EXCITABLE TISSUES

CHAPTER 3

Ms. Zanele Faith Ramashala,

Department of Physiology, School of Medicine
 RECAP
Homeostasis
Internal environment of the body (ECF)
Factors homeostatically regulated
Homeostatic control systems
Intrinsic VS extrinsic controls
Negative VS Positive feedback mechanisms

Homeostasis
EXCITABLE TISSUES

Excitable Tissues
 PLASMA
MEMBRANE

Plasma membrane
 Lecture 2– Expected Outcomes
 List the functions of the plasma membrane
 Describe the organization of the lipid bilayer
 Describe the structure of the plasma
membrane
 List the components of the plasma
membrane
 Discuss the function of the components of
the plasma membrane
 Describe cell-to-cell adhesion
 Identify ways cells are held together
Plasma membrane
 Functions of the plasma
membrane
• Forms boundary of
every cell (mechanical
barrier)
• Controls movement of
molecules between ICF
& ECF (semi-permeable);
exit of secretory & waste
products
• Maintains differences in
ion conc inside &
outside the cell
(important in membrane
electrical activity) Plasma membrane Plasma
membrane
 Functions of the plasma
membrane
• Participates in joining
cells to form tissues &
organs
• Plays important role in
the ability of a cell to
respond to changes in
the environment or
signals (communication
between cells)

Plasma membrane Plasma

membrane
 Phospholipid molecule
Head
(negatively
charged, polar,
hydrophilic)
Phosphate

Tails
(uncharged,
nonpolar,
- -vely charge on
phosphate group
hydrophobic)

Plasma membrane
 Phospholipid molecule
• Phospholipids have a polar head and two nonpolar
fatty acid chain tails
• Polar head
 hydrophilic (“water loving”)
 Electrically charged (contains a -vely charged
phosphate group)
• Two nonpolar fatty acid chain tails
 hydrophobic (“water fearing”) and will not mix
with water
 electrically neutral
Plasma membrane
 Organization of phospholipids
into a bilayer in water
ECF (water)

Polar heads
(hydrophilic)

Nonpolar tails
(hydrophobic) Lipid bilayer

Polar heads
(hydrophilic)
ICF (water)
Plasma membrane
Intracellular
Fluid (ICF)

extracellular
Fluid (ECF)

Plasma membrane
Integral Carbohydrate
proteins Chain
(glycoprotein)

Glycolipid

Cholesterol
molecule
Leak channel
Protein (integral
Peripheral Carrier
protein
proteins Protein (integral
protein)
Plasma membrane
 Functions of the lipid bilayer
• Forms basic structure of the
membrane
• Forms the primary barrier for
diffusion
 Hydrophobic interior is a barrier to
passage of water soluble substances
between ICF and ECF; cell maintains
different mixtures and conc. of
dissolved substances across the ICF
& ECF
• It is responsible for the fluidity
of the membrane
Plasma membrane
 Functions of Cholesterol

• Cholesterol contributes
to the stability and
fluidity of the membrane

Plasma membrane
 Types of Membrane Proteins

• Integral proteins:
extend through the
entire thickness of the
cell and they are called
transmembrane proteins

• Peripheral proteins
are polar molecules that
do not penetrate the
membrane
Plasma membrane
 Functions of Membrane Proteins

• Channels for passage of small ions (e.g. Na+, K+ etc.)

 Some span the membrane as water-filled channels, highly
selective channels, leak channels (allows unregulated
passage of specific ions) and gated channels
• Carriers for transport of substances (specific molecules
that can’t pass through)
• Docking-marker acceptors for secretory vesicles (via
stimulation)

Pllasma membrane
 Functions of the Membrane Proteins

• Membrane-bound enzymes (control specific

chemical reaction)
• Receptors for responding to chemical
messengers, water soluble hormones
• Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) that hold cells
together within tissues and organs
• Self-identity maker when in conjunction with
carbs

Plasma membrane
 Characteristics & Functions of the
Membrane Carbohydrates
• Short carbohydrate chains
on the outer membrane
surface
• Bound to proteins
(glycoproteins) and lipids
(glycolipids)
• Membrane carbohydrates
serve as “self ”
recognition markers,
 Allows joining and forming of
tissues
 Involved in tissue growth Plasma membrane
 Cell-to-cell adhesion

• NB!! Similar cells organize into appropriate

groupings by means of carbohydrate markers
on the membrane surface
• Cell are held together in 3 different ways:
 The extracellular matrix
 CAMs in the cells plasma membranes
 Specialized cell junctions

