CHAPTER

Introduetlon

1.1. DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

Surveying is an art of making measurements on the earth surface to determine the relative
positions of thepoints upon it, so that the points may represented on the plan or map.
Object of Surveying. The main object of surveying is to obtain a map or to prepare a
plan on a paper i.e., measurement for different objects are done on the ground and then
plotted them on paper according to some scale. When the scale is small then the
plotted figure is called map and when the scale is large then the plotted figure is
called plan.
For designing any big or small project in Civil Engineering, the designer required to
study the features which are present on the earth surface i.e., first of all surveyed plan is
to be prepared.
1.2. USES OF SURVEYING
The following are the uses of surveying:
1. To prepare the map of the area showing the boundary, houses an other features
present on the earth surface.
2. To prepare the map showing valleys, hills, rivers, town, forests etc. i.e., the
topographical map.
3.To prepare the map showing railways, roads canals etc. i.e., the engineering map.
4. To prepare the map for finding the best suitable and possible route for roads,
railways etc. i.e., contour map.
5. Toprepare map for the defence purpose.
6. To prepare map showing area including underground resources i.e., geological map.
7. To prepare archaeological map including the places where ancient relics
1.3. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING
There are two fundamental principles of surveying:
1. To fix the position of new stations
or

Location of the point by measurement from two reference points.

2. To work from whole to the part.
 1-2
1. To fix the position of new stations. Fixing of new stations should be INTRODUCTION
carefully ie., from the fixed station, the; previous and the forward done very
New stations must have two types off measurements i.e., the first station
is
must be visible.
measurement, which is done either with tape or chain, the linear or horizontal
measurement which is done by taking the second is the angular
magnetic bearing of the line, it is done with Electric
the help of prismatic compass or with Pole
theodolite. Corner of Station
All the horizontal distances are measured Buildings Point

with chain or tape and the angle is

measured with compass or theodolite as -Corner Other
shown in Fig. 1.1. Buildings
For locating the new point Z with Fig. 1.1.
X
respect to two reference point Xand Y.
X
X

Y
(a) (b (c) (d) (e)
(a) Fig. 1.2
Measure the distance XZ and YZ and point Zis
arcs with X and Yas center and the plotted as the
chain surveying. radius is XZ and YZ. This isintersection oftwo
generally done in
(b) Perpendicular distance PZ,
XP, YP is measured. Point Z is
square. This method is used in off setting and is plotted by using set
used for locating
(c) Angle XYZ i.e. and
distance YZ are measured. Point Z is plotteddetails.
protractor or trigonometrically. This method is generally in by using
used
and "B" is measured. Point Z is traversing.
(d) Angle XYZ and YXZ i.e. "a"
protractor i.e. the intersection point or by the solution of plotted by using
generally used in triangulation. triangle. This method is
(e) Angle XYZ i.e. "a" and distance XZ is
or by swinging the arc from X. measured. Point Zis plotted by protractor
This method is generally used in traversing.
2. Towork from whole to part,
be surveyed isdivided into According to this principle, the whole area which is to
are measured either with chain equilateral or well conditioned triangles. Then there sides
or tape accurately. If there is any
it willnot affect the whole
work. In such the error can be detected error in measurement,
On the other hand if work is done from easily and eliminated.
part to whole, then the small error will be
magnified and become uncontrollable.
 1-3
INTRODUCTION

1.4. TYPES OFSURVEYING

There are two types of surveying :
1. Primary type of surveying 2. Secondary type of surveying.
1. Primary type of surveying. It is further sub-divided in two ways :
(a) Plane surveying. (b) Geodetic surveying.
(a) Plane surveying
In such surveying the earth is considered to be a plane surface. In plane surveying small
distances and areas are covered. The important thing in plane surveying, the curvature
of the earth is not taken in account while taking observations, so due to this it requires
less precision. Generally the area less than 260 sq. km are treated as plane.
(b)Geodetic surveying.
In such case the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration. In this long distances
and areas are taken in account, so due to this it requires high precision. Such type of
surveys are generally conducted by Great Trigonometrical Survey (GT.S.) Department
of India.
2. Secondary type of surveying
It is further classified into the following:
1.According to the instrument used in surveying :
(a) Chain surveying (b) Compass surveying
(c) Plane table surveying (d) Theodolite surveying
Levelling :
(e) Tachometric surveying () Photographic aerial surveying.
2. According to the method used in surveying :
(a) Traversing method of surveying
(6) Triangulation method of surveying.
3. According to the object of survey.
(a) Military survey (b) Archaeological survey
(c) Mine survey (d) Geological survey
(e) Aerial survey.
4. According to the nature of the field:
(a) Astronomical surveying (b) Marine surveying
(c) Land surveying.
Land surveying is further divided into following:
1. Topographical surveying. It is done to determine the natural features of the
ground such as river lake, mountain, depression, and also artificial objects. e.g.
Canal, road, railway track etc.
2. Cadastralsurveying. It is done to determine the boundaries of the field, houses,
agricultural land, etc. It is plotted on larger scale than topographical survey.
3. Citysurveying. It is done to locate drainage arrangement, town planning, water
supply schemes etc.
 1-4
INTRODUCTION
4. Engineering surveying. It is done to prepare drawings of engineering project.
and collection of field data for design purpose.

