The Modern Periodic Table

 The most significant addition to the periodic table came with the discovery of the noble
gasses.
 In 1894, English physicist John William Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) and Scottish chemist Sir
William Ramsay discovered argon, Ar, a gas in the atmosphere that had previously
escaped notice because of its total lack of
chemical reactivity.
 Back in 1868, another noble gas, helium, He, had
been discovered as a component of the sun, based
on the emission spectrum of sunlight.
 In 1895, Ramsay showed that helium also exists
on Earth.
 Ramsay proposed a new group to fit argon and
helium into the periodic table.
 He placed this group between the groups now
known as Group 17 (the fluorine family) and
Group 1 (the lithium family).
 In 1898, Ramsay discovered two more noble gases
to place in his new group, krypton, Kr, and xenon,
Xe.
 The final noble gas, radon, Rn, was discovered in
1900 by the German scientist Friedrich Ernst Dorn.

 The lanthanides are 14 elements with atomic numbers from 58 (cerium, Ce) to 71
(lutetium, Lu).
 These elements are chemically and physically similar, making them difficult to separate
and identify.
 The actinides are 14 elements with atomic numbers from 90 (thorium, Th) to 103
(lawrencium, Lr).
 Both lanthanides and actinides are found in Periods 6 and 7 of the periodic table.
 To save space, lanthanides and actinides are set below the main part of the periodic table.

 Periodicity is observed in any group of elements in the periodic table.

 Noble gasses belong to Group 18, starting with helium (He) which has an atomic number
of 2.
 Neon (Ne) has an atomic number of 10, following helium with different properties.
 Remaining noble gasses in order of increasing atomic number:
 Argon (Ar) - atomic number 18
 Krypton (Kr) - atomic number 36
 Xenon (Xe) - atomic number 54
 Radon (Rn) - atomic number 86
 Atomic number differences between successive noble gasses are significant.
 Group 1 metals also show a similar pattern in atomic number differences.
 For Groups 13–17, atomic numbers increase by 8, 18, 18, and 32 for successive elements.
 The arrangement of electrons around the nucleus explains the reason for periodicity.
 The elements of the s block are chemically reactive metals.
 The Group 1 metals are more reactive than those of Group
2.
 The elements of Group 1 of the periodic table (lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium) are
known as alkali metals.
 All alkali metals have a silvery appearance and are soft
enough to cut with a knife.
 Alkali metals are not found in nature as free elements due
to their reactivity.
 Alkali metals combine vigorously with most nonmetals.
 They react strongly with water to produce hydrogen gas
and aqueous solutions of substances known as alkalis.
 Due to their extreme reactivity with air or moisture, alkali
metals are stored in kerosene.
 The elements of Group 1 melt at successively lower
temperatures as you proceed down the group.

Alkaline-earth metals (Group 2):

 Include beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium,
barium, and radium.
 Have a pair of electrons in their outermost "s" sublevel (ns² configuration).
 Are harder, denser, and stronger than alkali metals.
 Have higher melting points than alkali metals.
 Are less reactive than alkali metals but still too reactive to be found as free elements in
nature.
Hydrogen and Helium:
 Hydrogen has an electron configuration of 1s¹.
 Despite its electron configuration, hydrogen does not behave like elements in Group 1.
 The d-block elements

FIGURE 5-9
The diagram shows the
electron configuration
of scandium, Sc, the
Group 3 element of the
fourth period. In
general, the
(n − 1)d sublevel in
Groups 3–12 is
occupied by electrons
after the ns sublevel is
filled.

