Lecture notes on Measurement and Instrumentation

(EEE371)

1. Introduction to Measuring Instruments

Classification, Absolute and secondary instruments, indicating instruments,
Ammeters,
voltmeters: (DC/AC) PMMC, MI, Electrodynamomete
control, balancing and damping, constructional details, characteristics, errors in
measurement, Ammeters,
voltmeters: (DC/AC) PMMC, MI, Electrodynamometer type

 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Ohmmeter
 Multimeter
2. Electronic Measuring Instruments - Errors
 Gross Errors
 Random Errors
 Systematic Errors
3. Electronic Measuring Instruments – Bridges DC/AC Bridges :General equations for
bridge balance, measurement of self inductance by Maxwell’s bridge (with variable
inductance & variable capacitance), Hay’s bridge, Owen’s bridge, measurement of
capacitance by Schearing bridge, errors, Wagner’s earthing device, Kelvin’s double
bridge
4. Transducer: Strain Gauges, Thermistors, Thermocouples, Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
(LVDT), Capacitive Transducers, Peizo-Electric transducers, Optical Transducer,
Torque meters,
inductive torque transducers, electric tachometers, photo-electric tachometers, Hall
Effect Transducer

5. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

 Dual Beam Oscilloscope
 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
6. Signal Generators
7. Wave Analyzer
8. Spectrum Analyzer
9. Data Acquisition Systems
TEXT BOOKS
[1]. A Course in Elec. & Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation: A K. Sawhney
[2]. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques: Helfrick & Cooper
[3]. Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments - Golding & Waddis
[4]. Measurement and Instrumentation Principle Alans S MorrisThird Edition

Introduction
The instruments, which are used to measure any quantity are known as
measuring instruments. This tutorial covers mainly the electronic
instruments, which are useful for measuring either electrical quantities
or parameters.
Following are the most commonly used electronic instruments.

 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
 Ohmmeter
 Multimeter
Now, let us discuss about these instruments briefly.

Voltmeter
As the name suggests, voltmeter is a measuring instrument which
measures the voltage across any two points of an electric circuit. There
are two types of voltmeters: DC voltmeter, and AC voltmeter.

DC voltmeter measures the DC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, whereas
AC voltmeter measures the AC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit. An
example of practical DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.
Ammeter
As the name suggests, ammeter is a measuring instrument which measures the current
flowing through any two points of an electric circuit. There are two types of ammeters: DC
ammeter, and AC ammeter.
DC ammeter measures the DC current that flows through any two points of an electric circuit.
Whereas, AC ammeter measures the AC current that flows through any two points of an
electric circuit. An example of practical AC ammeter is shown in below figure −
Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter is used to measure the value of resistance between any two points of an electric
circuit. It can also be used for finding the value of an unknown resistor. There are two types
of ohmmeters: series ohmmeter, and shunt ohmmeter.
In series type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be
connected in series with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring high values of resistances.

In shunt type ohmmeter, the resistor whose value is unknown and to be measured should be
connected in parallel (shunt) with the ohmmeter. It is useful for measuring low values of
resistances.
An example of practical shunt ohmmeter is shown in the above figure. The ohmmeter
shown in above figure is a (0−100)Ω(0−100)Ω shunt ohmmeter. Hence, it can be used
to measure the resistance values from zero ohms to 100 ohms.

Multimeter
Multimeter is an electronic instrument used to measure the quantities such as voltage,
current & resistance one at a time. It can be used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC & AC
currents and resistances of several ranges. A practical multimeter is shown in the following
figure −
As shown in the figure, this multimeter can be used to measure various high resistances, low
resistances, DC voltages, AC voltages, DC currents, & AC currents. Different scales and
range of values for each of these quantities are marked in above figure.
The instruments which we considered in this chapter are of indicating type instruments, as
the pointers of these instruments deflect and point to a particular value. We will discuss about
these electronic measuring instruments in detail in later chapters.

Performance Characteristics
The characteristics of measurement instruments which are helpful to know the performance
of instrument and help in measuring any quantity or parameter, are known as Performance
Characteristics.

Types of Performance Characteristics

Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the following two types.

 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
Now, let us discuss about these two types of characteristics one by one.

Static Characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that do not vary with
respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these quantities or parameters
may vary slowly with respect to time. Following are the list of static characteristics.
  Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 Static Error
Now, let us discuss about these static characteristics one by one.
Accuracy
The term sensitivity signifies the smallest change in the measurable input
that is required for an instrument to respond.
  If the calibration curve is linear, then the sensitivity of the
instrument will be a constant and it is equal to slope of the
calibration curve.
 If the calibration curve is non-linear, then the sensitivity of
the instrument will not be a constant and it will vary with
respect to the input.

Resolution
If the output of an instrument will change only when there is a specific increment of the
input, then that increment of the input is called Resolution. That means, the instrument is
capable of measuring the input effectively, when there is a resolution of the input.

Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or parameters
that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic characteristics. Following are
the list of dynamic characteristics.

 Speed of Response
 Dynamic Error
 Fidelity
 Lag
Now, let us discuss about these dynamic characteristics one by one.
Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to
be measured is called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in
the quantity to be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Dynamic Error

Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error is known as Fidelity
 Electronic Measuring Instruments -
Errors
The errors, which occur during measurement are known as measurement errors. In this
chapter, let us discuss about the types of measurement errors.

Types of Measurement Errors

We can classify the measurement errors into the following three types.

 Gross Errors
 Random Errors
 Systematic Errors
Now, let us discuss about these three types of measurement errors one by one.
Gross Errors
The errors, which occur due to the lack of experience of the observer while taking the
measurement values are known as gross errors. The values of gross errors will vary from
observer to observer. Sometimes, the gross errors may also occur due to improper selection of
the instrument. We can minimize the gross errors by following these two steps.

 Choose the best suitable instrument, based on the range of values to be measured.
 Note down the readings carefully
Systematic Errors
If the instrument produces an error, which is of a constant uniform deviation during its
operation is known as systematic error. The systematic errors occur due to the
characteristics of the materials used in the instrument.
Types of Systematic Errors
The systematic errors can be classified into the following three types.
 Instrumental Errors − This type of errors occur due to shortcomings of
instruments and loading effects.
 Environmental Errors − This type of errors occur due to the changes in
environment such as change in temperature, pressure & etc.
 observational Errors − This type of errors occur due to observer while taking
the meter readings. Parallax errors belong to this type of errors.
Random Errors
The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during measurement time are known
as random errors. Hence, it is not possible to eliminate or minimize these errors. But, if we
want to get the more accurate measurement values without any random error, then it is
possible by following these two steps.
 Step1 − Take more number of readings by different observers.
 Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in Step1.
Following are the parameters that are used in statistical analysis.
  Mean
 Median
 Variance
 Deviation
 Standard Deviation
Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.
Mean

If the number of readings of a particular measurement are more, then the mean or average
value will be approximately equal to true value
Median
If the number of readings of a particular measurement are more, then it is difficult to
calculate the mean or average value. Here, calculate the median value and it will be
approximately equal to mean value.
For calculating median value, first we have to arrange the readings of a particular
measurement in an ascending order. We can calculate the median value by using the
following formula, when the number of readings is an odd number.
Deviation from Mean
The difference between the reading of a particular measurement and the mean value is known
as deviation from mean. In short, it is called deviation. Mathematically, it can be represented
as

The above formula is valid if the number of readings, N is greater than or equal to 20. We can
use the following formula for standard deviation, when the number of readings, N is less than
20.
So, with the help of statistical parameters, we can analyze the readings of a particular
measurement. In this way, we will get more accurate measurement values.

