Operating System

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 Definition
• An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an
interface between computer hardware components and
the user.
• Every computer system must have at least one operating
system to run other programs.
• Applications like Browsers, MS Office, Notepad Games, etc.,
need some environment to run and perform its tasks.
• The OS helps you to communicate with the computer
without knowing how to speak the computer's language.
• It is not possible for the user to use any computer or mobile
device without having an operating system.

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 History Of OS
• Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to
manage tape storage
• The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS
in the early 1950s for their IBM 701
• In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
• In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was
developed
• The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981
by purchasing the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company
• The present-day popular OS Windows first came to
existence in 1985 when a GUI was created and paired with
MS-DOS.

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Following are the Operating System examples with the latest Market Share

OS Name Share
Windows 40.34
Android 37.95
iOS 15.44
Mac OS 4.34
Linux 0.95
Chrome OS 0.14
Windows Phone OS 0.06

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 Types of Operating System (OS)
Following are the popular types of OS (Operating System):
• Batch Operating System
• Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
• Multiprocessing OS
• Real Time OS
• Distributed OS
• Network OS
• Mobile OS

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Batch Operating System
• Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-
consuming. To speed the same process, a job with a
similar type of needs are batched together and run as a
group.
• The user of a batch operating system never directly
interacts with the computer. In this type of OS, every
user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a
punch card and submit it to the computer operator.
Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems
• Time-sharing operating system enables people located
at a different terminal(shell) to use a single computer
system at the same time.
• The processor time (CPU) which is shared among
multiple users is termed as time sharing.

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Real time OS
• A real time operating system time interval to process and respond
to inputs is very small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space
Software Systems are the Real time OS example.
Distributed Operating System
• Distributed systems use many processors located in different
machines to provide very fast computation to its users.
Network Operating System
• Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the
capability to serve to manage data, user, groups, security,
application, and other networking functions.
Mobile OS
• Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are
designed to power smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices.
• Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS.

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 Functions of Operating System

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• Process management:- Process management helps OS
to create and delete processes. It also provides
mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.
• Memory management:- Memory management
module performs the task of allocation and de-
allocation of memory space to programs in need of this
resources.
• File management:- It manages all the file-related
activities such as organization storage, retrieval,
naming, sharing, and protection of files.
• Device Management: Device management keeps
tracks of all devices. This module also responsible for
this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs
the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
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• I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to
hide the peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
• Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of
storage which includes primary storage, secondary storage, and
cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in primary
storage or cache so that a running program can reference it.
• Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a
computer system against malware threat and authorized access.
• Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands
given by the and acting system resources to process that
commands.
• Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do
not share memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors
communicate with one another through the network.
• Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various
job and users.
• Communication management: Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, and another software resource of the
various users of the computer systems.

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 Advantage of using Operating System

• Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction

• Easy to use with a GUI
• Offers an environment in which a user may execute
programs/applications
• The operating system must make sure that the computer system
convenient to use
• Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and
the hardware components
• It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
• Acts as an intermediator between all hardware's and software's of
the system

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 Windows operating system
• Windows operating system is made by Microsoft and
it has delivered numerous variants.
• The most renowned and utilized rendition of Microsoft
Windows will be windows 7.
• The primary working framework (OS) which was
created by Microsoft was MS-DOS. MS-DOS was a basic
OS and has an order line interface.
• The new form of Microsoft OS has likewise MS-DOS
work as a utility. MS-DOS is as yet utilized in doing
some regular undertakings like making records,
envelopes, introducing modules in some products,
utilizing GIT and different uses also.

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Contd..
• After Windows 7, Microsoft dispatched Windows 8. Windows 8 was
not that much achievement on account of the new interface and
missing the beginning menu.
• In the following arrival of Windows 10, the organization again
added a start menu which was absent in Windows 8. The start
menu in Windows 10 is a mix of Windows 7 and a little bit of
windows 8.
• In Windows 10, Cortana which is a snappy inquiry instrument was
presented. Cortana still has a few bugs which should be fixed.
Cortana is enlivened by google voice search.
• You can voice search in windows 10 by Cortana. This internet
searcher stores bunches of information about individuals and it
make a high burden on the framework. You can alternatively kill the
Cortana in the event that you don’t prefer to utilize it.

