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PHYSICS
Chapter 12: Kinetic Theory
 KINETIC THEORY
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Kinetic Theory

Introduction
What is Kinetic Theory
Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly
moving atoms or molecules.
In solids the molecules are very tightly packed as inter molecular space is not present In liquids
inter molecular spaces are more as compared to solids and in gases the molecules are very
loosely packed as intermolecular spaces are very large.
The random movement of molecules in a gas is explained by kinetic theory of gases.
We will also see that why kinetic theory is accepted as a success theory.
Kinetic theory explains the following:
Molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature can be explained.
It is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s hypothesis.
Correctly explains specific heat capacities of many gases.

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases

All gas molecules constantly move in random directions.
The size of molecules is very less than the separation between the molecules
The molecules of the sample do not exert any force on the walls of the container during the
collision when the gas sample is contained.
It has a very small time interval of collision between two molecules, and between a molecule and
the wall.
Collisions between molecules and wall and even between molecules are elastic in nature.
Newton’s laws of motion can be seen in all the molecules in a certain gas sample.
With due course of time, a gas sample comes to a steady state. The molecule’s distribution and
the density of molecules do not depend on the position, distance and time.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
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The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic property of the gas, like – Temperature,
Pressure, and Volume to the microscopic property of the gas, like – speed, momentum, and
position. In this model, the atoms and molecules are continually in random motion, constantly
colliding with one another and the walls of the container within which the gas is enclosed. It is
this motion that results in physical properties such as heat and pressure. In this article, let us
delve deeper into the kinetic theory of gases.
Molecular nature of matter
John Dalton
Atomic hypothesis was given by many scientists. According to which everything in this universe is
made up of atoms.
Atoms are little particles that move around in a perpetual order attracting each other when they
are little distance apart.
But if they are forced very close to each other then they rebel.
For example: - Consider a block of gold. It consists of molecules which are constantly moving.
Dalton’s atomic theory is also referred as the molecular theory of matter. This theory proves that
matter is made up of molecules which in turn are made up of atoms.
According to Gay Lussac’s law when gases combine chemically to yield another gas, their
volumes are in ratios of small integers.
Avogadro’s law states that the equal volumes of all gases at equal temperature and pressure
have the same number of molecules.
Conclusion: - All these laws proved the molecular nature of gases.
Dalton’s molecular theory forms the basis of Kinetic theory.
Why was Dalton’s theory a success?
Matter is made up of molecules, which in turn are made up of atoms.
Atomic structure can be viewed by an electron microscope.
Solids, Liquids, Gases in terms of molecular structure

Basis of Difference Solids Liquids Gases

Molecules are very Molecules are not so Molecules are loosely

Inter Atomic Distance
tightly packed. Inter tightly packed. Inter packed. Free to
(distance between
atomic distance is atomic distance is move. Inter atomic
molecules).
minimum. more as compared to distance is maximum.

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solids.

Mean Free Path is the

There is mean free
average distance a
No mean free path. Less mean free path. path followed by the
molecule can travel
molecules.
without colliding.

Behaviour of Gas Molecules

The behaviour of gas molecules is dependent on the properties and laws obeyed by the
molecules of the gas. The distribution of molecules in a gas is very different from the distribution
of molecules in liquids and solids. There are five properties and five gas laws that govern the
behaviour of gas molecules.
Gas is defined as a homogeneous fluid which has low density and low viscosity and the volume of
the gas is assumed to have the volume equal to the volume of the vessel. The classification of
gases are:
Ideal gas
Non-ideal gas or real gas
Following are the properties of gases:
Property Symbol Common units

Density d g.l-1

Temperature T K

Pressure P mm Hg

Volume V cm

Amount of gas n mol

Kinetic Theory of Gases

The behaviour of gas molecules is explained with the help of the kinetic theory of gases. It is the
study of gas molecules at the macroscopic level. Following are the five postulates of the kinetic
theory of gases:
Gas is the composition of a large number of molecules that are constantly in a random
movement.