Electronic Measuring Instruments

The instruments used to measure any quantity are known as measuring instruments. If the
instruments can measure the basic electrical quantities, such as voltage and current are known
as basic measuring instruments.

Types of Basic Measuring Instruments

We can classify the basic measuring instruments into the following two types.

 Voltmeters
 Ammeters
Let us discuss about these two basic measuring instruments briefly.
Voltmeters
As the name suggests, voltmeter is a measuring instrument which measures the voltage
across any two points of an electric circuit. The units of voltage are volt and the measuring
instrument is meter. Hence, the word “voltmeter” is obtained by combining the two
words “volt” and “meter”.
We can classify the voltmeters into the following two types based on the type of voltage that
it can measure.

 DC Voltmeters
 AC Voltmeters
DC Voltmeter
As the name suggests, DC voltmeter measures the DC voltage across any two points of an
electric circuit. A practical DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.
AC Voltmeter
As the name suggests, AC voltmeter measures the AC voltage across any two points of an
electric circuit. A practical AC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

Ammeters
As the name suggests, ammeter is a measuring instrument which measures the current
flowing through any two points of an electric circuit. The unit of current is ampere and the
measuring instrument is meter. The word “ammeter” is obtained by combining “am” of
ampere with “meter”.
We can classify the ammeters into the following two types based on the type of current that it
can measure.

 DC Ammeters
 AC Ammeters
DC Ammeter
As the name suggests, DC ammeter measures the DC current that flows through any two
points of an electric circuit. A practical DC ammeter is shown in figure.

The DC ammeter shown in above figure is a (0−50)A(0−50)V DC ammeter. Hence, it

can be used to measure the DC currents from zero Amperes to 50 Amperes
AC Ammeter
As the name suggests, AC ammeter measures the AC current that flows through any two
points of an electric circuit. A practical AC ammeter is shown in below figure.

The AC ammeter shown in above figure is a (0−100)A(0−100)A AC ammeter. Hence,

it can be used to measure the AC currents from zero Amperes to 100 Amperes.
We will discuss about various voltmeters and ammeters in detail in the following few
chapters

DC Voltmeters
DC voltmeter is a measuring instrument, which is used to measure the DC voltage across any
two points of electric circuit. If we place a resistor in series with the Permanent Magnet
Moving Coil (PMMC) galvanometer, then the entire combination together acts as DC
voltmeter.
The series resistance, which is used in DC voltmeter is also called series multiplier resistance
or simply, multiplier. It basically limits the amount of current that flows through
galvanometer in order to prevent the meter current from exceeding the full scale deflection
value. The circuit diagram of DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.

We have to place this DC voltmeter across the two points of an electric circuit, where the DC
voltage is to be measured.
Apply KVL around the loop of above circuit.
Multi Range DC Voltmeter
In previous section, we had discussed DC voltmeter, which is obtained by placing a
multiplier resistor in series with the PMMC galvanometer. This DC voltmeter can be used to
measure a particular range of DC voltages.
If we want to use the DC voltmeter for measuring the DC voltages of multiple ranges, then
we have to use multiple parallel multiplier resistors instead of single multiplier resistor and
this entire combination of resistors is in series with the PMMC galvanometer. The circuit
diagram of multi range DC voltmeter is shown in below figure.
We have to place this multi range DC voltmeter across the two points of an electric circuit,
where the DC voltage of required range is to be measured. We can choose the desired range
of voltages by connecting the switch s to the respective multiplier resistor.
So, we can find the resistance values of each series multiplier resistor by using above
formulae.

AC Voltmeters
The instrument, which is used to measure the AC voltage across any two points of electric
circuit is called AC voltmeter. If the AC voltmeter consists of rectifier, then it is said to be
rectifier based AC voltmeter.
The DC voltmeter measures only DC voltages. If we want to use it for measuring AC
voltages, then we have to follow these two steps.
 Step1 − Convert the AC voltage signal into a DC voltage signal by using a
rectifier.
 Step2 − Measure the DC or average value of the rectifier’s output signal.
We get Rectifier based AC voltmeter, just by including the rectifier circuit to the basic DC
voltmeter. This chapter deals about rectifier based AC voltmeters.

Types of Rectifier based AC Voltmeters

Following are the two types of rectifier based AC voltmeters.

 AC voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier

  AC voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
Now, let us discuss about these two AC voltmeters one by one.
AC Voltmeter using Half Wave Rectifier
If a Half wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination
together is called AC voltmeter using Half wave rectifier. The block diagram of AC
voltmeter using Half wave rectifier is shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of two blocks: half wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We
will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the respective
component(s) in above block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Half
wave rectifier will look like as shown in below figure.

The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.45 times the rms
value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal
AC Voltmeter using Full Wave Rectifier
If a Full wave rectifier is connected ahead of DC voltmeter, then that entire combination
together is called AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier. The block diagram of AC
voltmeter using Full wave rectifier is shown in below figure
The above block diagram consists of two blocks: full wave rectifier and DC voltmeter. We
will get the corresponding circuit diagram just by replacing each block with the respective
component(s) in above block diagram.
So, the circuit diagram of AC voltmeter using Full wave rectifier will look like as shown in
below figure.

The rms value of sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal is

Therefore, the AC voltmeter produces an output voltage, which is equal to 0.9 times the rms
value of the sinusoidal (AC) input voltage signal.
 Other AC Voltmeters
In previous chapter, we discussed about rectifier based AC voltmeters. This chapter covers
the following two types of AC voltmeters.

 Peak responding AC voltmeter

 True RMS responding AC voltmeter
Now, let us discuss about these two types of AC voltmeters one by one.

Peak Responding AC Voltmeter

As the name suggests, the peak responding AC voltmeter responds to peak values of AC
voltage signal. That means, this voltmeter measures peak values of AC voltages. The circuit
diagram of peak responding AC voltmeter is shown below −

The above circuit consists of a diode, capacitor, DC amplifier and PMMC galvanometer. The
diode present in the above circuit is used for rectification purpose. So, the diode converts AC
voltage signal into a DC voltage signal. The capacitor charges to the peak value of this DC
voltage signal.
During positive half cycle of AC voltage signal, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges
to the peak value of AC voltage signal. When the value of AC voltage signal is less than this
value, the diode will be reverse biased.
Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor of DC amplifier till the next positive half
cycle of AC voltage signal. When the value of AC voltage signal is greater than the capacitor
voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be repeated.
We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges fast and
discharges slowly. As a result, the meter always responds to this capacitor voltage, i.e.
the peak value of AC voltage.

True RMS Responding AC Voltmeter

As the name suggests, the true RMS responding AC voltmeter responds to the true RMS
values of AC voltage signal. This voltmeter measures RMS values of AC voltages.
The circuit diagram of true RMS responding AC voltmeter is shown in below figure.
The above circuit consists of an AC amplifier, two thermocouples, DC amplifier and PMMC
galvanometer. AC amplifier amplifies the AC voltage signal. Two thermocouples that are
used in above circuit are a measuring thermocouple and a balancing
thermocouple. Measuring thermocouple produces an output voltage, which is proportional
to RMS value of the AC voltage signal.
Any thermocouple converts a square of input quantity into a normal quantity. This means
there exists a non-linear relationship between the output and input of a thermocouple. The
effect of non-linear behavior of a thermocouple can be neglected by using another
thermocouple in the feedback circuit. The thermocouple that is used for this purpose in above
circuit is known as balancing thermocouple.
The two thermocouples, namely measuring thermocouple and balancing thermocouple
together form a bride at the input of DC amplifier. As a result, the meter always responds to
the true RMS value of AC voltage signal.

