Lecture 1

Concepts of Remote Sensing

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

Pabna University of Science and Technology
 Content
▪ Introduction
▪ Energy source and radiation principles
▪ Spectral Bands
▪ Spectral signature
▪ Atmospheric path
▪ Interaction of light with atmosphere and surface
▪ Transmission path interaction
▪ Characteristics of energy with different media
▪ Data acquisition and interpretation and
▪ Application
 Introduction
▪ General definition of Remote Sensing:
❖The Science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigation.

• e.g. reading process

❖word → eyes → brain → meaning
❖data → sensor → processing → information
 Introduction (cont.)
▪ Collected data can be of many forms:
• variations in force distribution → e.g.
gravity meter
• acoustic wave distribution → e.g. sonar
• electromagnetic energy distribution →
e.g. eyes
• our focus: electromagnetic energy
distribution
Some Remote Sensors

Remote Sensing & GIS Applications Directorate

 Introduction (cont.)
▪ Fig. 1.1 Generalized processes and
elements involved in electromagnetic
remote sensing of earth resources
Optical sensor Aerial
photograph

Infrared sensor Radar sensor

Energy sources and radiation principles
▪ Fig. 1.3 electromagnetic spectrum 
memorize
• Wave theory: c = 
❖c : speed of light (3x108 m/s)
❖ : frequency (cycle per second, Hz)
❖ : wavelength (m)

• unit: micrometer m = 10-6 m

 Wave model
▪ Electromagnetic
wave consists of an
electrical field (E)
which varies in
magnitude in a
direction
perpendicular to
the direction in
which the radiation
is traveling, and a
magnetic field (M)
oriented at right
angles to the
electrical field.
Both these fields
travel at the speed
of light (c).
 Spectral Resolution

.45 to .52 um
Blue light .52 to .6 um
Green light
.63-.69 um
Red light
.76 to .9 um
.45um .55um .65um .75um to 2 2um to 4 4um to 10 Near Infrared
Shortwave Midwave Longwave Reflectance
Blue

Green

Red

Infrared Infrared Infrared

Gamma X-Rays UV Rays Infrared Microwave Radio

Rays
Visible Light

Wavelength: 1 nm 1 um 1 mm 1m 1 km
 Energy sources and radiation principles (cont.)

▪ Fig. 1.3 (cont.)

• Spectrum :
❖UV (ultraviolet)
❖Vis (visible)
➢narrow range, strongest, most sensitive to human eyes
➢blue: 0.4~0.5m
➢green: 0.5~0.6m
➢red: 0.6~0.7m
❖IR (infrared)
➢near-IR: 0.7~1.3 m
➢mid-IP: 1.3~3.0 m
➢thermal-IR: 3.0 m~1mm  heat sensation
❖microwave: 1mm~1m
 Energy sources and radiation principles (cont.)

▪ Fig. 1.3 (cont.)

• Particle theory: Q = h
❖Q: quantum energy (Joule)
❖h: Planck's constant (6.626x10-34 J sec)
❖ : frequency

• Q = h = hc/  1/ (as, c = )

❖implication in remote sensing:   Q   viewing
area  enough area
 Energy sources and radiation principles
(cont.)
▪ Stefan-Boltzmann law:
• M = T4
❖M: total radiant exitance from the surface of a material
(watts m-2)
❖: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.6697x10-8 W m-2K -4)
❖T: absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material

• blackbody:
❖a hypothetical, ideal radiator totally absorbs and reemits
all incident energy
 Energy sources and radiation principles
(cont.)

Fig 1.4: Spectral distribution of energy radiated

from blackbodies of various temperatures

• Area → total radiant exitance M

❖T M (graphical illustration of S-B law)
• Wien's displacement law:
❖ m=A/T  1/T
➢  m : dominant wavelength, wavelength of maximum spectral radiant (mm)
➢ A: 2898 (K)
➢ T: absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material
➢ e.g. heating iron: dull red → orange → yellow → white
 Energy sources and radiation principles
(cont.)
▪ Fig 1.4 (cont.)
• Sun: T6000K →  m0.5m (visible light)
• incandescent lamp: T  3000K →  m  1m
❖As the object becomes progressively hotter, it begins to glow and its
color changes successively to shorter wavelengths---- from dull red, to
orange, to yellow and eventually to white.

• Earth: T  300K →  m 9.7m  thermal

energy  radiometer
❖ <3m: reflected energy predominates
❖ >3m: emitted energy prevails

• Passive Active
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Name Wavelength (meters)

Gamma-rays < 10-11
X-rays 10-11 - 10-8
Ultraviolet (UV) 10-8 - 4 x 10-7
Visible (Optical) 4 x 10-7 - 7 x 10-7
Infrared (IR) 7 x 10-7 - 10-3
Microwave 10-3 - 10-2
Radio 10-2 - 104
 Electromagnetic spectrum

▪ Electromagnetic energy interacts with object differently

• Snow reflects most of energy (that’s why it looks bright)
• Dry soil absorbs most of energy (that’s why it looks dark)
▪ How object interacts with electromagnetic energy is a
function of wavelengths → basis of image interpretation