Group 3-12

 For energy level n, there are n possible sublevels, so the d sublevel first appears when n =
3. This 3d sublevel is slightly higher in energy than the 4s sublevel, so these are filled in
the order 4s3d.
 Each d sublevel consists of five orbitals with a
maximum of two electrons each, or up to 10
electrons possible in each d sublevel.
 In addition to the two ns electrons of Group 2,
atoms of the Group 3 elements each have one
electron in the d sublevel of the (n − 1) energy
level.
 Group 2 elements: These elements have two
electrons in their outermost sublevel (ns²).
This is characteristic of all group 2 elements,
which include metals like magnesium and
calcium. The full valence configuration is
relatively simple with just two electrons in the
s orbital.
 Group 3 elements: In addition to the two ns electrons, atoms of group 3 elements can
also have one electron in the d sublevel of the (n-1) energy level. This means the d
sublevel from the previous principal energy level is partially filled. Therefore, the general
electron configuration for group 3 is written as (n-1) d¹ns². This includes elements like
scandium, which have this unique electron structure.
 Group 12 elements: These elements vary marginally. They have a completely filled d
sublevel with 10 electrons in the (n-1) d sublevel, in addition to two electrons in the ns
sublevel. This gives them the electron configuration of (n-1) d¹⁰ns². Group 12 includes
elements like zinc, cadmium, and mercury, where the full d subshell leads to their unique
chemical properties.
  Each d sublevel consists of 5 orbitals with the capability of holding 2 e- in each for a total
of 10 e-.
 The electron configuration for the d block elements is ns (n-1) d
 The properties of transition metals are as follows: they are metals with typical metallic
properties, i.e., they are good conductors of heat and electricity, and they have a high
density.
 Some deviations from orderly d sublevel filling occur in Groups 4-11. As a result,
elements in these d-block groups do not necessarily have identical outer electron
configurations.
 The D-block elements are metals with typical metallic properties and are often referred to
as transition elements. They are good conductors of electricity and have high luster.
 Transition elements are also typically less reactive than Alkali and Alkaline-earth metals.
 Some of the transition elements are so unreactive they do not easily form compounds,
rather existing in nature as free elements.
 Palladium [Pd] and Gold [Au] are among the least reactive of all elements.

Some D-Block Elements are shown below:

 FIGURE 5-10 : Mercury, tungsten, and vanadium are transition elements. Locate them
in the d block of the periodic table on page 129.

The p-block elements

 The p-block elements consist of all the elements of Groups III-VIII except helium.
 Electrons add to a p sublevel only after the s sublevel in the same energy level is filled.
Therefore, atoms of all p-block elements contain two electrons in the ns sublevel.
 The p-block elements together with the s-block elements are called the main-group
elements.
 For Group III elements, the added electron enters the np sublevel, giving a group
configuration of ns'np.
 Atoms of Group IV elements contain two electrons in the p sub-level, giving ns2 np2for
the group configuration.
 In Group VIII, the stable noble-gas configuration of ns2 np6is reached.
 Electrons in the valency/outer shell
of an atom in the p-block can be
found by taking the group number
of the atom.
 The elements in the p-block vary
greatly in properties as it contains
metals, metalloids, and nonmetals all
in the same block.
 All six of the metalloids (boron,
silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, and tellurium) are also in
the p block. At the left-hand side and
bottom of the block, there are eight
p-block metals.
 The elements of Group 17 (fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine) are known as the halogens. The halogens are the
most reactive nonmetals. They react vigorously with most metals to form examples of the
type of compound known as salts.
 The reactivity of the halogens is based on the presence of seven electrons in their outer
energy levels, one electron short of the stable noble-gas configuration.
 The metalloids are located between nonmetals and metals in the p block. They are mostly
brittle solids with some properties of metals and some of nonmetals.
 The metalloid elements have electrical conductivity intermediate between that of metals,
which are good conductors, and nonmetals, which are nonconductors.
 The metals of the p block are generally harder and denser than the s-block alkaline-earth
metals, but softer and less dense than the d-block metals. With the exception of bismuth,
these metals are sufficiently reactive to be found in nature only in the form of
compounds. Once obtained as free metals, however, they are stable in the presence of air.

The f-block Elements: Lanthanides and Actinides

 General Overview:
- The f-block elements are located between Groups 3 and 4 in the periodic table,
spanning the sixth and seventh periods.
- Their position reflects the filling of the f sublevel, specifically the 4f and 5f
orbitals.
 Lanthanides:
- Range: Comprise 14 elements from lanthanum (La, atomic number 57) to
lutetium (Lu, atomic number 71).
- Electron Configuration: Involves the filling of the 4f sublevel, which has seven
orbitals that can each hold two electrons.
- Physical Properties: Shiny metals with high melting points and densities.
- Chemical Properties: Similar in reactivity to Group 2 alkaline-earth metals;
readily react with nonmetals and can produce hydrogen gas when reacting with
water.

 Actinides:
- Range: Comprise 14 elements from actinium (Ac, atomic number 89) to
lawrencium (Lr, atomic number 103).
- Electron Configuration: Involves the filling of the 5f sublevel, which also
accommodates a total of 14 electrons.
 - Radioactivity: All actinides are radioactive; the first four (thorium, Th, through
neptunium, Np) are found naturally, while the others are primarily laboratory-
made.
- Physical Properties: Generally metallic and dense, with varying physical
characteristics and multiple oxidation states.

 Applications:
- Lanthanides are used in strong permanent magnets, phosphors for screens, and
catalysts.
- Actinides, especially uranium and plutonium, are critical in nuclear energy and
medical applications.