DC Ammeters
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If this electric charge flows only in one
direction, then the resultant current is called Direct Current (DC). The instrument, which is
used to measure the Direct Current called DC ammeter.
If we place a resistor in parallel with the Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
galvanometer, then the entire combination acts as DC ammeter. The parallel resistance,
which is used in DC ammeter is also called shunt resistance or simply, shunt. The value of
this resistance should be considered small in order to measure the DC current of large value.
The circuit diagram of DC ammeter is shown in below figure.
We have to place this DC ammeter in series with the branch of an electric circuit, where the
DC current is to be measured. The voltage across the elements, which are connected
We can find the value of shunt resistance by using either Equation 2 or Equation 5 based on
the available data.

Multi Range DC Ammeter

In previous section, we discussed about DC ammeter which is obtained by placing a resistor
in parallel with the PMMC galvanometer. This DC ammeter can be used to measure
a particular range of Direct Currents.
If we want to use the DC ammeter for measuring the Direct Currents of multiple ranges,
then we have to use multiple parallel resistors instead of single resistor and this entire
combination of resistors is in parallel to the PMMC galvanometer. The circuit diagram of
multi range DC ammeter is shown in below figure.

Place this multi range DC ammeter in series with the branch of an electric circuit, where the
Direct Current of required range is to be measured. The desired range of currents is chosen by
connecting the switch, s to the respective shunt resistor.
The above formulae will help us find the resistance values of each shunt resistor.

AC Ammeter
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. If the direction of this electric charge changes
regularly, then the resultant current is called Alternating Current (AC).
The instrument, which is used to measure the Alternating Current that flows through any
branch of electric circuit is called AC ammeter.
Example − Thermocouple type AC ammeter.
Now, let us discuss about Thermocouple type AC ammeter.

Thermocouple Type AC Ammeter

If a Thermocouple is connected ahead of PMMC galvanometer, then that entire combination
is called thermocouple type AC ammeter. The block diagram of thermocouple type AC
ammeter is shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of mainly two blocks: a thermocouple, and a PMMC
galvanometer. We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block
with the respective component(s) in above block diagram. So, the circuit diagram of
thermocouple type AC ammeter will look like as shown in below figure.
Thermocouple generates an EMF, , whenever the Alternating Current, I flows through
heater element. This EMF, e is directly proportional to the rms value of the current, I that is
flowing through heater element. So, we have to calibrate the scale of PMMC instrument to
read rms values of current.
So, with this chapter we have completed all basic measuring instruments such as DC
voltmeters, AC voltmeters, DC ammeters and AC ammeters. In next chapter, let us discuss
about the meters or measuring instruments, which measure resistance value.

OHMMeters
The instrument, which is used to measure the value of resistance between any two points in
an electric circuit is called ohmmeter. It can also be used to find the value of an unknown
resistor. The units of resistance are ohm and the measuring instrument is meter. So, the word
“ohmmeter” is obtained by combining the words “ohm” and “meter”.

Types of Ohmmeters
Following are the two types of ohmmeters.

 Series Ohmmeter
 Shunt Ohmmeter
Now, let us discuss about these two types of ohmmeters one by one.
Series Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and has to be measured by placing it in series with the
ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is called series ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of series
ohmmeter is shown in below figure.
The part of the circuit, which is left side of the terminals A & B is series ohmmeter. So, we
can measure the value of unknown resistance by placing it to the right side of terminals A &
B. Now, let us discuss about the calibration scale of series ohmmeter.

ohmmeter is useful for measuring high values of resistances.

Shunt Ohmmeter
If the resistor’s value is unknown and to be measured by placing it in parallel (shunt) with the
ohmmeter, then that ohmmeter is called shunt ohmmeter. The circuit diagram of shunt
ohmmeter is shown in below figure.
The part of the circuit, which is left side of the terminals A & B is shunt ohmmeter. So, we
can measure the value of unknown resistance by placing it to the right side of terminals A &
B.
Now, let us discuss about the calibration scale of shunt ohmmeter. Close the switch, S of
above circuit while it is in use.

 In this way, by considering different values of Rx, the meter shows different
deflections. So, accordingly we can represent those deflections with the
corresponding resistance values.
The shunt ohmmeter consists of a calibration scale. It has the indications of 0Ω and ∞Ω at
the end points of left hand and right hand of the scale respectively.
Shunt ohmmeter is useful for measuring low values of resistances. So, we can use either
series ohmmeter or shunt ohmmeter based on the values of resistances that are to be
measured i.e., high or low.

MultiMeter
In previous chapters, we discussed about voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters. These
measuring instruments are used to measure voltage, current and resistance respectively. That
means, we have separate measuring instruments for measuring voltage, current and
resistance.
Suppose, if a single measuring instrument can be used to measure the quantities such as
voltage, current & resistance one at a time, then it is said to be multimeter. It has got the
name multimeter, since it can measure multiple electrical quantities one at a time.

Measurements by using Multimeter

Multimeter is an instrument used to measure DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents and
resistances of several ranges. It is also called Electronic Multimeter or Voltage Ohm Meter
(VOM).
DC voltage Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure DC voltage is
shown in below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range DC voltmeter. The combination of a resistor in
series with PMMC galvanometer is a DC voltmeter. So, it can be used to measure DC
voltages up to certain value.
We can increase the range of DC voltages that can be measured with the same DC voltmeter
by increasing the resistance value. the equivalent resistance value increases, when we connect
the resistors are in series.
In above circuit, we can measure the DC voltages up to 2.5V by using the combination of
resistor, R5 in series with PMMC galvanometer. By connecting a resistor, R4 in series with
the previous circuit, we can measure the DC voltages up to 10V. In this way, we can increase
the range of DC voltages, simply by connecting a resistor in series with the previous (earlier)
circuit.
We can measure the DC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, by connecting
the switch, S to the desired voltage range.
DC Current Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure DC current is
shown in below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range DC ammeter. the combination of a resistor in
parallel with PMMC galvanometer is a DC ammeter. So, it can be used to measure DC
currents up to certain value.
We can get different ranges of DC currents measured with the same DC ammeter by placing
the resistors in parallel with previous resistor. In above circuit, the resistor, R1 is connected
in series with the PMMC galvanometer in order to prevent the meter gets damaged due to
large current.
We can measure the DC current that is flowing through any two points of an electric circuit,
by connecting the switch, S to the desired current range
AC voltage Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure AC voltage is
shown in below figure.

The above circuit looks like a multi range AC voltmeter. We know that, we will get AC
voltmeter just by placing rectifier in series (cascade) with DC voltmeter. The above circuit
was created just by placing the diodes combination and resistor, R6 in between
resistor, R5 and PMMC galvanometer.
We can measure the AC voltage across any two points of an electric circuit, by connecting
the switch, S to the desired voltage range.
Resistance Measurement
The part of the circuit diagram of Multimeter, which can be used to measure resistance is
shown in below figure.
We have to do the following two tasks before taking any measurement.