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The volume of the molecules is negligible as the distance between the gas molecules is greater
than the size of the molecules.
The intermolecular interactions are also negligible.
The collision of molecules with each other and with the walls of the container is always elastic.
The average kinetic energy of all the molecules is dependent on the temperature.
Boyle’s Law
According to Boyle’s law, the volume of the gas is inversely related to pressure when the amount
of gas is fixed at a constant temperature.

PV = constant
P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = constant
Where,
P is the pressure of a gas.
V is the volume of gas.

Charles’s Law
According to Charles’s law, the volume of the gas with a fixed mass is directly proportional to the
temperature.
V∝T
Where,
T is the temperature of a gas.
V is the volume of gas.

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Gay-Lussac’s Law
According to Gay-Lussac’s law, when the volume of the gas is constant, the pressure of a given
mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas.

Where,
T1 is the initial temperature.
P1 is the initial pressure.
T2 is the final temperature.
P2 is the final pressure.

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Avogadro’s Law
According to Avogadro’s law, when the pressure and temperature of the given gas are constant,
then the number of moles and the volume of the gas are in a direct relationship.

Where,
V is the volume of the gas.
n is the number of moles.
k is the proportionality constant.

Ideal Gas Law

According to ideal gas law, the product of pressure and volume of one gram molecule of an ideal
gas is equal to the product of a number of moles of the gas, universal gas constant and the
absolute temperature.
PV = nRT = NkT
Where,
P is the pressure of the gas.
V is the volume of the gas.
n is the number of moles.
R is the universal gas constant = 8.3145 J.mol-1.K-1
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T is the temperature of the gas

N is Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.0221×1023
Specific Heat
Specific heat, Csp, is the amount of heat required to change the heat content of exactly 1 gram
of a material by exactly 1°C.
Specific heat values can be determined in the following way: When two materials, each initially
at a different temperature, are placed in contact with one another, heat always flows from the
warmer material into the colder material until both the materials attain the same temperature.
From the law of conservation of energy, the heat gained by the initially colder material must
equal the heat lost by the initially warmer material.
We know that when heat energy is absorbed by a substance, its temperature increases. If the
same quantity of heat is given to equal masses of different substances, it is observed that the
rise in temperature for each substance is different. This is due to the fact that different
substances have different heat capacities. So heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of the
heat required to raise the temperature of the whole substance by one degree. If the mass of the
substance is unity then the heat capacity is called Specific heat capacity or the specific heat.
Specific Heat Capacity Formula
Q = C m ∆t
Where,
Q = quantity of heat absorbed by a body
m = mass of the body
∆t = Rise in temperature
C = Specific heat capacity of a substance depends on the nature of the material of the substance.
S.I unit of specific heat is J kg-1 K-1.
Specific Heat Capacity Unit
Heat capacity = Specific heat x mass
Its S.I unit is J K-1.
Monatomic Gases
“Monatomic” is a combination of two words “mono”, and “atomic” means a single atom. This
term is used in both Physics and Chemistry and is applied to the gases as monatomic gases. In
the gaseous phase at sufficiently high temperatures, all the chemical elements are monatomic
gases.
Noble gases are monatomic gases as they are unreactive, which is a property of these gases.

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They do find applications in daily life like

Helium is used in filling balloons as their density is lower than the air’s.
Neon is used for creating advertising signs as they glow when electricity flows through them.
Argon is used in a light bulb to prevent the burning of the filament as it is unreactive
Diatomic Molecules
Diatomic molecules are those molecules that are composed of only two atoms. If a diatomic
molecule is composed of the same element, it is known as a homonuclear, and if it is composed
of two different elements, it is known as heteronuclear.
Polyatomic Ion
A polyatomic ion is also known as a molecular ion that is composed of two or more covalently
bonded atoms. It is also referred to as a radical.
Top Formulae

