Module 14: Evolution eBook Slides 105-107

Darwin’s Theory of
Evolution by
Natural Selection
 Developing the Theory of Evolution
Darwin on the HMS Beagle
• When Charles Darwin began his journey,
most people thought the world was about
6000 years old, and that animals and plants
were unchanging.
• Darwin’s job on the HMS Beagle was to be a
naturalist, and to collect biological and
geological specimens during the travels.
 Developing the Theory of Evolution
The Galápagos Islands
• Darwin noticed that the different islands all seemed to have their own,
slightly different varieties of animals.
• Almost every specimen Darwin collected on the Galápagos was new to
European scientists, though they were similar to species on mainland South
America.
• Island and mainland species should not have been so similar, unless
mainland species had changed since arriving on the islands.
 Developing the Theory of Evolution
Darwin Continued His Studies
• Darwin hypothesized that new species could appear gradually through small
changes in ancestral species.
• Darwin inferred that if humans could change species by artificial selection–
directed breeding to produce offspring with desired traits–then perhaps the
same process could work in nature.
 Developing the Theory of Evolution

Natural Selection
• Darwin described the process of natural selection: Some competitors would
be better equipped for survival than others; those less equipped would die.
• Principles of natural selection:
• Individuals show variation.
• Variations are heritable.
• More offspring are born than can survive.
• Variations that increase reproductive success will be more common in the
• next generation.
 The Origin of Species
• Darwin had likely formulated his theory of evolution by natural selection by about
1840.
• Soon after, he began writing a multivolume book compiled of evidence for evolution
and explaining how natural selection might provide a mechanism for the origin of
species.
 The Origin of Species
Basic Principles of
Natural Selection
 The Origin of Species
• Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection in 1859.

• Today, scientists use evolution to mean cumulative change

in a group of organisms through time.
• Natural selection is not synonymous with evolution. It is a
mechanism by which evolution occurs.
Evidence of Evolution
 Support for Evolution
• The theory of evolution states that all organisms on Earth have descended
from a single ancestor.
• Recall that theories provide explanations for natural phenomena based on
observation.
• Darwin’s On the Origin of Species demonstrated how evolution might happen,
and provided evidence of its occurrence.
 Support for Evolution

• Evidence for evolution comes from:

• The fossil record
• Comparative anatomy
• Vestigial structures
• Comparative embryology
• Comparative molecular biology
• Geographic distribution
The Fossil Record Support for Evolution
• Fossils show modern species resemble ancient species.
• They also reveal that some species have changed very little.
• The fossil record is an important source of information for determining the
ancestry of organisms and the patterns of evolution.
The giant armadillo-like glyptodont, Glyptodon, is an extinct animal
that Darwin thought must have been related to living armadillos.

Glyptodont Armadillo
 Support for Evolution

The Fossil Record

Darwin predicted the existence of fossils
intermediate in form between species,
such as Archaeopteryx.

Darwin
 Support for Evolution
The Fossil Record
• Researchers consider two major classes of traits when studying transitional fossils:
• Derived traits are newly evolved features, such as feathers, that do not
appear in the fossils of common ancestors.
• Ancestral traits are more primitive features, such as teeth and tails, that do
appear in ancestral forms.
 Support for Evolution
Comparative Anatomy
• Anatomically similar structures inherited from a common ancestor are called
homologous structures.
• Evolution predicts that an organism’s body parts are more likely to be
modifications of ancestral body parts than entirely new structures.
 Support for Evolution
Vestigial Structures
• Vestigial structures are structures that are the reduced forms of functional
structures in other organisms.
• Evolutionary theory predicts that features of ancestors that no longer have a
function for that species will become smaller over time until they are lost.
• Examples of vestigial structures include human wisdom teeth, the wings of
Emus, and the human tailbone.
 Support for Evolution