Spectral reflectance signature

▪ Electromagnetic radiation interacts with atmosphere as
well. Some radiations (in visible, NIR and microwave
bands) pass through atmosphere relatively well
 Energy interaction in the atmosphere

▪ Path length
• space photography: 2 atmospheric
thickness
• airborne thermal sensor: very thin path
length
• sensor-by sensor
 Paths and
Interactions Various Paths of
Satellite Received Radiance

Remote
sens or
If the energy being remotely sensed detector
comes from the Sun, the energy: Total radiance L
S
at the sensor

• is radiated by atomic particles at Solar E

0
irradiance
the source (the Sun),
• propagates through the vacuum of 90Þ Lp LT

space at the speed of light,

• interacts with the Earth's
atmosphere (3A), T
0
60 miles
• interacts with the Earth's surface 2
T
v
(3B),
• interacts with the Earth's Diffus e s ky
irradiance E
d 1 Atmos phere
atmosphere once again (3C), 4 1,3,5
• finally reaches the remote sensor v
where it interacts with various 3 0
optical systems, filters, emulsions, LI
or detectors (3D).
5

Reflectance from Reflectance from

neigh boring area, study area,
r n r
 Atmospheric refraction (transmission)
Atmospheric Refraction
Incident Normal to
radiant energy the surface
Refraction in three non-turbulent
n1 = index of
atmospheric layers. The incident
Optically refraction for
less dense radiant energy is bent from its
1 this layer of
atmosphere the atmosphere normal trajectory as it travels
from one atmospheric layer to
another. Snell's law (n1 sin  1 = n2
Path of
sin  2 = n3 sin  3 ) can be used to
energy in
homogeneous predict how much bending will
n2 atmos phere take place based on a knowledge of
the angle of incidence and the
Optically 
more dense 2 optical density of each atmospheric
atmosphere level.

n
3
Optically
less dense 
atmosphere 3
ni = c/ci
ni index of refraction
Path of radiant energy affected c speed of light in a vacuum
by atmospheric refraction c i speed of light in a substance
 Energy interaction in the atmosphere
(cont.)
▪ Scattering
• molecular scale: d <<   Rayleigh scatter
❖ Rayleigh scatter effect  1/ 4
❖ "blue sky" and "golden sunset"
❖ Rayleigh → "haze" imagery  filter
• wavelength scale: d    Mie scatter
❖ influence longer wavelength
❖ dominated in slightly overcast sky
• large scale: d >> 
❖ e.g. water drop
❖ nonselective scatter  f( )
❖ that's why fog and cloud appear white
❖ why dark clouds black?
 Scattering
In the absence of particles and scattering the sky would
appear black.
▪ At sunrise and sunset the sunlight travels a longer
distance through the atmosphere
▪ With the longer path the scatter and absorption is of the
short (blue) wavelengths is so complete we only see the
longer wavelengths of light, the red and orange

Source: Principles of Remote Sensing (Tempfli et al.)

 Energy interaction in the atmosphere
(cont.)
▪ absorption
• absorbers in the atmosphere:
water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone
▪ Fig 1.5: Spectral characteristics of (a) energy sources (b) atmospheric effect (c)
sensing systems

▪ atmospheric windows
 Energy interaction in the atmosphere
(cont.)
▪ important considerations
• sensor: spectral sensitivity and
availability
• windows: in the spectral range  sense
• source: magnitude, spectral composition
 Energy interactions with earth surface features
▪ Fig 1.6: basic interactions between incident electromagnetic energy and an
earth surface feature

• EI( ) = ER( ) + EA( ) + ET( )

❖Incident energy = reflected + absorbed + transmitted

• ER( ) = EI( ) – [EA( ) + ET( )

→ distinguish features  R.S.

❖in visible portion: ER( ) → color
❖most R.S. → reflected energy predominated → ER important!
Specular versus diffuse reflectance
 Energy interactions with earth surface features
(cont.)
▪ Fig. 1.7: Specular versus diffuse reflectance (above Fig)

• specular  diffuse (Lambertian)

• surface roughness  Long wavelength:  I
• if  I << surface height variations  diffuse
❖for R.S. → measure diffuse reflectance

• spectral reflectance
E R ( )
 
E I ( )
Note the range
of spectral
values
 Energy interactions with earth surface features
(cont.)
▪ Fig 1.8: Spectral reflectance curve (SRC) – above fig

• object type → ribbon (envelope) rather than a single line

• characteristics of SRC → choose wavelength
• characteristics of SRC → choose sensor
❖near-IR photograph does a good job (Fig 1.9)

• Many R.S. data analysis → mapping →

spectrally separable → understand the spectral
characteristics
Infrared (IR) Photograph for Trees in a Forest
Spectral Reflectance of Vegetation, Soil, and Water

▪ Through remote sensing, these

features can be distinctly
identified.

▪ The spectral reflectance curve of

these features can help to
identify the bandwidth in which
the sensor can sense.