 Short circuit the instrument

 Vary the zero adjust control until the meter shows full scale current. That means,
meter indicates zero resistance value.
Now, the above circuit behaves as shunt ohmmeter and has the scale multiplication of 1, i.e.
100. We can also consider higher order powers of 10 as the scale multiplications for
measuring high resistances.

Electronic Measuring Instruments -

Bridges
If the electrical components are arranged in the form a bridge or ring structure, then that
electrical circuit is called a bridge. In general, bridge forms a loop with a set of four arms or
branches. Each branch may contain one or two electrical components.

Types of Bridges
We can classify the bridge circuits or bridges into the following two categories based on the
voltage signal with which those can be operated.

 DC Bridges
 AC Bridges
Now, let us discuss about these two bridges briefly.
DC Bridges
If the bridge circuit can be operated with only DC voltage signal, then it is a DC bridge
circuit or simply DC bridge. DC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown
resistance. The circuit diagram of DC bridge looks like as shown in below figure.

The above DC bridge has four arms and each arm consists of a resistor. Among which, two
resistors have fixed resistance values, one resistor is a variable resistor and the other one has
an unknown resistance value.
The above DC bridge circuit can be excited with a DC voltage source by placing it in one
diagonal. The galvanometer is placed in other diagonal of DC bridge. It shows some
deflection as long as the bridge is unbalanced.
Vary the resistance value of variable resistor until the galvanometer shows null (zero)
deflection. Now, the above DC bridge is said to be a balanced one. So, we can find the value
of unknown resistance by using nodal equations.
AC Bridges
If the bridge circuit can be operated with only AC voltage signal, then it is said to be AC
bridge circuit or simply AC bridge. AC bridges are used to measure the value of unknown
inductance, capacitance and frequency.
The circuit diagram of AC bridge looks like as shown in below figure.
The circuit diagram of AC bridge is similar to that of DC bridge. The above AC bridge
has four arms and each arm consists of some impedance. That means, each arm will be
having either single or combination of passive elements such as resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
Among the four impedances, two impedances have fixed values, one impedance is variable
and the other one is an unknown impedance.
The above AC bridge circuit can be excited with an AC voltage source by placing it in one
diagonal. A detector is placed in other diagonal of AC bridge. It shows some deflection as
long as the bridge is unbalanced.
The above AC bridge circuit can be excited with an AC voltage source by placing it in one
diagonal. A detector is placed in other diagonal of AC bridge. It shows some deflection as
long as the bridge is unbalanced.
Vary the impedance value of variable impedance until the detector shows null (zero)
deflection. Now, the above AC bridge is said to be a balanced one. So, we can find the value
of unknown impedance by using balanced condition.

DC Bridges
DC bridges can be operated with only DC voltage signal. DC bridges are useful for
measuring the value of unknown resistance, which is present in the bridge. Wheatstone’s
Bridge is an example of DC bridge.
Now, let us discuss about Wheatstone’s Bridge in order to find the unknown resistance’s
value.

Wheatstone’s Bridge
Wheatstone’s bridge is a simple DC bridge, which is mainly having four arms. These four
arms form a rhombus or square shape and each arm consists of one resistor.
To find the value of unknown resistance, we need the galvanometer and DC voltage source.
Hence, one of these two are placed in one diagonal of Wheatstone’s bridge and the other one
is placed in another diagonal of Wheatstone’s bridge.
Wheatstone’s bridge is used to measure the value of medium resistance. The circuit
diagram of Wheatstone’s bridge is shown in below figure.

In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape.
They consist of resistors R2, R4, R3 and R1 respectively. Let the current flowing through
these resistor arms is I2, I4, I3 and I1 respectively and the directions of these currents are
shown in the figure.
The diagonal arms DB and AC consists of galvanometer and DC voltage source of V volts
respectively. Here, the resistor, R3 is a standard variable resistor and the resistor, R4 is an
unknown resistor. We can balance the bridge, by varying the resistance value of
resistor, R3.
The above bridge circuit is balanced when no current flows through the diagonal arm, DB.
That means, there is no deflection in the galvanometer, when the bridge is balanced.
The bridge will be balanced, when the following two conditions are satisfied.
 The voltage across arm AD is equal to the voltage across arm AB. i.e.,
 

 The current flowing through the arm AB will be equal to that of arm
BC. i.e.,
 AC Bridges
In this chapter, let us discuss about the AC bridges, which can be used to measure inductance.
AC bridges operate with only AC voltage signal. The circuit diagram of AC bridge is shown
in below figure.
As shown in above figure, AC bridge mainly consists of four arms, which are connected in
rhombus or square shape. All these arms consist of some impedance.
The detector and AC voltage source are also required in order to find the value of unknown
impedance. Hence, one of these two are placed in one diagonal of AC bridge and the other
one is placed in other diagonal of AC bridge. The balancing condition of Wheatstone’s bridge
as –
Note − We can choose any two of those four impedances as fixed impedances, one
impedance as standard variable impedance & the other impedance as an unknown impedance
based on the application.
Following are the two AC bridges, which can be used to measure inductance.

 Maxwell’s Bridge
 Hay’s Bridge
Now, let us discuss about these two AC bridges one by one.

Maxwell's Bridge
Maxwell’s bridge is an AC bridge having four arms, which are connected in the form of a
rhombus or square shape. Two arms of this bridge consist of a single resistor, one arm
consists of a series combination of resistor and inductor & the other arm consists of a parallel
combination of resistor and capacitor.
An AC detector and AC voltage source are used to find the value of unknown impedance.
Hence, one of these two are placed in one diagonal of Maxwell’s bridge and the other one is
placed in other diagonal of Maxwell’s bridge.
Maxwell’s bridge is used to measure the value of medium inductance. The circuit
diagram of Maxwell’s bridge is shown in the below figure.
In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape.
The arms AB and CD consist of resistors, R2 and R3 respectively. The arm, BC consists of a
series combination of resistor, R4 and inductor, L4. The arm, DA consists of a parallel
combination of resistor, R1 and capacitor, C1.
Let, Z1,Z2,Z3, and Z4 are the impedances of arms DA, AB, CD and BC respectively.
The values of these impedances will be
By substituting the values of resistors R1, R2 and R3 in Equation 1, we will get the value of
resistor, R4. Similarly, by substituting the value of capacitor, C1 and the values of
resistors, R2 and R3 in Equation 2, we will get the value of inductor, L4.
The advantage of Maxwell’s bridge is that both the values of resistor, R4 and an
inductor, L4 are independent of the value of frequency.

Hay’s Bridge
Hay’s bridge is a modified version of Maxwell’s bridge, which we get by modifying the arm,
which consists of a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor into the arm, which consists
of a series combination of resistor and capacitor in Maxwell’s bridge.
Hay’s bridge is used to measure the value of high inductance. The circuit diagram of Hay’s
bridge is shown in the below figure.

In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape.
The arms, AB and CD consist of resistors, R2 and R3 respectively. The arm, BC consists of
a series combination of resistor, R4 and inductor, L4. The arm, DA consists of a series
combination of resistor, R1 and capacitor, C1.
Let, Z1,Z2,Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of arms DA, AB, CD and BC respectively.
The values of these impedances will be
 Other AC Bridges
In previous chapter, we discussed about two AC bridges which can be used to measure
inductance. In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two AC bridges.