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 Advantage of windows OS
• Backing for all equipment :
As windows OS is utilized by 95% of clients so the majority of the equipment merchants make drivers for
windows.
• Convenience :
All forms of Microsoft Windows have something regular in it which makes it clients simple to move
starting with one form then onto the next. Windows 7 clients have no trouble in moving to Windows 10 in
light of the fact that a large portion of the highlights of Windows 10 is equivalent to Windows 7. The UI of
windows is additionally simple to use than UNIX and MAC.
• Programming support :
Windows stage is most appropriate for game and programming engineers. Windows have a huge number
crowd so designers want to make utilities, games, and programming for windows OS. Linux clients can’t
make windows applications, so it is smarter to utilize windows for creating applications.
• Fitting and play highlight :
Most equipment can be distinguished naturally by attachment and play include. You don’t have to
physically introduce the equipment however it is prepared to utilize when connected for example webcam,
console, mouse, cell phone, and so forth.
• Work area and contact screen:
Windows 10 is made for both touch screen gadgets and PCs. The UI of Windows 10 is made so that it turns
out better for a windows gadget.

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 What is Kernel in Operating System?
• The kernel is the central component of a
computer operating systems.
• The only job performed by the kernel is to the
manage the communication between the
software and the hardware.
• A Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes
the communication between the hardware and
software possible.
• While the Kernel is the innermost part of an
operating system, a shell is the outermost one.
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 Features of Kennel
• Low-level scheduling of processes
• Inter-process communication
• Process synchronization
• Context switching

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 Features
• Protected and supervisor mode
• Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers
Networking Security
• Program Execution
• Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
• Handling I/O operations
• Manipulation of the file system
• Error Detection and handling
• Resource allocation
• Information and Resource Protection
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Windows XP Requirements

Windows 10 Recommended Requirements

CPU CPU: 2 GHz or faster
233MHz or 1.6GHz for Windows RAM: 4 GB
XP Media Center HDD: 100 GB of storage space
GPU: Integrated GPU from Intel HD
RAM
Graphics/Iris Graphics families
64MB or 256MB for Windows
XP Media Center OS: Windows 7 SP1, Windows 8.1
DirectX: Version 9
Disk Space Screen Resolution: 720p
2GB for both OS Network: Broadband Internet connection

Media
CD ROM or DVD ROM

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 OS Services
• User interface -Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI),Varies between
Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI), Batch
• Program execution -The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that
program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
• I/O operations -A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device
• File-system manipulation -The file system is of particular interest. Obviously, programs need
to read and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file
Information, permission management.
• Communications –Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or between
computers over a network .Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
• Error detection –OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and
consistent computing . Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s
abilities to efficiently use the system

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Contd..
• Resource allocation -When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources -Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and
file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O devices)
may have general request and release code
• Accounting -To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources
• Protection and security -The owners of information stored in a multiuser
or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled.Security of the system from outsiders requires user
authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid
access attempts.If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions
must be instituted throughout it. A chain is only as strong as its weakest
link.

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 System Call

• In computing, a system call is the programmatic way in which a

computer program requests a service from the kernel of the
operating system it is executed on. A system call is a way for
programs to interact with the operating system.
• A computer program makes a system call when it makes a request
to the operating system’s kernel.
• System call provides the services of the operating system to the
user programs via Application Program Interface(API).
• It provides an interface between a process and operating system to
allow user-level processes to request services of the operating
system.
• System calls are the only entry points into the kernel system. All
programs needing resources must use system calls.

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Services Provided by System Calls :
• Process creation and management
• Main memory management
• File Access, Directory and File system
management
• Device handling(I/O)
• Protection
• Networking, etc

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 Types of System Calls
• There are 5 different categories of system calls –
• Process control: end, abort, create, terminate,
allocate and free memory.
• File management: create, open, close, delete,
read file etc.
• Device management
• Information maintenance
• Communication

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 Unix
Windows

CreateProcess() fork()
Process Control ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()

CreateFile() open()
ReadFile() read()
File Manipulation
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()

SetConsoleMode() ioctl()
Device Manipulation ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()

GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()
Information Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() sleep()

CreatePipe() pipe()
Communication CreateFileMapping() shmget()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()

SetFileSecurity()
chmod()
InitlializeSecurityDescriptor()
Protection umask()
SetSecurityDescriptorGroup(
chown()
)

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 Process Management
• Process is the execution of a program that performs the
actions specified in that program.
• It can be defined as an execution unit where a program
runs. The OS helps you to create, schedule, and terminates
the processes which is used by CPU.
• A process created by the main process is called a child
process.
• Process operations can be easily controlled with the help of
PCB(Process Control Block).
• You can consider it as the brain of the process, which
contains all the crucial information related to processing
like process id, priority, state, CPU registers, etc.