Vestigial Structures
• Analogous structures can be used for the same purpose and be superficially
similar in construction, but they are not inherited from a common ancestor.
• Analogous structures show that functionally similar features can evolve
independently under similar conditions.
 Support for Evolution

Geographic Distribution
• The distribution of plants and animals were what first suggested evolution to
Darwin.
• The distribution of plants and animals around the world is studied in the field
of biogeography.
• Evolution is linked to migration patterns, climate, and geological forces such as
plate tectonics.
 Adaptation

Types of Adaptations
• An adaptation is a trait shaped by natural selection that increases an
organism’s reproductive success.
• Fitness is a measure of the relative contribution an individual trait makes to
the next generation.
• The better an organism is adapted to its environment, the greater its chances
of survival and reproductive success.
 Adaptation

Types of Adaptations
• Camouflage is a suite of morphological adaptations that allow an organism to
blend into its environment.
• Mimicry is a type of morphological adaptation where a species evolves to
resemble another species.
• Species of bacteria that originally were killed by penicillin and other antibiotics
have developed drug resistance.
 Adaptation

Consequences of Adaptations
• Not all features of an organism are necessarily adaptive.
• Some features are consequences of other evolved characteristics.
• Helplessness of human babies: Humans give birth at a much earlier
developmental stage than other primates.
• May be a consequence of larger brain size and upright posture
Shaping Evolutionary Theory
 Mechanisms of Evolution
• Natural selection is not the only mechanism of evolution.
• Evolution occurs at the population level, with genes as the raw material.
Population Genetics
• Hardy and Weinberg showed that evolution will not occur in a population
unless allelic frequencies are acted upon by forces that cause change.
• The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that when allelic frequencies remain
constant, a population is in genetic equilibrium.
 Mechanisms of Evolution

Population Genetics
According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, if the number of owls in a population
doubles, the ratio of gray to red owls will remain the same.
 Mechanisms of Evolution

Hardy-Weinberg Principle Chart…

 Mechanisms of Evolution

Population Genetics
• According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, for a population to be in genetic
equilibrium, it must meet five conditions:
1. No genetic drift
2. No gene flow
3. No mutation
4. Mating must be random
5. No natural selection
• These five conditions are the mechanisms of evolutionary change.
 Mechanisms of Evolution
Genetic Drift
• Any change in the
allelic frequencies in a
population that results
from chance is called
genetic drift.
• In smaller populations,
the effects of genetic
drift become more
pronounced, and the
chance of losing an
allele becomes greater.
 Mechanisms of Evolution
Gene Flow
• A population in genetic equilibrium experiences no gene flow. It is a closed
system.
• Gene flow is uncommon in natural populations. Organisms migrate/move
between populations.
• Random movement increases genetic variation within a population and
decreases the genetic variation between populations.
 Mechanisms of Evolution

Natural Selection
• Natural selection acts to select the
individuals that are best adapted for
survival and reproduction.
• There are three types of natural selection:
• Stabilizing
• Directional
• Disruptive
 Speciation
• For speciation to occur, populations must diverge and become reproductively
isolated.
• There are two types of speciation:
• Allopatric
• Sympatric
Allopatric Speciation
• Allopatric speciation occurs
when populations are
divided by a physical barrier.
• Most scientists think
allopatric speciation is the
most common type of
speciation.
 Speciation
Sympatric Speciation
• Sympatric speciation occurs without a physical barrier
• Populations remain in close proximity.
• Sympatric speciation is common in plants due to polyploidy.
 Patterns of Evolution
Adaptive Radiation
• Adaptive radiation can occur when one species gives rise to many species in
response to the creation of a new habitat or another ecological opportunity.
• Adaptive radiation often follows large-scale extinction events or the creation of
new habitat.
 Patterns of Evolution

• Convergent Evolution Unrelated species

evolve similar traits, even though they live in
different parts of the world.

• Convergent evolution occurs in

environments that are geographically
distinct but ecologically similar.