1.5. INSTRUMENT USED FOR TAKING MEASUREMENTS

1. Chain, tape. Used for measurement of horizontal distances.
2. Ranging rod, line ranger, cross staff. Used for ranging purpose.
3. Electronic distantometer, tachometer. Used for indirect measurement.
4. Prismatic surveyors compass. Used for horizontal angular measurement and
determining the direction.
5. Theodolite. Used for the measurement of horizontal angle, vertical angle, hejght
of the building, setting out curves.
6. Plane table. Instrument used both plotting and field work simultancously.
7. Clinometer. Used for measuring slopes.
8. Planimeter. Computation of areas.
9. Pantograph. For enlargement and reduction of plans.
1.6. MEASUREMENTS
There are two types of measurements :
1. Linear measurement 2. Angular measurement.
1. Linear measurement. Linear measurements are done for measuring the horizontal
distance.The main instrument used for this is chain, tape, etc. It is done by following
ways.
(a) By pacing. This is the rough method to measure the horizontal distance. It is
done by counting the number of steps of aman i.e., by pacing. One step is equal
to appox. 2.5 feet or 80 cm.
(6) By speedometer. Any automobile is used for measuring the distance i.e.,distance
ismeasured by the speedometer of that automobile.
(C) By perambulator. This instrument consists of a wheel fitted with a fork and
handle. Adial gauge is fitted with the wheel and it works on principle of distanct
covered per revolution.
(a) Bychaining. This is the accurate method for measuring the horizontal distanee.
Chain or tape used for this.
Units of Linear measurement :
1. For measuring lengths :
(a) In MKS system:
10millimeters lcentimeter
10 centimeters 1decimeter
10decameters Imeter
10 meters ldecameter
10decameters 1hectometer
10hectometers 1kilometer.
INTRODUCTION
1-5

(b) In FPS system :

1foot = 12 inches
3feet = 1yard
5.5 yard = 1rod or pole
4 pole = lchain (66 feet)
1chain = 66 feet
10chain = 1furlong
8 furlong = lmile.
(c) Conversions :
1inch = 2,54 cm
1foot 0.3048 m
lmile = 1.6093 km.
2. For measuring areas :
(a) In MKS system:
100 sq. meters = larc
10 areS = 1deca ares
10deca ares = 1hectare
100ares (10 sq. m) 1hectare.

(b) In FPS system :

1foot = 144 sqg. inches
lsq. yard = 9 feet
Isq. chain = 484 sq. yard
1arce 10sq. chains.
(c) Conversions :
lsq. feet 0.0929 sq. meter
lsq. mile = 2.59 sq. km
1arce =0.4047 hectare
1sq. inch 6.4516 sq cm.
3. For the measurement of volume :
(a) In MKS system :
1000 cub. millimeter = 1 cub, centimeter
1000cub. centimeter = 1 cub.decimeter
1000 cub. decimeter = lçub. meter.
(b) In FPS system :
cub. feet = 1728 cub. inches
1cub. yard = 27 cub. feet.
(c) Conversions :
1cub. feet = 0.0283 cub. meter
1cub. inch = 16.387 cub. cm.
1-6
2. Angular measurement. It is defined as the.
difference direction of two
lines. It is done with the help of compass, theodolite in
etc. INTRODUGTION
bearing of line, horizontal and vertical
determination of heights, horizontal distance
Units of angular measurements. It is
generally
With the
alsoare measured and help of
angles
alsso interthseeocdinoglite
used for the
arc equalexpressed
subtended at the centre of a circle by an in radians.
circle. In common practice
seconds. angles are generally to the length of the It is the angle
Sexagesimal system : represented in radius of that
degrees, minutes and
T radians
= 2right
1right angle
1degree
angles
= 90 degrees
= 60 minutes
1minute
=60 seconds.
Centesimal system:
1 circumference
lgrad 400g (grade)
= 100c (centigrade)
Icentigradegrad = 100cc (centi-centigrades)
1.7. WORK OF A
SURVEYOR
Surveyors work is divided in three
1. Field work ways:
3. Care and 2. Office work
1. Field work: adjustment of the instruments.
(a) Location of
(b)
stations.
(c) Measurement of horizontal and
vertical distances.
(d) Measurement of angles.
Determination
(e) Setting out
of relative
attitudes of different points.
) Recording boundaries, roads, culverts, buildings etc.
the observation in the
2. Office
work :
field book.
(a) Preparation of plans from
the data collected from fields.
(b) Design the
(c) Calculationsstructures.
of areas and volumes.
(d) Ploting work.
3. Care and
adjustments of the instruments :
(a) Instruments should be
(b) Instrument should be properly placed.
(c) Instrument should be protected from sun, rain etc.
properly
(d) Instruments should be properlytested before use.
handled during their use in the field.
 1-10
distance between Pto 50° mark on the scale is equal to chord of 50° INTRODUCTION
(ii) Construction of angle with scale of chord: e.g for the construction1of
to 40°. angle equal
(a) Drawa line PS' and mark PQ equal to chord of 60° form the scale of chord
from Above Sketch 1.5). (i.e.
(b) Draw on arc with P as centre and PO as.
(c) Qas centre and radius equal to chord of 40° (Horizontal distance) from 0° to 40e
on the scale of chordsketch (Fig. 1.7)
(d) Cut the arc equal to 0° to 40° (Horizontal) on arc QR at point Xso that anglex PO
= 40°.