 Schering Bridge
 Wien’s Bridge
These two bridges can be used to measure capacitance and frequency respectively.

Schering Bridge
Schering bridge is an AC bridge having four arms, which are connected in the form of a
rhombus or square shape, whose one arm consists of a single resistor, one arm consists of a
series combination of resistor and capacitor, one arm consists of a single capacitor & the
other arm consists of a parallel combination of resistor and capacitor.
The AC detector and AC voltage source are also used to find the value of unknown
impedance, hence one of them is placed in one diagonal of Schering bridge and the other one
is placed in other diagonal of Schering bridge.
Schering bridge is used to measure the value of capacitance. The circuit diagram of
Schering bridge is shown in the below figure.
In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape.
The arm AB consists of a resistor, R2. The arm BC consists of a series combination of
resistor, R4 and capacitor, C4. The arm CD consists of a capacitor, C3. The arm DA
consists of a parallel combination of resistor, R1 and capacitor, C1.
Let, Z1, Z2,Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of arms DA, AB, CD and BC respectively.
The values of these impedances will be
Wien’s Bridge
Wien’s bridge is an AC bridge having four arms, which are connected in the form of a
rhombus or square shape. Amongtwo arms consist of a single resistor, one arm consists of a
parallel combination of resistor and capacitor & the other arm consists of a series
combination of resistor and capacitor.
The AC detector and AC voltage source are also required in order to find the value of
frequency. Hence, one of these two are placed in one diagonal of Wien’s bridge and the other
one is placed in other diagonal of Wien’s bridge.
The circuit diagram of Wien’s bridge is shown in the below figure.

In above circuit, the arms AB, BC, CD and DA together form a rhombus or square shape.
The arms, AB and BC consist of resistors, R2 and R4 respectively. The arm, CD consists of
a parallel combination of resistor, R3 and capacitor, C3. The arm, DA consists of a series
combination of resistor, R1 and capacitor, C1.
Let, Z1,Z2,Z3, and Z4 are the impedances of arms DA, AB, CD and BC respectively.
The values of these impedances will be
The Wein’s bridge is mainly used for finding the frequency value of AF range.

Transducers
Basically, Transducer converts one form of energy into another form of energy. The
transducer, which converts non-electrical form of energy into electrical form of energy is
known as electrical transducer. The block diagram of electrical transducer is shown in
below figure.

As shown in the figure, electrical transducer will produce an output, which has electrical
energy. The output of electrical transducer is equivalent to the input, which has non-electrical
energy.

Types of Electrical Transducers

Mainly, the electrical transducers can be classified into the following two types.

 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers
Now, let us discuss about these two types of transducers briefly.
Active Transducers
The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as voltage and current
is known as active transducer. It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t
require any external power supply.
The block diagram of active transducer is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, active transducer will produce an electrical quantity (or signal),
which is equivalent to the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of active transducers.

 Piezo Electric Transducer

 Photo Electric Transducer
 Thermo Electric Transducer
We will discuss about these active transducers in next chapter.
Passive Transducers
The transducer, which can’t produce the electrical quantities such as voltage and current is
known as passive transducer. But, it produces the variation in one of passive elements like
resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive transducer requires external power
supply.
The block diagram of passive transducer is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, passive transducer will produce variation in the passive element in
accordance with the variation in the non-electrical input quantity (or signal).
Examples
Following are the examples of passive transducers.

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
We will discuss about these passive transducers in later chapters.

Active Transducers
Active transducer is a transducer, which converts the non-electrical quantity into an
electrical quantity. Let us consider the non-electrical quantities such as pressure, illumination
of light and temperature. Hence, we will get the following three active transducers depending
on the non-electrical quantity that we choose.

 Piezo Electric Transducer

  Photo Electric Transducer
 Thermo Electric Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these three active transducers one by one.

Piezo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be piezo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to the pressure input. The following three substances exhibit
piezo electric effect.

 Quartz
 Rochelle salts
 Tourmaline
The piezo-electric effect exhibited by these three substances is Tourmaline, Quartz, and
Rochelle salts, in this ascending order. The ascending order of mechanical strength having by
these three substances is Rochelle salts, Quartz, Tourmaline.
Quartz is used as piezo electric transducer, as it exhibits the moderate piezo electric effect
and having moderate mechanical strength among those three piezo electric substances.
Quartz Transducer
The circuit diagram of Quartz transducer is shown in below figure. As shown in the figure,
quartz crystal is placed between base and force summing member. The output voltage can be
measured across the metal electrodes, which are placed on two sides of quartz crystal.

The output voltage, V0 of above pressure transducer will be

 Photo Electric Transducer
An active transducer is said to be photo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to the illumination of light input. The circuit diagram of photo
electric transducer is shown in below figure.

The working of photo electric transducer is mentioned below.

 Step1 − The photo electric transducer releases electrons, when the light falls
on cathode of it.
 Step2 − The photo electric transducer produces a current, I in the circuit due to
the attraction of electrons towards anode.
We can find the sensitivity of photo electric transducer by using the following formula.

Where,
S is the sensitivity of photo electric transducer
I is the output current of photo electric transducer
i is the illumination of the light input of photo electric transducer

Thermo Electric Transducer

An active transducer is said to be thermo electric transducer, when it produces an electrical
quantity which is equivalent to temperature input. The following two transducers are the
examples of thermo electric transducers.

 Thermistor Transducer
 Thermocouple Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these two transducers one by one.
Thermistor Transducer
The resistor, which depends on temperature is called thermal resistor. In short, it is
called Thermistor. The temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative. That means, as
temperature increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases.
Mathematically, the relation between resistance of thermistor and temperature can be
represented as

The advantage of Thermistor transducer is that it will produce a fast and stable response.
Thermocouple Transducer
Thermocouple transducer produces an output voltage for a corresponding change of
temperature at the input. If two wires of different metals are joined together in order to create
two junctions, then that entire configuration is called Thermocouple. The circuit diagram of
basic thermocouple is shown below −

The above thermocouple has two metals, A & B and two junctions, 1 & 2. Consider a
constant reference temperature, T2 at junction 2. Let the temperature at junction, 1 is T1.
Thermocouple generates an emf (electro motive force), whenever the values
of T1 and T2 are different.
That means, thermocouple generates an emf, whenever there is a temperature difference
between the two junctions, 1 & 2 and it is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between those two junctions. Mathematically, it can be represented as

The above thermocouple circuit can be represented as shown in below figure for practical
applications.

The part of the circuit, which lies between hot & cold junctions including those two junctions
is an equivalent model of basic thermocouple. A PMMC galvanometer is connected across
the cold junction and it deflects according to the emf generated across cold
junction. Thermocouple transducer is the most commonly used thermoelectric transducer.

Passive Transducers
passive transducer is a transducer, which produces the variation in passive element. We will
consider the passive elements like resistor, inductor and capacitor. Hence, we will get the
following three passive transducers depending on the passive element that we choose.

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
Now, let us discuss about these three passive transducers one by one.

Resistive Transducer
A passive transducer is said to be a resistive transducer, when it produces the variation
(change) in resistance value. the following formula for resistance, R of a metal conductor.