▪ Note: the graphs represent the

average values for spectral
• Healthy green vegetation, dry bare reflectance of these 3 features.
soil (gray-brown loam) and clear
lake water are 3 basic features on
the earth’s surface.
 Energy interactions with earth surface features
(cont.)
▪ Fig 1.10: Typical SRC for vegetation, soil and water

• average curves
• vegetation:
❖pigment → chlorophyll → two valleys (0.45m: blue; o.67m: red) →
green
➢ if yellow leaves →  (red)  → green + red
❖from 0.7 m to 1.3 m → minimum absorption (< 5%) → strong
reflectance = f(internal structure of leaves) → discriminate species and
detect vegetation stress
❖ > 1.3 m → three water absorption bands (1.4, 1.9 and 2.7 mm)
➢ water content   ( ) 
➢  ( ) = f(water content, leaf thickness)
Spectral Reflectance Curves

Spectral Reflectance Curves for three materials shown

in the visible and infrared wavelengths
Spectral Reflectance Curve -
Vegetation
Infrared reflection
Spectral Reflectance Curve - Vegetation

• As a plant stops or reduces chlorophyll production, it absorbs less in the red

bands (therefore reflects more red) producing yellow color of dying vegetation.
• Red color of some leaves produced by carotenoids which are always present but
usually masked by chlorophyll
 Energy interactions with earth
surface features (cont.)
▪ Fig 1.10 (cont.)

• soil
❖moisture content   − spectral reflectance ( ) 
❖soil texture: coarse  drain  moisture 
❖surface roughness   
❖iron oxide, organic matter   
❖These are complex and interrelated variables
 Energy interactions with earth surface
features (cont.)
▪ Fig 1.10 (cont.)

• water
❖near-IR: water ( near-IR) 
❖visible: very complex and interrelated
➢surface
➢bottom
➢material in the water
✓ clear water ® blue
✓ chlorophyll ® green
✓ CDOM ® yellow
❖pH, [O2], salinity, ...  (indirect) R.S.
 Energy interactions with earth surface
features (cont.)
▪ Spectral Response Pattern
• spectrally separable → recognize feature
• spectral signatures → absolute, unique
❖reflectance, emittance, radiation measurements, ...

• response patterns → quantitative, distinctive

• variability exists!
❖identify feature types spectrally  variability causes problems
❖identify the condition of various objects of the same type → we have to
rely on these variabilities
 Energy interactions with earth surface
features (cont.)
▪ Atmospheric influences on spectral response patterns
• sensor-by-sensor
• mathematical expression: ET
❖: reflectance of object Ltot = + Lp
❖E: incoming energy
❖T: atmospheric transmission

❖Lp: path radiance
 Data acquisition and interpretation
▪ detection
• photograph → chemical reaction
❖simple and inexpensive
❖high spatial resolution and geometric integrity
❖detect and record
• electronic → energy variation
❖broader spectral range of sensitivity
❖improved calibration potential
❖electronically transmit data
❖record on other media (e.g. magnetic tape)

▪ photograph  image
 Data acquisition and interpretation
(cont.)
▪ data interpretation
• pictorial (image) analysis
❖human mind → visual interpretation → judgment
❖disadvantages:
➢ extensive training
➢ limitation of human eyes ® not fully evaluate spectral characteristics

• digital data analysis:

❖digital image → 2-D array of pixels
❖digital number (DN)
❖A-D signal conversion
❖ Fig 1.13: input voltage (V), sampling interval (DT), output integer
❖DN range:8-bit: 0~255, 10-bit: 0~1023
❖easier for automatic processing, but limited in spectral pattern
interpretation
 Spatial
Resolution
Successful application of remote sensing
▪ Premise: integration
• many inventorying and monitoring
problems are not amenable to solution by
means of R.S.
Successful application of remote sensing
(cont.)
▪ Five conceptions of successful designs of
R.S.
• Clear definition of problem
• Evaluation of the potential for addressing the
problem with R.S.
• Identify the data acquisition procedures
• Determine the data interpretation procedures
and the reference data
• Identify the criteria for judging the quality of
information
Successful application of remote sensing
(cont.)

▪ Improvement of the success for many

applications of R.S. → multiple-view
for data collection → more information
 Successful application of remote sensing
(cont.)
▪ Example: detection, identification and
analysis of forest disease and insect
problems (multistage)
❖space images → overall view of vegetation categories
❖refined stage of images → aerial extent and position →
delineate stressed sub-areas
❖field-checked and documentation
❖generalize to other area
❖detailed ground observation → evaluate the question of
what the problem is.
❖R.S. → where? how much? how severe? ...
Successful application of remote sensing
(cont.)
▪ Multitemporal sensing → monitor land use
change
▪ Summary
• R.S. → eyes of GIS (see 1.10)
• R.S. → transcend the cultural boundaries
• R.S. → transcend the disciplinary boundaries
(nobody owns the field of "R.S.")
• R.S. → important in natural resources
management
 Land and geographic information systems
(LIS, GIS)
▪ Definition
• GIS: A system of hardware, software,
data, people, organizations, and
institutional arrangements for collecting,
storing, analyzing, and disseminating
information about areas of earth
• LIS: A GIS having, as its main focus, data
concerning land records