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Important Questions

Multiple Choice questions-

Question 1. A room temperature the r.m.s. velocity of the molecules of a certain
diatomic gas is found to be 1930 m/sec. the gas is
(a) H²
(b) F²
(c) O²
(d) Cl²
Question 2. Energy supplied to convert unit mass of substance from solid to liquid
state at its melting point is called
(a) Latent heat of fusion
(b) Evaporation
(c) Solidification
(d) Latent heat of fission
Question 3. One any planet, the presence of atmosphere implies [nrms = root mean
square velocity of molecules and ne = escape velocity]
(a) nrms << ne
(b) nrms > ne
(c) nrms = ne
(d) nrms = 0
Question 4. Calculate the RMS velocity of molecules of a gas of which the ratio of
two specific heats is 1.42 and velocity of sound in the gas is 500 m/s
(a) 727 m/s
(b) 527 m/s
(c) 927 m/s
(d) 750 m/s
Question 5. The r.m.s. speed of the molecules of a gas in a vessel is 200 m/s. if 25%
of the gas leaks out of the vessel, at constant temperature, then the r.m.s. speed of
the remaining molecules will be
(a) 400 m/s
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(b) 150 m/s

(c) 100 m/s
(d) 200 m/s
Question 6. A gas is taken in a sealed container at 300 K. it is heated at constant
volume to a temperature 600 K. the mean K.E. of its molecules is
(a) Halved
(b) Doubled
(c) Tripled
(d) Quadrupled
Question 7. Moon has no atmosphere because
(a) It is far away form the surface of the earth
(b) Its surface temperature is 10°C
(c) The r.m.s. velocity of all the gas molecules is more then the escape velocity of
the moons surface
(d) The escape velocity of the moons surface is more than the r.m.s velocity of all
molecules
Question 8. A unit mass of solid converted to liquid at its melting point. Heat is
required for this process is:
(a) Specific heat
(b) Latent heat of vaporization
(c) Latent heat of fusion
(d) External latent heat
Question 9. One mole of ideal gas required 207 J heat to rise the temperature by
10°K when heated at constant pressure. If the same gas is heated at constant
volume to raise the temperature by the same 10°K the heat required is (R = 8/3
J/mole °K)
(a) 1987 J
(b) 29 J
(c) 215.3 J
(d) 124 J
Question 10. The r.m.s velocity of the molecules of an ideal gas is C at a
temperature of 100K. at what temperature is r.m.s. velocity will be doubted?
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(a) 200 K
(b) 400 K
(c) 300 K
(d) 50 K
Very Short:
1. What does gas constant R signify? What is its value?
2. What is the nature of the curve obtained when:
(a) Pressure versus reciprocal volume is plotted for an ideal gas at a constant
temperature.
(b) Volume of an ideal gas is plotted against its absolute temperature at
constant pressure.
3. The graph shows the variation of the product of PV with the pressure of the
constant mass of three gases A, B and C. If all the changes are at a constant
temperature, then which of the three gases is an ideal gas? Why?

4. On the basis of Charle’s law, what is the minimum possible temperature?

5. What would be the ratio of initial and final pressures if the masses of all the
molecules of a gas are halved and their speeds are doubled?
6. Water solidifies into ice at 273 K. What happens to the K.E. of water
molecules?
7. Name three gas laws that can be obtained from the gas equation.
8. What is the average velocity of the molecules of a gas in equilibrium?
9. A vessel is filled with a mixture of two different gases. Will the mean kinetic
energies per molecule of both gases be equal? Why?
10.The density of a gas is doubled, keeping all other factors unchanged. What will
be the effect on the pressure of the gas?
Short Questions:
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1. Why cooling is caused by evaporation?

