MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston,
Jr. John T. DeWolf
REVIEW
OF
“STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS 1”

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third

Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

CONCEPT OF STRESS

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F P
  lim  ave 
A0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P   ave A   dF    dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.

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Centric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section

infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane
of section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is,
P
 ave 
A
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may be
much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to
be uniform.
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.

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Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cosq V  P sin q

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
   cos 2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
   sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
 cos 2 q  sin q cosq
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m    0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m  sin 45 cos 45   
A0 2 A0

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress Under General Loadings

• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A 0 A A0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx   Fy   Fz  0
Mx  M y  Mz  0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z  0   xy Aa   yx Aa
 xy   yx

similarly,  xz   zx and  yz   zy
• It follows that only 6 components of stress are
required to define the complete state of stress
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

CONCEPT OF STRAIN

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Normal Strain

P 2P P P
  stress   
A 2A A A
  2 
  normal strain   
L L 2L L
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Shearing Strain

• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will deform into a rhomboid.

The corresponding shear strain is quantified in terms of the change in
angle between the sides,

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HOOKE’S LAW

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1D Hooke’s Law

• Below the yield stress

  E
E  Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity

• Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.

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Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,

the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
x    
E E E
 x  y  z
y    
E E E
 x  y z
z    
E E E

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Hooke’s Law for Shearing

 xy  f  xy 

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the

previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third

Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

PURE BENDING

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Symmetric Member in Pure Bending

• Internal forces in any cross section are equivalent
to a couple. The moment of the couple is the
section bending moment.

• The sum of the components of the forces in any

direction is zero.

• These requirements may be applied to the sums

of the components and moments of the statically
indeterminate elementary internal forces.
Fx    x dA  0
M y   z x dA  0
M z    y x dA  M

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Bending Deformations
Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure
bending:
• member remains symmetric
• bends uniformly to form a circular arc
• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center
and remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive)
above the neutral plane and positive (tension)
below it
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Strain Due to Bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.
After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,

L     y q
  L  L     y q  q   yq
 yq y
x    (strain varies linearly)
L q 
c c
m  or ρ 
 m
y
 x   m
c

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress Due to Bending

• For a linearly elastic material,
y
 x  E x   E m
c
y
   m (stress varies linearly)
c

• For static equilibrium,

• For static equilibrium,
y
Fx  0    x dA     m dA
c  y 
M    y x dA    y    m  dA
  c 
0   m  y dA
c m 2 mI
c 
M y dA 
c
First moment with respect to neutral Mc M
plane is zero. Therefore, the neutral m  
I S
surface must pass through the y
section centroid. Substituting  x    m
c
My
x  
I

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

TORSION

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Net Torque Due to Internal Stresses

• Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
T    dF     dA

• Although the net torque due to the shearing

stresses is known, the distribution of the stresses
is not

• Distribution of shearing stresses is statically

indeterminate – must consider shaft
deformations

• Unlike the normal stress due to axial loads, the

distribution of shearing stresses due to torsional
loads can not be assumed uniform.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Shaft Deformations

• From observation, the angle of twist of the

shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.
 T
L

• When subjected to torsion, every cross-section

of a circular shaft remains plane and
undistorted.
• Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular
shafts remain plain and undistorted because a
circular shaft is axisymmetric.

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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Shearing Strain

• Consider an interior section of the shaft. As a

torsional load is applied, an element on the
interior cylinder deforms into a rhombus.

• Since the ends of the element remain planar, the

shear strain is proportional to angle of twist.

• It follows that

L   or  
L

• Shear strain is proportional to twist and radius

c 
 max  and    max
L c

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Edition
Third
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stresses in Elastic Range

• Multiplying the previous equation by the
shear modulus,

G  G max
c
From Hooke’s Law,   G , so

  max
c
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
J  12  c 4
radial position in the section.
• Recall that the sum of the moments from
the internal stress distribution is equal to
the torque on the shaft at the section,
 
T    dA  max   2 dA  max J
c c
• The results are known as the elastic torsion

J  12  c24  c14  formulas,
Tc T
 max  and  
J J
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