Chapter 8

Special Senses

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The Senses

§ Special senses
§ Smell
§ Taste
§ Sight
§ Hearing
§ Touch

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 How do our Senses work?

Our lives are full of sensory experiences which we respond to in

different ways.

Sensory information comes in through

our senses

Sensory information is processed by

the brain

Responses, movements and behaviours

etc. come out

Our Senses

Our vision helps us:

• Recognise and interact with objects in the environment
• Develop language – we see something and we name it
• Move efficiently – together with our other senses
• Map our world out and add meaning to our world

Our hearing helps us:

• Enjoy experiences such as music
• Develop language and communicate
• Respond to danger e.g. road safety

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 Our Senses
Our touch helps us:

• Recognise and respond to pain

• Learn about and tell the difference between different shapes and textures
• Develop more precise hand skills e.g. enabling us to pick up a cup together with
body awareness
Our taste helps us:

• Recognise unpleasant tastes, such as meat that has gone passed it’s best – this
is a way to protect ourselves from harm
• Add meaning to a multisensory experience e.g. the taste of a meal together with
smell and touch

Our smell helps us:

• Recognise unpleasant smells e.g. milk that has turned sour – this is a way to
protect ourselves from potential harm
• Adds meaning to a multisensory experience e.g. the smell of a meal together
with taste

The Sensory System

§ The central nervous system receives information

from the internal and external environment via the
sensory organs.
§ Sensory organs are able to “sense” this information
because of specialized receptors.
§ When a receptor is triggered, it causes an action
potential in the sensory neuron.

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 Types of Sensory Receptors

1. Mechanoreceptors – stimulated by changes

in pressure or movement
§ Found in skin and muscles
2. Thermoreceptors – stimulated by changes in
temperature
§ Found in skin
3. Pain receptors – stimulated by tissue damage
§ Found in skin and viscera

Types of Sensory Receptors (continued)

4. Chemoreceptors – stimulated by changes in

chemical concentration of substances
§ Used for taste and smell
5. Photoreceptors – stimulated by light
§ Found only in the eye

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 Vision
§ Visual perceptions starts with the eyes focusing light
onto specialized cells in the retina called
photoreceptors (rods and cones)

§ Photoreceptors: convert light energy to nerve impulses

and transmit information to brain for interpretation

§ In the visual cortex, complex processing occurs to

deconstruct the image into individual components
based on features (color, contrast, depth, size of object)

The human visual system

Sarrabezolles et al., 2017

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 The Eye and Vision
§ 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
§ Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers
§ Protection for the eye
§ Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
§ A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye
§ Layers forming the wall of the eyeball
§ Fibrous layer: outside layer
§ Vascular layer: middle layer
§ Sensory layer: inside layer
§ Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the eyeball

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Figure 8.4a Internal anatom y of the eye (sagittal section).

Sclera
Ciliary body Choroid
Ciliary zonule Retina
Cornea
Iris Fovea centralis
Pupil
Optic nerve
Aqueous humor
(in anterior segment)
Lens
Scleral venous sinus
(canal of Schlemm) Central artery and
vein of the retina
Vitreous humor
(in posterior segment) Optic disc
(a) (blind spot)

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 Structure of the Eye: The Fibrous Layer
§ Sclera
§ White connective tissue layer
§ Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
§ Cornea
§ Transparent, central anterior portion
§ Allows for light to pass through
§ Repairs itself easily
§ The only human tissue that can be transplanted
without fear of rejection

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Lens
Sclera
Ciliary body Choroid
Ciliary zonule Retina
Cornea
Iris Fovea centralis
Pupil
Optic nerve
Aqueous humor
(in anterior segment)
Lens
Scleral venous sinus
(canal of Schlemm) Central artery and
vein of the retina
Vitreous humor
(in posterior segment) Optic disc
(a) (blind spot)

§ Biconvex crystal-like structure

§ Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary
body

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 Two Segments, or Chambers, of the Eye
§ Lens divides the eye into two chambers:
1. Anterior (aqueous) segment
§ Anterior to the lens which contains aqueous humor
§ Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
§ Similar to blood plasma
§ Helps maintain intraocular pressure
§ Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea

2. Posterior (vitreous) segment

§ Posterior to the lens which contains vitreous humor
§ Gel-like substance posterior to the lens
§ Prevents the eye from collapsing
§ Helps maintain intraocular pressure
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Structure of the Eye: Vascular Layer

§ Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer in the posterior

of the eye
§ Pigment prevents light from scattering
§ Modified anteriorly into two structures:
1. Ciliary body—smooth muscle attached to lens by
ciliary zonule (suspensory ligament)
2. Iris—regulates amount of light entering eye
§ Pigmented layer that gives eye color
§ Pupil—rounded opening in the iris

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 Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer

§ Retina contains two layers

1. Outer pigmented layer absorbs light and prevents
it from scattering
2. Inner neural layer
§ Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
§ Rods
§ Cones

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Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer

§ Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-
neuron chain
§ Bipolar neurons
§ Ganglion cells
§ Signals leave the retina toward the brain through
the optic nerve
§ Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve
leaves the eyeball
§ Cannot see images focused on the optic disc

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Figure 8.5a The three m ajor types of neurons com posing the retina.

Pigmented
layer of retina
Rod
Cone

Bipolar
cells

Ganglion Pathway
cells
(a) of light

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Figure 8.5b The three m ajor types of neurons com posing the retina.

Pigmented
layer of Neural layer
retina of retina

Central
artery
and vein
of retina
Optic
disc

Sclera
Optic
(b) nerve Choroid
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 Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer
§ Neurons of the retina and vision
§ Rods
§ Most are found toward the periphery of the retina
§ Allow vision in dim light and peripheral vision
§ All perception is in gray tones
§ Neurons of the retina and vision
§ Cones
§ Allow for detailed color vision
§ Densest in the center of the retina
§ Fovea centralis–lateral to blind spot
§ Area of the retina with only cones
§ Visual acuity (sharpest vision) is here
§ No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disc, or blind
spot

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Structure of the Eye: Sensory Layer

Visible light
§ Cone sensitivity 560 nm
530 nm (red cones)
§ Three types of
Light absorption by cone populations

(green cones)
cones
420 nm
§ Different cones (blue cones)
are sensitive to
different
wavelengths
§ Color blindness
is the result of
the lack of one
cone type

380 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

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 Pathway of Light Through the Eye
§ Light must be focused on the retina for optimal
vision
§ Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea, aqueous
humor, lens, and vitreous humor
§ The eye is set for distance vision
(over 20 feet away)
§ Accommodation—the lens must change shape to
focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away)

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Figure 8.9 Relative convexity of the lens during focusing for distant and close vision.

Retina

Light from distant source Focal point

(a)

Light from near source Focal point

Retina

(b)
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 Eye Reflexes
§ Internal muscles are controlled by the autonomic
nervous system
§ Photopupillary reflex: bright light causes pupils to
constrict through action of radial, circular, and ciliary
muscles
§ Accommodation pupillary reflex: viewing close
objects causes accommodation
§ Viewing close objects causes convergence (eyes
moving medially)

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A Closer Look
§ Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on the
retina
§ Myopia (nearsightedness)
§ Distant objects appear blurry
§ Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and are
focused in front of it
§ Results from an eyeball that is too long
§ Hyperopia (farsightedness)
§ Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects are clear
§ Distant objects are focused behind the retina
§ Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy
lens”

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A Closer Look 8.2 Bringing Things into Focus.

Focal Correction
plane

None required

Concave lens
(a) Emmetropic
eye

(b) Myopic eye

(nearsighted) Convex lens

(c) Hyperopic eye

(farsighted)

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The Ear
§ Houses two senses:
1. Hearing
2. Equilibrium (balance)
§ Receptors are mechanoreceptors
§ Different organs house receptors for each sense
§ The ear is divided into three areas:
1. External (outer) ear
2. Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
3. Inner ear (bony labyrinth)

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Figure 8.12 Anatom y of the ear.