Inductive Transducer
A passive transducer is said to be an inductive transducer, when it produces the variation
(change) in inductance value. the following formula for inductance, L of an inductor.
Capacitive Transducer
A passive transducer is said to be a capacitive transducer, when it produces the variation
(change) in capacitance value. the following formula for capacitance, C of a parallel plate
capacitor.
.
In this chapter, we discussed about three passive transducers. In next chapter, let us discuss
about an example for each passive transducer.

Measurement Of Displacement
The physical quantities such as displacement, velocity, force, temperature & etc. are all non-
electrical quantities. active transducer converts the physical quantity into an electrical signal.
Whereas, passive transducer converts the physical quantity into the variation in passive
element.
So, based on the requirement we can choose either active transducer or passive transducer. In
this chapter, let us discuss how to measure displacement by using a passive transducer. If a
body that moves from one point to another point in a straight line, then the length between
those two points is called displacement.
We have the following three passive transducers

 Resistive Transducer
 Inductive Transducer
 Capacitive Transducer
Now, let us discuss about the measurement of displacement with these three passive
transducers one by one.

Measurement of Displacement using Resistive

Transducer
The circuit diagram of resistive transducer, which is used to measure displacement is shown
in below figure.
The above circuit consists of a potentiometer and a voltage source, VS. We can say that these
two are connected in parallel with respect to the points A & B. Potentiometer has a sliding
contact, which can be varied. So, the point C is a variable one. In above circuit, the output
voltage, V0 is measured across the points A & C.
Mathematically, the relation between the voltages and distances can be represented as

Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to

be measured to the sliding contact. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the point
C also varies. Due to this, the output voltage, V0 also changes accordingly.
In this case, we can find the displacement by measuring the output voltage, V0.

Measurement of Displacement using Inductive

Transducer
The circuit diagram of inductive transducer, which is used to measure displacement is
shown in below figure.
The transformer present in above circuit has a primary winding and two secondary windings.
Here, the ending points of two secondary windings are joined together. So, we can say that
these two secondary windings are connected in series opposition.
The voltage, VP is applied across the primary winding of transformer. Let, the voltage
developed across each secondary winding is 𝑉𝑆1 and 𝑉𝑆2. The output
voltage, V0 is taken across the starting points of two secondary windings.
Mathematically, the output voltage, 𝑉0 can be written as

The transformer present in above circuit is called differential

transformer, since it produces an output voltage, which is the difference
between VS1 and VS2.
 If the core is at central position, then the output voltage, V0 will be equal to
zero. Because, the respective magnitudes & phases of VS1 and VS2 are same.
 If the core is not at central position, then the output voltage, V0 will be having
some magnitude & phase. Because, the respective magnitudes & phases
of VS1 and VS2 are not equal.
Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to the central
core. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the central position of the core varies.
Due to this, the output voltage, V0 also changes accordingly.
In this case, we can find the displacement by measuring the output voltage, V0. The
magnitude & phase of output voltage, V0 represents the displacement of the body & its
direction respectively.

Measurement of Displacement using Capacitive

Transducer
The circuit diagram of capacitive transducer, which is used to measure displacement is
shown in below figure.

The capacitor, which is present in above circuit has two parallel plates. Among which, one
plate is fixed and the other plate is a movable one. Due to this, the spacing between these two
plates will also vary. the value of capacitance changes as the spacing between two plates of
capacitor changes.
Therefore, we should connect the body whose displacement is to be measured to the
movable plate of a capacitor. So, whenever the body moves in a straight line, the spacing
between the two plates of capacitor varies. Due to this, the capacitance value changes.

BASICS OF OSCILLOSCOPE

Oscilloscope is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage

waveform. Among the oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is
the basic one and it displays a time varying signal or waveform.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the block diagram of CRO and
measurements of some parameters by using CRO.
Block Diagram of CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are
vertical amplifier, delay line, trigger circuit, time base generator,
horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power supply. The block
diagram of CRO is shown in below figure.

The function of each block of CRO is mentioned below.

 Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to
be displayed on the screen of CRT.
 Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal,
which is obtained at the output of vertical amplifier. This
delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection plates of
CRT.
 Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to
synchronize both horizontal and vertical deflections of electron
beam.
 Time base Generator − It produces a sawtooth signal, which
is useful for horizontal deflection of electron beam.
 Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the sawtooth signal and
then connects it to the horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
 Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The
negative high voltage and positive low voltage are applied to
CRT and other circuits respectively.
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of
CRO and mainly
  consists of four parts. Those are electron gun, vertical
deflection plates, horizontal deflection plates and fluorescent
screen.
The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected
in both vertical and horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection
plates and a pair of horizontal deflection plates respectively. Finally, the
deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen.
In this way, CRO will display the applied input signal on the screen of CRT.
So, we can analyse the signals in time domain by using CRO

Measurements by using CRO

We can do the following measurements by using CRO.

 Measurement of Amplitude
 Measurement of Time Period
 Measurement of Frequency
Now, let us discuss about these measurements one by one.

Measurement of Amplitude
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen.
The amplitude of that voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the
number of divisions that cover the voltage signal in vertical direction by
varying volt/division knob on the CRO panel. Therefore, we will get
the amplitude of the signal, which is present on the screen of CRO by
using following formula.

Measurement of Time Period

CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen.
The Time period of that periodic voltage signal is constant, but we can
vary the number of divisions that cover one complete cycle of voltage
signal in horizontal direction by varying time/division knob on the CRO
panel.
Therefore, we will get the Time period of the signal, which is present on
the screen of CRO by using following formula.

Measurement of Frequency
The frequency, f of a periodic signal is the reciprocal of time period,
T. Mathematically, it can be represented as

So, we can find the frequency, f of a periodic signal by following these two
steps.
 Step1 − Find the Time period of periodic signal
 Step2 − Take reciprocal of Time period of periodic signal,
which is obtained in Step1
We will discuss about special purpose oscilloscopes in next chapter.

In previous chapter, we had discussed about Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

(CRO), which is a basic oscilloscope. We will get special purpose
oscilloscopes just by including few additional blocks to the basic
oscilloscope based on the requirement.
Following are the special purpose oscilloscopes.

 Dual Beam Oscilloscope

 Dual Trace Oscilloscope
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Now, let us discuss about these special purpose oscilloscopes one by one.
Dual Beam Oscilloscope
The Oscilloscope, which displays two voltage waveforms is called Dual
Beam Oscilloscope. Its block diagram is shown in below figure.

As shown in above figure, the CRT of Dual Beam Oscilloscope consists of

two sets of vertical deflection plates and one set of horizontal deflection
plates.
The combination of the following blocks together is called a channel.

 Pre-Amplifier & Attenuator

 Delay Line
 Vertical Amplifier
 A set of Vertical Deflection Plates
There are two channels in Dual Beam Oscilloscope. So, we can apply the
two signals, namely A & B as input of channel A & Channel B respectively.
We can choose any one of these four signals as trigger input to the
trigger circuit by using a switch. Those are input signals A & B, External
signal (Ext) and Line input.
This oscilloscope will produce two vertically deflected beams, since there
are two pairs of vertical deflection plates. In this oscilloscope, the blocks
which are useful for deflecting the beam in horizontal direction is common
for both the input signals. Finally, this oscilloscope will produce the two
input signals simultaneously on the screen of CRT.

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

The Oscilloscope, which produces two traces on its screen is called Dual
Trace Oscilloscope. Its block diagram is shown in below figure.