40
P
S

Fig. 1.7. Fig. 1.8.

(iii)Measurement of angle with scale of chord: suppose we want to measure the angle
TPS. On line PS, measure the length POequal to the chord of 60° from Fig. above i.e.
scale of chord with P as centre draw on arc RÌ which cut PTat R as shown in Fig. 1.8.
Measure the chord distance OR and also measure it on the scale of chord Fig.This will
give the angle 0.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q.1. Define surveying.
Ans. Surveying is an art to making measurements on the carth surface to determine the
relative position of the points upon it, so that the points may be represented on the pla
or map.
Q.2. Write the principles of surveying.
Ans.
1. Location of point by
measurement from two
2. To work from whole to part. reference points
0.3. List the different types of surveying.
INTRODUCTION 1-11
Ans. 1. Primary type
(a) Plane surveying. Curvature of earth is not taken in account and area taken less
than 260 sq. km.
(6) Geodetic surveying. Curvature of earth is taken in account and area taken more
than 260 sq. km.
2. Secondary type :
(a) According to instrument used
(b) According to method used
(c) According to object of survey
(d) According to nature of field.
Q.4. List the main survey instruments used for measurements.
Ans. Chain, tape, ranging rod, arrows, compass, level, plane table, clinometer theodolite,
planimeter, pantograph etc.
Q.5. What are the duties of surveyor ?
Ans.
1. Field work To take observation in the field with survey instruments.
2. Office work From observation drawing of plan or map.
3. Care and adjustment of survey instruments.
Q.6. Define scale.
Ans. It is the ratio by which the actual length of the object is increased or reduced is
known as scale.
Q.7. What is representative factor (R.F).
Ans. It is the ratio of the length of object in the drawing to the actual length of object on
the ground.
Q.8. Name the different types of scale.
Ans.
1. Plain scale 2. Diagonal scale
3. Vernier scale 4. Comparative scale
5. Scales of chord.
Q.9. Name different types of
measurements.
Ans. 1. Linear measurement 2. Angular measurement.
Q.10. Write uses of surveying,
Ans.
1. To prepare the map showing boundary and other features.
2. To prepare the map showing hill, valley, river, town etc.
3. To prepare the map showing roads, railway, canals etc.
 1-12
4. To prepare the map showing for finding the best suitable route in
5. To prepare the map showing for defence purpose.
EXERCISES-1
road
INTRODraUilCwTaCyNs.
and
ILL IN THE BLANKS
1. Main object of surveying is to
prepare a
2. Surveying is the art of determining the
of objects on
3. The basic principle of surveying is to
work from earth surface.
4. Survey in which
curvature of earth is taken in account is known as
5. Curvature of earth is
taken in account when the area
extended is more thes
6. Geodetic surveying is done by
department.
Answers
1. Map,
2. Relative position,
3. Whole to part
4. Geodetic surveying,
5. 260 sq. km, 6. GT.S.
THEORY QUESTIONS
1. Define
surveying and what are the purpose of
2. Name the
different uses of surveying. surveying.
3. Explain the principles of
4. Explain the surveying.
5. Name the
different types of surveying.
different instrument used for taking
6. Define measurement.
7. Explainmeasurement
and explain its
the duties of different types.
8. surveyors.
State the difference
9. between map and plan.
Explain the classification of survey
10. Define scale & R.F. based on instruments.
11. Explain different type of
scales.