External (outer) ear Middle ear

Internal (inner) ear

Vestibulocochlear
nerve

Auricle
(pinna) Semicircular
canals
Oval window
Cochlea
Vestibule

Round window

Pharyngotympanic
(auditory) tube

Tympanic
membrane
(eardrum) Hammer Anvil Stirrup
External acoustic (malleus) (incus) (stapes)
meatus Auditory ossicles
(auditory canal)
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The External Ear

§ Involved in hearing only
§ Structures of the external ear
§ Auricle (pinna)
§ External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
§ Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
§ Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands
§ Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)

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 The Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
§ Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
§ Involved only in the sense of hearing
§ Located between tympanic membrane and oval
window and round window
§ Two tubes are associated with the inner ear:
1. The opening from the auditory canal is covered by
the tympanic membrane
2. The pharyngotympanic, or auditory, tube connects
the middle ear with the throat
§ Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning or
swallowing
§ This tube is otherwise collapsed
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Bones of the Middle Ear (Tympanic

Cavity)
§ Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity:
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Stapes (stirrup)
§ Function
§ Vibrations from tympanic membrane move the
hammer ® anvil ® stirrup ® oval window of inner
ear

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Figure 8.12 Anatom y of the ear.

External (outer) ear Middle ear

Internal (inner) ear

Vestibulocochlear
nerve

Auricle
(pinna) Semicircular
canals
Oval window
Cochlea
Vestibule

Round window

Pharyngotympanic
(auditory) tube

Tympanic
membrane
(eardrum) Hammer Anvil Stirrup
External acoustic (malleus) (incus) (stapes)
meatus Auditory ossicles
(auditory canal)

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Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth

§ Includes sense organs for hearing and balance

§ Filled with perilymph
§ Contains a maze of bony chambers within the
temporal bone:
§ Cochlea
§ Vestibule
§ Semicircular canals
§ Membranous labyrinth is suspended in perilymph
and contains endolymph

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Figure 8.12 Anatom y of the ear.

External (outer) ear Middle ear

Internal (inner) ear

Vestibulocochlear
nerve

Auricle
(pinna) Semicircular
canals
Oval window
Cochlea
Vestibule

Round window

Pharyngotympanic
(auditory) tube

Tympanic
membrane
(eardrum) Hammer Anvil Stirrup
External acoustic (malleus) (incus) (stapes)
meatus Auditory ossicles
(auditory canal)

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Organs of Hearing

§ Spiral organ of Corti

§ Located within the cochlear duct
§ Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
§ Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending
hair cells
§ Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve
impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe

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Figure 8.15a Anatom y of the cochlea.

Temporal Perilymph in scala vestibuli

bone
Spiral Vestibular
organ of membrane
Corti
Afferent fibers
of the cochlear
nerve
Temporal
bone

Cochlea
duct (contains Perilymph in
endolymph) scala tympani
(a)
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Figure 8.15b Anatom y of the cochlea.

Vestibular
Hair (receptor) Tectorial membrane
cells of spiral membrane
organ of Corti

Fibers of
Basilar Supporting the cochlear
membrane cells
nerve
(b)
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 Mechanism of Hearing
§ Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane
§ Hair cells are bent by the membrane
§ An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
§ Impulse travels to the temporal lobe
§ Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation
§ High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff fibers of the
basilar membrane
§ Receptor cells close to the oval window are stimulated
§ Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy fibers of the
basilar membrane
§ Specific hair cells further along the cochlea are affected
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Figure 8.16 Route of sound waves through the ear.

EXTERNAL EAR MIDDLE EAR INTERNAL EAR

Auditory Ear- Hammer, Oval Fluids in cochlear canals

Pinna
canal drum anvil, stirrup window Upper and middle lower
Pressure

Spiral Time
One Amplitude organ
Amplification
vibration in middle ear of Corti
stimulated

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Figure 8.17 Activation of the cochlear hair cells.

Stapes Fibers of
Scala sensory
vestibuli neurons
Oval Perilymph
window

Round Scala Basilar Cochlear

(a) window tympani membrane duct

Fibers of basilar membrane

Apex
Base (short, (long,
stiff fibers) floppy
fibers)

20,000 2,000 200 20

(High notes) (Low notes)
(b) Frequency (Hz)
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Sensory Development
• The sensory needs of a person change with time as
they are shaped by our experiences
• A child’s ability to process sensory information will
mature as they get older – this is a natural stage of
development
• We all experience sensations in our own individual
ways
• Some people can be extremely sensitive to noise,
light, touch, smell or movement
• Others may not notice and therefore under-respond
to such sensations

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 Developmental Aspects of the Special
Senses
§ Vision requires the most learning
§ The infant has poor visual acuity (is farsighted) and
lacks color vision and depth perception at birth
§ The eye continues to grow and mature until age
8 or 9

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