Plasma membrane
 Extracellular matrix

• It serves as a biological “glue”

• The extracellular matrix binds cells
together
• Three kinds of protein fibers are interwoven
in this matrix: collagen, elastin, fibronectin
 Collagen forms flexible nonelastic fibers or sheets
that provide tensile strength
 Elastin allows tissues to stretch and then recoil
 Fibronectin promotes cell adhesion and holds cells
in position Plasma membrane
Specialized cell junctions

Plasma membrane
 Lecture 3– Expected Outcomes
 Describe the permeability of the cell
membrane
 Explain the difference between active and
passive transport across the cell membrane
 Define and describe the following transport
mechanisms: simple diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, osmosis, carrier-mediated transport
and vesicular transport

Membrane transport
 Membrane Transport-
Permeability
 The plasma membrane is selectively
permeable because it allows some particles
to pass while preventing others
 If a substance can cross the membrane the
membrane is permeable to that substance (e.g.
O2,CO2, fatty acids)
 If a substance cannot cross the membrane, it
is then impermeable to that substance (e.g. Ions
such as Na+, K+, glucose, proteins)
Membrane transport
 Membrane Transport

 Materials can pass between the ECF and ICF

by unassisted (e.g. O2,CO2, fatty acids) and assisted
(e.g. Ions such as Na+, K+ , glucose, proteins) means
 Transport mechanisms may be passive (no
energy used) or active (energy required)

Membrane transport
 Particle Solubility and Size

Two properties of particles influence whether

they can permeate cell membrane without
assistance:
 Lipid solubility of the particle
 Particle size

Membrane transport
 Particle Solubility and Size
 Highly lipid-soluble particles dissolve in the
lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane
 Uncharged or nonpolar molecules are highly lipid
soluble and readily permeate the membrane
 Non-lipid soluble particles require assisted
transport to move across the membrane
 Charged particles (ions) and polar molecules
(glucose; proteins) have low lipid solubility and are
very soluble in water and thus can not readily
permeate the plasma membrane. Examples of
particles that use assisted transport
Membrane transport
 Two types of forces that
accomplish transport across the
membrane
 Passive forces: do not require the cell to
expend energy to produce movement

 Active forces: requires the cell to expend

energy to produce movement across the
membrane
Membrane transport
Unassisted Membrane Transport
 Particles that can penetrate the plasma
membrane on their own are passively (no
energy) driven across the membrane by:
 Diffusion down a concentration gradient
 Movement along an electrical gradient

Membrane transport
 Simple Diffusion
• Process is crucial to
survival of every cell
• No energy is
required for this
movement
• Passive means of
membrane transport
• E.g. O2 transfer across
the lungs; K+ leak
channels
Membrane transport
 Simple Diffusion
 Unassisted, passive membrane (no energy) transport
 Uniform spreading out of molecules due to their
random intermingling (depends on the random movement
of molecules)
 Molecules move from area of high concentration to
area of low concentration (by net diffusion molecules
move down their concentration gradient)
 Occurs until equilibrium is reached
 Diffusion can occur through a permeable
membrane. Substances can pass through a lipid
bilayer or channel
Membrane transport
 Simple Diffusion

• Concentration
gradient exist
• No diffusion across
the membrane
• E.g. Intracellular
proteins remain
trapped in the ICF

Membrane transport
 RECAP

Identify the components of the plasma

membrane
Identify the functions of the components of the
plasma membrane
Lipid bilayer
Semi-permeable VS permeable VS Impermeable
Membrane transport---Simple diffusion

Membrane transport
Factors influencing the rate of net diffusion of a
substance across a membrane (Fick’s Law of
Diffusion)
• Magnitude of the concentration gradient
• Permeability of the plasma membrane to a
substance
• Surface area of the membrane across which
diffusion takes place (e.g. Microvilli in small intestines;-
large surface area, greater the net diffusion; Emphysema)
• Molecular weight of a substance
• Distance through which diffusion takes place
(greater distance, slower rate of net diffusion, e.g. pneumonia)
Membrane transport
 Molecules using Simple Diffusion

• Nonpolar molecules cross the membrane by

dissolving in and through the bilayer down
concentration gradients
• In addition to using a concentration gradient,
small ions can move down electrical gradients
through open protein channels
 Method of membrane transport is passive
 When an electrical gradient exist, only ions that can permeate
the plasma membrane can move across the gradient
 Both an electrical and a concentration (chemical) gradient is
called an electrochemical gradient
Membrane transport
 Ions that can permeate the membrane also
passively move along their electrical gradient