2. On reducing the volume of the gas at a constant temperature, the pressure of
the gas increases. Explain on the basis of the kinetic theory of gases.
3. Why temperature less than absolute zero is not possible?
4. There are n molecules of a gas in a container. If the number of molecules is
increased to 2n, what will be:
(a) the pressure of the gas.
(b) the total energy of the gas.
(c) r.m.s. speed of the gas molecules.
5. Equal masses of O2 and He gases are supplied equal amounts of heat. Which
gas will undergo a greater temperature rise and why?
6. Two bodies of specific heats S1 and S2 having the same heat capacities are
combined to form a single composite body. What is the specific heat of the
composite body?
7. Tell the degree of freedom of:
(a) Monoatomic gas moles.
(b) Diatomic gas moles.
(c) Polyatomic gas moles.
8. State law of equipartition of energy.
9. Explain why it is not possible to increase the temperature of gas while keeping
its volume and pressure constant?
10.A glass of water is stirred and then allowed to stand until the water stops
moving. What has happened to the K.E. of the moving water?
Long Questions:
1. Calculate r.m.s. the velocity of hydrogen at N.T.P. Given the density of
hydrogen = 0.09 kg m4.
2. Calculate the temperature at which r.m.s. the velocity of the gas molecule is
double its value at 27°C, the pressure of the gas remaining the same.
3. Calculate the K.E./mole of a gas at N.T.P. Density of gas at N.T.P. = 0.178 g dm-3
and molecular weight = 4.
4. Calculate the diameter of a molecule if n = 2.79 × 1025 molecules per m3 and
mean free path = 2.2 × 10-8 m.

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5. Calculate the number of molecules in 1 cm3 of a perfect gas at 27°C and at a

pressure of 10 mm of Hg. Mean K.E. of a molecule at 27°C = 4 × 1025 J. ρHg =
13.6 × 103 kg m-3.
Assertion Reason Questions:
1. Directions: Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
Assertion (A): The number of degrees of freedom of a linear triatomic molecules is
7.
Reason (R): The number of degrees of freedom depends on number of particles in
the system.
2. Directions: Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
Assertion (A): Absolute zero is not the temperature corresponding to zero energy.
Reason (R): The temperature at which no molecular motion ceases is called absolute
zero
temperature.
✓ Answer Key:
Multiple Choice Answers-
1. Answer: (a) H²
2. Answer: (a) Latent heat of fusion
3. Answer (a) nrms << ne
4. Answer: (a) 727 m/s
5. Answer: (d) 200 m/s
6. Answer: (b) Doubled
7. Answer: (c) The r.m.s. velocity of all the gas molecules is more then the escape
velocity of the moons surface
8. Answer: (c) Latent heat of fusion
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9. Answer: (d) 124 J

10.Answer: (b) 400 K
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: The universal gas constant (R) signifies the work done by (or on) a gas per
mole per kelvin. Its value is 8.31 J mol-1 K
2. Answer: (a)It is a straight line.
(b) It is a straight line.
3. Answer: A is an ideal gas because PV is constant at constant temperature for an ideal
gas.
4. Answer: – 273.15°C.
13mn
5. Answer: 1: 2 (∵ P = C2)
V
6. Answer: It is partly converted into the binding energy of ice.
7. Answer:
1. Boyle’s law
2. Charle’s law
3. Gay Lussac’s law.
8. Answer: Zero.
3
9. Yes. This is because the mean K.E. per molecule i.e. kT depends only upon the
2
temperature.
10.It will be doubled. (∵ P ∝ ρ if other factors are constant).
Short Questions Answers:
1. Answer: Evaporation occurs on account of faster molecules escaping from the surface
of the liquid. The liquid is therefore left with molecules having lower speeds. The
decrease in the average speed of molecules results in lowering the temperature and
hence cooling is caused.
2. Answer: On reducing the volume, the space for the given number of molecules of the
gas decreases i.e. no. of molecules per unit volume increases. As a result of which
more molecules collide with the walls of the vessel per second and hence a larger
momentum is transferred to the walls per second. Due to which the pressure of gas
increases.
3. Answer: According to the kinetic interpretation of temperature, absolute temperature
means the kinetic energy of molecules.
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As heat is taken out, the temperature falls and hence velocity decreases. At
absolute zero, the velocity of the molecules becomes zero i.e. kinetic energy
becomes zero. So no more decrease in K.E. is possible, hence temperature
cannot fall further.
4. Answer: (a) We know that
1
P = mnC2.
3
where n = no. of molecules per unit volume.
Thus when no. of molecules is increased from n to 2n, no. of molecules per unit
volume (n) will increase from n 2n
𝑛 2𝑛
to , hence pressure will become double.
𝑉 𝑉
(b) The K.E. of a gas molecule is,
1 3
mC2 = kT
2 2
If the no. of molecules is increased from n to 2n. There is no effect on the
average K.E. of a gas molecule, but the total energy is doubled.
3𝑃 3𝑃
r.m.s speed of gas is Crms = √ =√
𝜌 𝑚𝑛
P
When n is increased from n to 2n. both n and P become double and the ratio
n
remains unchanged. So there will be no effect of increasing the number of
molecule from n to 2n on r.m.s. speed of gas molecule.
5. Answer: Helium is monoatomic while O2 is diatomic. In the case of helium, the supplied
heat has to increase only the translational K.E. of the gas molecules.
On the other hand, in the case of oxygen, the supplied heat has to increase the
translations, vibrational and rotational K.E. of gas molecules. Thus helium
would undergo a greater temperature rise.
6. Answer: Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies having heat capacities S1 and S1
respectively.
∴ (m1 + m2)S = m1S1 + m2S2 = m1S1 + m1S1 = 2m1S1