As shown in above figure, the CRT of Dual Trace Oscilloscope consists of a

set of vertical deflection plates and another set of horizontal deflection
plates. channel consists of four blocks, i.e. pre-Amplifier & attenuator,
delay line, vertical amplifier and vertical deflection plates.
In above block diagram, the first two blocks are separately present in both
channels. The last two blocks are common to both the channels. Hence,
with the help of electronic switch we can connect the delay line output
of a specific channel to vertical amplifier.
We can choose any one of these four signals as trigger input to
the trigger circuit by using a switch. Those are input signals A & B,
External signal (Ext) and Line input.
This oscilloscope uses same electron beam for deflecting the input signals
A & B in vertical direction by using an electronic switch, and produces two
traces. the blocks that deflect the beam horizontally is common for both
the input signals.

Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The oscilloscope, which stores the waveform digitally is known as digital
storage oscilloscope. The block diagram of (digital) storage oscilloscope
is below −
Additional blocks required for digital data storage are added to a basic
oscilloscope to make it convert it into a Digital Storage Oscilloscope. The
blocks that are required for storing of digital data are lies between the
pre-amplifier & attenuator and vertical amplifier in Digital Storage
Oscilloscope. Those are Sample and Hold circuit, Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC), Memory & Digital to Analog Converter.
Control logic controls the first three blocks by sending various control
signals. The blocks like control logic and Digital to Analog Converter are
present between the trigger circuit and horizontal amplifier in Digital
Storage Oscilloscope.
The Digital Storage Oscilloscope stores the data in digital before it
displays the waveform on the screen. Whereas, the basic oscilloscope
doesn’t have this feature

Lissajous Figures
Lissajous figure is the pattern which is displayed on the screen, when
sinusoidal signals are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection
plates of CRO. These patterns will vary based on the amplitudes,
frequencies and phase differences of the sinusoidal signals, which are
applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO.
The following figure shows an example of Lissajous figure.

The above Lissajous figure is in elliptical shape and its major axis has
some inclination angle with positive x-axis.

Measurements using Lissajous Figures

We can do the following two measurements from a Lissajous figure.

 Frequency of the sinusoidal signal

 Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals
Now, let us discuss about these two measurements one by one.

Measurement of Frequency
Lissajous figure will be displayed on the screen, when the sinusoidal
signals are applied to both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO.
Hence, apply the sinusoidal signal, which has standard known
frequency to the horizontal deflection plates of CRO. Similarly, apply the
sinusoidal signal, whose frequency is unknown to the vertical deflection
plates of CRO
 CRO Probes
We can connect any test circuit to an oscilloscope through a probe. As
CRO is a basic oscilloscope, the probe which is connected to it is also
called CRO probe.
We should select the probe in such a way that it should not create any
loading issues with the test circuit. So that we can analyze the test circuit
with the signals properly on CRO screen.
CRO probes should have the following characteristics.

 High impedance
  High bandwidth
The block diagram of CRO probe is shown in below figure.

As shown in the figure, CRO probe mainly consists of three blocks. Those
are probe head,
co-axial cable and termination circuit. Co-axial cable simply connects the
probe head and termination circuit.

Types of CRO Probes

CRO probes can be classified into the following two types.

 Passive Probes
 Active Probes
Now, let us discuss about these two types of probes one by one.

Passive Probes
If the probe head consists of passive elements, then it is called passive
probe. The circuit diagram of passive probe is shown in below figure.
As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a parallel combination
of resistor, R1 and a variable capacitor, C1. Similarly, the termination
circuit consists of a parallel combination of resistor, R2 and capacitor, C2.
The above circuit diagram is modified in the form of bridge circuit and it
is shown in below figure.
respectively for the given specifications.

Active Probes
If the probe head consists of active electronic components, then it is
called active probe. The block diagram of active probe is shown in below
figure.
As shown in the figure, the probe head consists of a FET source follower in
cascade with BJT emitter follower. The FET source follower provides high
input impedance and low
output impedance. Whereas, the purpose of BJT emitter follower is that it
avoids or eliminates the impedance mismatching.
The other two parts, such as co-axial cable and termination circuit remain
same in both active and passive probes.

Signal Generators
Signal generator is an electronic equipment that provides standard test signals like sine
wave, square wave, triangular wave and etc. It is also called an oscillator, since it produces
periodic signals.
The signal generator, which produces the periodic signal having a frequency of Audio
Frequency (AF) range is called AF signal generator. the range of audio frequencies is 20Hz
to 20KHz.

AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

The AF signal generator, which generates either sine wave or square wave in the range of
audio frequencies based on the requirement is called AF Sine and Square wave generator.
Its block diagramis shown in below figure.

The above block diagram consists of mainly two paths. Those are upper path and lower path.
Upper path is used to produce AF sine wave and the lower path is used to produce AF square
wave.
Wien bridge oscillator will produce a sine wave in the range of audio frequencies. Based on
the requirement, we can connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to either upper path or
lower path by a switch.
The upper path consists of the blocks like sine wave amplifier and attenuator. If the switch is
used to connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to upper path, it will produce a
desired AF sine wave at the output of upper path.
The lower path consists of the following blocks: square wave shaper, square wave amplifier,
and attenuator. The square wave shaper converts the sine wave into a square wave. If the
switch is used to connect the output of Wien bridge oscillator to lower path, then it will
produce a desired AF square wave at the output of lower path. In this way, the block
diagram that we considered can be used to produce either AF sine wave or AF square wave
based on the requirement.

Function Generator
Function generator is a signal generator, which generates three or more periodic waves.
Consider the following block diagram of a Function generator, which will produce periodic
waves like triangular wave, square wave and sine wave.

There are two current sources, namely upper current source and lower current source in
above block diagram. These two current sources are regulated by the frequency-controlled
voltage.
Triangular Wave
Integrator present in the above block diagram, gets constant current alternately from upper
and lower current sources for equal amount of time repeatedly. So, the integrator will produce
two types of output for the same time repeatedly −
 The output voltage of an integrator increases linearly with respect to time for
the period during which integrator gets current from upper current source.
 The output voltage of an integrator decreases linearly with respect to time for
the period during which integrator gets current from lower current source.
In this way, the integrator present in above block diagram will produce a triangular wave.
Square Wave & Sine Wave
The output of integrator, i.e. the triangular wave is applied as an input to two other blocks as
shown in above block diagram in order to get the square wave and sine wave respectively.
Let us discuss about these two one by one.
Square Wave
The triangular wave has positive slope and negative slope alternately for equal amount of
time repeatedly. So, the voltage comparator multi vibrator present in above block diagram
will produce the following two types of output for equal amount of time repeatedly.
 One type of constant (higher) voltage at the output of voltage comparator
multi vibrator for the period during which the voltage comparator multi
vibrator gets the positive slope of the triangular wave.
 Another type of constant (lower) voltage at the output of voltage comparator
multi vibrator for the period during which the voltage comparator multi
vibrator gets the negative slope of the triangular wave.
The voltage comparator multi vibrator present in above block diagram will produce a square
wave. If the amplitude of the square wave that is produced at the output of voltage
comparator multi vibrator is not sufficient, then it can be amplified to the required value by
using a square wave amplifier.
Sine Wave
The sine wave shaping circuit will produce a sine wave output from the triangular input
wave. Basically, this circuit consists of a diode resistance network. If the amplitude of the
sine wave produced at the output of sine wave shaping circuit is insufficient, then it can be
amplified to the required value by using sine wave amplifier.