• A difference in charge between two adjacent areas

produces an electrical gradient
• The net effect of electrical and concentration
gradients produces an electrochemical gradient
Membrane transport
 Water Transport
• Water can easily pass through the membrane
but slowly
• Moves through spaces between tails of
phospholipids
• Move through specific water channels called
aquaporins
• Net diffusion of water down its concentration
gradient is known as osmosis

Membrane transport
 Tonicity
• the effect a solution has on cell volume
• An isotonic solution (has the same concentration
of nonpenetrating solutes as normal body cells) e.g.
isotonic saline (0.9% NaCl solution)
• A hypotonic solution (has a lower concentration
of nonpenetrating solutes compared to normal body
cells) e.g. ingesting too much water
• A hypertonic solution (has a higher concentration
of nonpenetrating solutes compared to normal body
cells) e.g. losing too much water via diarrhea
Membrane transport
 300 mOsm/L 200 mOsm/L 400 mOsm/L
nonpenetrating solutes nonpenetrating solutes nonpenetrating solutes

Isotonic solution Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution

No net movement Water diffuses into
Membrane transport
Water diffuses out of
of water; no change cells; cells swell. cells; cells shrink.
in cell volume.
 Assisted membrane transport
• Designed for poorly lipid-soluble large
molecules: glucose, proteins, amino acids that
cannot cross the plasma membrane
• Two different selective transport processes:
carrier-mediated transport (small water-soluble
substances)
Vesicular transport (larger molecules and
multimolecular particles)

Membrane transport
 Carrier-mediated transport
• Two forms depending on energy use
 Facilitated diffusion (the carrier moves the particle
down its concentration gradient)
 Active transport the carrier moves the particle
against its concentration gradient

Membrane transport
 Facilitated diffusion
• Small particles (remember, however big for
channels) are transported across the
membrane by membrane carrier proteins
• Carrier change it’s conformation (shape) so
that specific binding sites within the carrier
are alternately exposed to the ECF and the
ICF
• In facilitated diffusion the carrier moves the
particle down its concentration gradient (i.e. it
is passive form of carrier-mediated transport)
Membrane transport
 Process by which glucose is transported into cells
 Facilitated diffusion
1 Carrier protein takes
conformation in which solute
binding site is exposed to
region of higher concentration.
Concentration
gradient
(High)

(Low)

Direction of
transport 4 Transported 2 Solute
solute is released molecule
and carrier protein binds to
returns to carrier
conformation in protein.
step 1.

3 Carrier protein changes conformation so that

Membrane transport
binding site is exposed to region of lower
concentration.
 Channels VS Carriers
• Both span the plasma membrane and carry water-
soluble substances across the membrane
• Both are selective
• Channels transport ions VS carriers transport small
polar molecules such as glucose
• Channels can be open or closed VS carriers are
always open
• Channels when open, permit continuous passageway
VS carriers never open simultaneously, must change
conformation to allow pick up or drop off

Membrane transport
 Carrier-mediated transport
characteristics
• Specificity: Each carrier transports a specific
substance or a few closely related compounds
• Saturation: A limited number of carrier
binding sites are available
Transport maximum (Tm): The amount of
a substance transported in a given time
• Competition: Several closely related
compounds may compete for transport on the
same carrier Membrane transport
 Active transport
• It requires a carrier molecule
• A substance moves against its concentration gradient
• Primary active transport requires the direct use of
ATP to drive a substance against it’s concentration
gradient
• The primary active transport mechanism are often
called pumps
• They pump positively charged ions across the
membrane (Na+, K+ Ca2+, H+)
 E.g. Ca2+ pump; Sodium-potassium (Na+/K+) pump

Membrane transport
 Active transport
• Secondary active transport
A carrier does not directly split ATP to move
a substance against it’s concentration gradient
Is driven by a concentration gradient of ions
established by primary active transport
• Secondary active transport occurs through
symport or antiport (the transfer of solutes
are always coupled together with sodium)
• Carriers have 2 binding sites
Membrane transport
 Symport
Driving ion Transported
in high solute in low
concentration concentration

Driving ion Transported

in low Membrane transport
solute in high
concentration concentration
 Antiport
Driving ion Transported
in high solute in high
concentration concentration