Also, m2S2 = m1S1

( ∵ Heat capacities of two bodies are same.)
Or

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7. Answer: (a) A monoatomic gas possesses 3 translational degrees of freedom for each
molecule.
(b) A diatomic gas molecule has 5 degrees of freedom including 3 translational and 2
rotational degrees of freedom.
(c) The polyatomic gas molecule has 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 3
rotational).
8. Answer: It states that in equilibrium, the total energy of the system is divided equally in
all possible energy modes with each mode i.e. degree of freedom having an average
1
energy equal to KBT.
2
9. Answer: It is not possible to increase the temperature of a gas keeping volume and
pressure constant can be explained as follows:
According to the Kinetic Theory of gases,

( ∵ C2 = kT, when k is a constant)

T ∝ PV
Now as T is directly proportional to the product of P and V. If P and V are constant,
then T is also constant.
10.Answer: The K.E. of moving water is dissipated into internal energy. The temperature
of water thus increases.
Long Questions Answers:
1. Answer:

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2. Answer: Let t be the required temperature = ? and Ct, C27 be the r.m.s.
velocities of the gas molecules at t°C and 27°C respectively.
𝐶𝑡
= 2 (given)
𝐶27

Also let M = molecular weight of the gas

Now T = t + 273
and T27 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
∴ Using the relation

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3. Answer: Here, ρ = 0.178 g dm-3

= 0.178 × 10-3 g cm-3 (∵ 1 dm3 = 10-3 cm3)
= 178 × 10-6 g cm-3
Mass
Volume of 1 mole of gas i.e. 4 g of gas =
Density

4. Answer: Here, n = 2.79 × 1025 molecules m-3

λ = 2.2 × 10-8 m
d=?
Using the relation.

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5. Answer: Here, K..E. per molecule at 27°C = 4 × 10-11 J

Let μ = number of molecules in 1 cm3 or 10-6 m3
∴ Mean K.E. per cm3 = μ × 4 × 1011 J ….(i)
3
Now K.E. per gram molecule = RT
2
for a perfect gas, PV = RT
3
∴ K.E, per gram molecule = PV
2
or
3
K.E. per cm3 of gas = PV
2
P = 10 mm of Hg = 10-2 m of Hg
= 10-2 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8
= 136 × 9.8 Nm-2 V
= 1 cm3
= 10-6 m3
3
∴ K.E per cm3 of gas = × 136 × 9.8 × 106
2
-3
= 1.969 × 10 J ….(ii)
∴ from (i) and (ii) we get
μ × 4 × 10-11 = 1.969 × 10-3
or
1.969 × 10−3
𝜇 =
4 × 1011
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= 4.92 × 107 molecules.