Wave Analyzers
The electronic instrument used to analyze waves is called wave analyzer. It is also called
signal analyzer, since the terms signal and wave can be interchangeably used frequently.
We can represent the periodic signal as sum of the following two terms.

 DC component
 Series of sinusoidal harmonics
So, analyzation of a periodic signal is analyzation of the harmonics components presents in it.

Basic Wave Analyzer

Basic wave analyzer mainly consists of three blocks − the primary detector, full wave
rectifier, and PMMC galvanometer. The block diagram of basic wave analyzer is shown in
below figure −
The function of each block present in basic wave analyzer is mentioned below.
 Primary Detector − It consists of an LC circuit. We can adjust the values of
inductor, L and capacitor, C in such a way that it allows only the desired
harmonic frequency component that is to be measured.
 Full Wave Rectifier − It converts the AC input into a DC output.
 PMMC Galvanometer − It shows the peak value of the signal, which is
obtained at the output of Full wave rectifier.
We will get the corresponding circuit diagram, just by replacing each block with the
respective component(s) in above block diagram of basic wave analyzer. So, the circuit
diagram of basic wave analyzer will look like as shown in the following figure −

This basic wave analyzer can be used for analyzing each and every harmonic frequency
component of a periodic signal.

Types of Wave Analyzers

Wave analyzers can be classified into the following two types.

 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

 Superheterodyne Wave Analyzer
Now, let us discuss about these two wave analyzers one by one.
Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
The wave analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called frequency
selective wave analyzer. The block diagram of frequency selective wave analyzer is shown
in below figure.

Frequency selective wave analyzer consists a set of blocks. The function of each block is
mentioned below.
 Input Attenuator − The AF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input
attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by
input attenuator.
 Driver Amplifier − It amplifies the received signal whenever necessary.
 High Q-filter − It is used to select the desired frequency and reject unwanted
frequencies. It consists of two RC sections and two filter amplifiers & all these
are cascaded with each other. We can vary the capacitance values for changing
the range of frequencies in powers of 10. Similarly, we can vary the resistance
values in order to change the frequency within a selected range.
 Meter Range Attenuator − It gets the selected AF signal as an input &
produces an attenuated output, whenever required.
 Output Amplifier − It amplifies the selected AF signal if necessary.
 Output Buffer − It is used to provide the selected AF signal to output devices.
 Meter Circuit − It displays the reading of selected AF signal. We can choose
the meter reading in volt range or decibel range.
Superheterodyne Wave Analyzer
The wave analyzer, used to analyze the signals of RF range is called superheterodyne wave
analyzer. The following figure shows the block diagram of superheterodyne wave analyzer.

The working of superheterodyne wave analyzer is mentioned below.

 The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. If the
signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by input attenuator.
 Untuned amplifier amplifies the RF signal whenever necessary and it is
applied to first mixer.
 The frequency ranges of RF signal & output of Local oscillator are 0-18 MHz
& 30-48 MHz respectively. So, first mixer produces an output, which has
frequency of 30 MHz. This is the difference of frequencies of the two signals
that are applied to it.
 IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output
of first mixer. The amplified IF signal is applied to second mixer.
 The frequencies of amplified IF signal & output of Crystal oscillator are same
and equal to 30MHz. So, the second mixer produces an output, which has
 frequency of 0 Hz. This is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that
are applied to it.
 The cut off frequency of Active Low Pass Filter (LPF) is chosen as 1500 Hz.
Hence, this filter allows the output signal of second mixer.
 Meter Circuit displays the reading of RF signal. We can choose the meter
reading in volt range or decibel range.
So, we can choose a particular wave analyzer based on the frequency range of the signal that
is to be analyzed.

Spectrum Analyzers
The electronic instrument, used for analyzing waves in frequency domain is called spectrum
analyzer. Basically, it displays the energy distribution of a signal on its CRT screen. Here, x-
axis represents frequency and y-axis represents the amplitude.

Types of Spectrum Analyzers

We can classify the spectrum analyzers into the following two types.

 Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer

 Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
Now, let us discuss about these two spectrum analyzers one by one.
Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called filter bank
spectrum analyzer, or real time spectrum analyzer because it shows (displays) any
variations in all input frequencies.
The following figure shows the block diagram of filter bank spectrum analyzer.
The working of filter bank spectrum analyzer is mentioned below.
 It has a set of band pass filters and each one is designed for allowing a specific
band of frequencies. The output of each band pass filter is given to a
corresponding detector.
 All the detector outputs are connected to Electronic switch. This switch allows
the detector outputs sequentially to the vertical deflection plate of CRO. So,
CRO displays the frequency spectrum of AF signal on its CRT screen.
Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
The spectrum analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of RF range is
called superheterodyne spectrum analyzer. Its block diagram is shown in below figure.
The working of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer is mentioned below.
 The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to input attenuator. If the
signal amplitude is too large, then it can be attenuated by an input attenuator.
 Low Pass Filter (LPF) allows only the frequency components that are less
than the cut-off frequency.
 Mixer gets the inputs from Low pass filter and voltage tuned oscillator. It
produces an output, which is the difference of frequencies of the two signals
that are applied to it.
 IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, i.e. the output
of mixer. The amplified IF signal is applied to detector.
The output of detector is given to vertical deflection plate of CRO. So, CRO displays the
frequency spectrum of RF signal on its CRT screen.
So, we can choose a particular spectrum analyzer based on the frequency range of the signal
that is to be analyzed.

Data Acquisition Systems

The systems, used for data acquisition are known as data acquisition systems. These data
acquisition systems will perform the tasks such as conversion of data, storage of data,
transmission of data and processing of data.
Data acquisition systems consider the following analog signals.
  Analog signals, which are obtained from the direct measurement of electrical
quantities such as DC & AC voltages, DC & AC currents, resistance and etc.
 Analog signals, which are obtained from transducers such as LVDT,
Thermocouple & etc.

Types of Data Acquisition Systems

Data acquisition systems can be classified into the following two types.

 Analog Data Acquisition Systems

 Digital Data Acquisition Systems
Now, let us discuss about these two types of data acquisition systems one by one.
Analog Data Acquisition Systems
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with analog signals are known as analog
data acquisition systems. Following are the blocks of analog data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection
of desired portion of the signal.
 Display device − It displays the input signals for monitoring purpose.
 Graphic recording instruments − These can be used to make the record of
input data permanently.
 Magnetic tape instrumentation − It is used for acquiring, storing &
reproducing of input data.
Digital Data Acquisition Systems
The data acquisition systems, which can be operated with digital signals are known as digital
data acquisition systems. So, they use digital components for storing or displaying the
information.
Mainly, the following operations take place in digital data acquisition.

 Acquisition of analog signals

 Conversion of analog signals into digital signals or digital data
 Processing of digital signals or digital data
Following are the blocks of Digital data acquisition systems.
 Transducer − It converts physical quantities into electrical signals.
 Signal conditioner − It performs the functions like amplification and selection
of desired portion of the signal.
 Multiplexer − connects one of the multiple inputs to output. So, it acts as
parallel to serial converter.
 Analog to Digital Converter − It converts the analog input into its equivalent
digital output.
 Display device − It displays the data in digital format.
 Digital Recorder − It is used to record the data in digital format.
Data acquisition systems are being used in various applications such as biomedical and
aerospace. So, we can choose either analog data acquisition systems or digital data
acquisition systems based on the requirement.