§ The lowest part of the brain stem (connects to spinal cord)
§ Contains important control centers
§ Heart rate control-Blood pressure-Breathing-Swallowing-
Vomiting
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 Cerebellum

Figure 7.15a
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Protection of the Central Nervous System

§ Scalp and skin

§ Skull and vertebral column
§ Meninges
§ Cerebrospinal fluid
§ Blood brain barrier Figure 7.16a
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 Meninges
§ Dura mater
§ Double-layered external covering
§ Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
§ Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
§ Folds inward in several areas
§ Arachnoid layer
§ Middle layer
§ Web-like
§ Pia mater
§ Internal layer
§ Clings to the surface of the brain
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Ventricles and Location of the

Cerebrospinal Fluid
§ Similar to blood
plasma composition
§ Formed by the
choroid plexus
§ Forms a watery
cushion to protect the
brain
§ Circulated in
arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central
canal of the spinal
cord
Figure 7.17c
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 Ventricles and Location of the
Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.17a–b
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Blood Brain Barrier

§ Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
§ Excludes many potentially harmful substances
§ Useless against some substances
§ Fats and fat soluble molecules
§ Respiratory gases
§ Alcohol
§ Nicotine
§ Anesthesia

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 Structure of a Nerve
§ Endoneurium surrounds each
fiber
§ Groups of fibers are bound into
fascicles by perineurium
§ Fascicles are bound together by
epineurium
§ Mixed nerves – both sensory
and motor fibers
§ Afferent (sensory) nerves –
carry impulses toward the CNS
§ Efferent (motor) nerves – carry
impulses away from the CNS
Figure 7.20
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Cranial Nerves
§ 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head
and neck
§ Numbered in order, front to back
§ Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to
thoracic and abdominal cavities
§ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear
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 Distribution of Cranial Nerves
§ I Olfactory nerve –sensory for smell
§ II Optic nerve –sensory for vision
§ III Oculomotor nerve –motor fibers to eye muscles
§ IV Trochlear –motor fiber to eye muscles
§ V Trigeminal nerve –sensory for the face; motor fibers
to chewing muscles
§ VI Abducensnerve –motor fibers to eye muscles
§ VII Facial nerve –sensory for taste; motor fibers to the
face
§ VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve –sensory for balance
and hearing
§ IX Glossopharyngeal nerve –sensory for taste; motor
fibers to the pharynx
§ X Vagus nerves –sensory and motor fibers for
pharynx, larynx, and viscera
§ XI Accessory nerve –motor fibers to neck and upper
back
§ XII Hypoglossal nerve –motor fibers to tongue
Figure 7.21
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