Assertion Reason Answer:
1. (b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
2. (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
Case Study Questions-
1. Boyle’s law is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass,
kept at a constant temperature) is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In
other words, the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as
long as the temperature and the quantity of gas are kept constant. For a gas, the
relationship between volume and pressure (at constant mass and temperature) can be
expressed mathematically as follows. P ∝ (1/V) Where P is the pressure exerted by the
gas and V is the volume occupied by it. This proportionality can be converted into an
equation by adding a constant, k. Charles law states that the volume of an ideal gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure. The law also
states that the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion when the
pressure exerted on a sample of a dry gas is held constant. Charles law and Boyle’s law
applied to low density gas only. The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of
partial pressures. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
i. Boyle’s law is obeyed by high as well as low density gases. True or False?
a. True
b. False
ii. Charles law is states that volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to
temperature at constant
a. Temperature
b. Pressure
c. Volume
d. None of these
iii. State Daltons law of partial pressures
iv. State Boyle’s law
v. State Charles law
2. Pressure of an Ideal Gas: according to kinetic theory of gases pressure is given by P = 1/3
nmv2 Where, n is number of molecules per unit volume, m is mass and v2 is mean
squared speed. Though we choose the container to be a cube, the shape of the vessel
really is immaterial. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the
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absolute temperature of the gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or the nature of

the ideal gas. This is a fundamental result relating temperature, a macroscopic
measurable parameter of a gas (a thermodynamic variable as it is called) to a molecular
quantity, namely the average kinetic energy of a molecule. The two domains are
connected by the Boltzmann constant and given by E = kbT. Where kb is Boltzmann
constant having value of 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin. We have seen that in thermal
equilibrium at absolute temperature T, for each translational mode of motion, the
average energy is ½ Kb T. The most elegant principle of classical statistical mechanics (first
proved by Maxwell) states that this is so for each mode of energy: translational, rotational
and vibrational. That is, in equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed in all possible
energy modes, with each mode having an average energy equal to ½ kB T. This is known
as the law of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each translational and rotational
degree of freedom of a molecule contributes ½ kB T to the energy, while each vibrational
frequency contributes 2 × ½ kB T = kB T, since a vibrational mode has both kinetic and
potential energy modes.
i. Boltzmann constant has value of
a. 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin.
b. 1.38*10-28 joule per Kelvin.
c. 1.38*10-30 joule per Kelvin.
d. None of these
ii. SI unit of Boltzmann constant is given by
a. Joules per meter
b. Joules per Kelvin
c. Joules per Newton
d. None of these
iii. According to kinetic theory give formula for pressure of idea gas.
iv. According to kinetic theory what is average kinetic energy of molecules of ideal gas?
v. What is law of equipartition of energy?
Case Study Answer-
1. Answer
i. (a) True
ii. (b) Pressure

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iii. The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures exerted by
all the molecules of gas. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
iv. Boyle’s law is a gas law which states that at constant temperature the pressure exerted
by a gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In other words, the
pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as long as the
temperature and the quantity of gas are kept constant. For a gas, the P ∝ (1/V)
Where P is the pressure exerted by the gas and V is the volume occupied by it. This
proportionality can be converted into an equation by adding a constant k.
v. Charles law states that the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature at constant pressure.
2. Answer
i. (a) 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin.
ii. (b) Joules per Kelvin
iii. According to kinetic theory of gases pressure is given by P = 1/3 nmv2 Where, n is
number of molecules per unit volume, m is mass and v2 is mean squared speed.
Though we choose the container to be a cube, the shape of the vessel really is
immaterial.
iv. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the absolute temperature
of the gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or the nature of the ideal gas and
given by E = 3/2 kbT.
Where kb is Boltzmann constant having value of 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin.
v. We know that for each translational mode of motion, the average energy is ½ Kb
T. classical statistical mechanics states that in equilibrium, the total energy is equally
distributed in all possible energy modes, with each mode having an average energy
equal to ½ kBT. This is known as the law of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each
translational and rotational degree of freedom of a molecule contributes ½ kBT to the
energy, while each vibrational frequency contributes 2 × ½ kB T = kBT, since a
vibrational mode has both kinetic and potential energy modes.

(25)
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