Driving ion Transported

in low solute in low
concentration concentration
Membrane transport
 Simple diffusion VS
Facilitated diffusion VS
Primary Active transport VS
Secondary Active transport

Membrane transport
Regarding active transport, which of the
following statement is NOT correct? It
a) requires a carrier molecule
b) involves transportation of positively
charged ions
c) may require a direct or indirect use of ATP
d) can either be symport or antiport
e) transports solutes always coupled with K+
Membrane transport
 Vesicular transport
• Material is moved into or out of the cell
wrapped in a membrane vesicle
• Active (requires energy) method of
membrane transport
• Two types of vesicular transport:
Endocytosis
Exocytosis

Membrane transport
 Endocytosis
• Formation of protein-coated vesicles inside
the cells (the plasma membrane surrounds the substance
to be ingested and then fuses over the surface, pinching off a
membrane-enclosed vesicle so the engulfed material is
trapped within the cell)
• Often receptor mediated, very selective
• Once vesicle is inside cell it may fuse with
lysosome (what do lysosomes do?)
• three forms:
– Pinocytosis – nonselective uptake of ECF
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis - selective uptake of large
molecules
Membrane transport

– Phagocytosis – selective uptake of multimolecular particles

Phagocytosis
 The cell engulfs a large particle
By forming projecting pseudopods
("false feet") around it and
enclosing it within a membrane sac
called a phagosome
 The phagosome is combined
with a lysosome
 Undigested contents remain in
the vesicle (now called a residual
body) or are ejected by exocytosis
 Vesicle may or may not be
protein coated but has
receptors capable of binding to
microorganisms or solid
particles
Membrane transport
 Exocytosis
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Process by which substances move out of the
cell, e.g. endocylic vesicles
• Provides mechanism for secreting large polar
molecules (a membrane-enclosed secretory vesicle
formed within the cell fuses with the plasma
membrane and then opens up and releases its
contents to the exterior)
• Protein hormones and enzymes are secreted by this
means
Membrane transport
Exocytosis

Membrane transport
 Primary Active transport VS
Secondary Active transport VS
Vesicular transport

Membrane transport
 Lecture 4– Expected Outcomes
• Discuss the origin and significance of the membrane
potential
• Identify ions responsible for a membrane potential
• Discuss the role of Na+-K+ pump in establishing a
membrane potential
• Discuss the role of K+ leak channels in establishing a
membrane potential
• Discuss the concept of resting membrane potential
• Identify ions responsible for a resting membrane
potential
Membrane potential
 Membrane potential
• The plasma membranes of all cells have a
membrane potential, or are polarized
electrically
• Membrane potential is a separation of
opposite charges across the plasma
membrane or a difference in the relative
number of cations and anions in the ICF
and ECF
Membrane potential
No membrane potential exists

(10+, 10–) (10+, 10–)

Membrane potential
 Membrane has potential

(15+, 10–) (5+, 10–)

Electrically balanced ions to not
contribute to the membrane
potential

Membrane potential
Unbalanced charges accumulate along the
plasma membrane

Plasma membrane

Membrane potential
 Magnitude of potential membrane of C is > than
B and A

A B C

The greater the separation of charges across the membrane, the

larger the potential
Membrane potential
Membrane potential
 Role of the Na+–K+ Pump & K+
leak
• The Na –K pump
+ + channel
 transports 3 Na + out of the cell for every 2 K+ it
pumps in
 cell loses more positive charges than it is gains
 Inside becomes negative compare to outside
 Generate a small membrane potential (makes a small direct
contribution to the resting membrane potential, its role is indirect)

 primary role of the pump is to actively maintain Na +

and K+ concentration gradients
• Most of the membrane potential results from the
passive diffusion of K+ ions Membrane potential
 Resting Membrane Potential
• Constant membrane potential in nonexcitable cells and excitable cells at
rest
• Measured in millivolts
• Typical resting membrane potential is -70 mV
• Minus sign means inside of cell is negative compared to outside
• Ions primarily responsible for the generation of the RMP are Na+, K+ and
large –vely charged intracellular proteins
• Other ions Ca2+, Mg, Cl- do not contribute directly to the RMP
• The concentration gradient is maintained by the Na+–K+ Pump
In addition to the pump, Na+ and K+ can passively cross the membrane
through protein channels specific to them. A resting membrane is more
permeable to potassium (25 to 30 times more than sodium). Generally more
leak channels for potassium

Membrane potential
THANK YOU

Membrane transport