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Cond..
• Process management involves various tasks like creation,
scheduling, termination of processes, and a dead lock.
• Process is a program that is under execution, which is an
important part of modern-day operating systems. The OS
must allocate resources that enable processes to share and
exchange information.
• It also protects the resources of each process from other
methods and allows synchronization among processes.
• It is the job of OS to manage all the running processes of
the system. It handles operations by performing tasks like
process scheduling and such as resource allocation.

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Process Architecture

Stack: The Stack stores temporary data like function parameters, returns
addresses, and local variables.
Heap Allocates memory, which may be processed during its run time.
Data: It contains the variable.
Text: Text Section includes the current activity, which is represented by the
value of the Program Counter.

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 Process Control Block
• In an Operating System, we have a number of
processes present in it.
• Each process has some information that is
needed by the CPU for the execution of the
process.
• So, we need some kind of data structure to store
information about a particular process.
• Process Control Block or simple PCB is a data
structure that is used to store the information of a
process that might be needed to manage the
scheduling of a particular process.
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 Attributes of a Process Control Block

• Process Id: A process id is a unique identity of a process.

Each process is identified with the help of the process id.
• Program Counter: The program counter, points to the next
instruction that is to be executed by the CPU. It is used to
find the next instruction that is to be executed.
• Process State: A process can be in any state out of the
possible states of a process. So, the CPU needs to know
about the current state of a process, so that its execution
can be done easily.
• Priority: There is a priority associated with each process.
Based on that priority the CPU finds which process is to be
executed first. Higher priority process will be executed first.

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Contd..
• General-purpose Registers: During the execution of a process, it deals
with a number of data that are being used and changed by the process.
But in most of the cases, we have to stop the execution of a process to
start another process and after some times, the previous process should
be resumed once again. Since the previous process was dealing with some
data and had changed the data so when the process resumes then it
should use that data only. These data are stored in some kind of storage
units called registers.
• CPU Scheduling Information: It indicates the information about the
process scheduling algorithms that are being used by the CPU for the
process.
• List of opened files: A process can deal with a number of files, so the CPU
should maintain a list of files that are being opened by a process to make
sure that no other process can open the file at the same time.
• List of I/O devices: A process may need a number of I/O devices to
perform various tasks. So, a proper list should be maintained that shows
which I/O device is being used by which process.

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 Process states
As a process executes, it changes state
• new: The process is being created.
• running: Instructions are being executed.
• waiting: The process is waiting for some event to
occur.
• ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a
process.
• terminated: The process has finished execution.

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 Schedulers: A process migrates among various scheduling queues
throughout its lifetime. The OS must select for scheduling purposes,
processes from those queues in some fashion. The selection
process is carried out by the appropriate scheduler.
Long Term Scheduler: A long term scheduler or job scheduler
selects processes from job pool (mass storage device, where
processes are kept for later execution) and loads them into memory
for execution. The long term scheduler controls the degree of
multiprogramming (the number of processes in memory).
Short Term Scheduler: A short term scheduler or CPU scheduler
selects from the main memory among the processes that are ready
to execute and allocates the CPU to one of them.
Medium Term Scheduler: The medium term scheduler available in
all systems which is responsible for the swapping in and out
operations which means loading the process into, main memory
from secondary memory (swap in) and take out the process from
main memory and store it into the secondary memory (swap out).
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Dispatcher:
• It is the module that gives control of the CPU
to the process selected by the short term
scheduler.
• Functions of Dispatcher: Switching
context, Switching to user mode, and Jumping
to the proper location in the user program to
restart that program.

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 Single user OS
• In a single user operating system, a single user
can access the computer system at a time.
• These types of operating systems are
commonly found in home computers.
• There are two types of single user operating
systems called single user, single task
operating system and single user, multi-task
operating system.

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Contd..
• In a single user, single task operating system, a single
user can perform only one task at a time.
• Palm OS for Palm handheld computers is an example
for a single user, single task operating system.
• In a single user multitask system, a single user can
perform multiple tasks at the same time. Microsoft
Windows and Apple Mac OS allow a single user to work
on multiple programs at the same time.
• For example, a user can work on a word document and
browser the World Wide Web simultaneously. Most
modern personal computers and laptops are single
user multi-tasking operating systems.

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 Multi-user OS
• A multi user operating system allows multiple users to
access the computer at the same time. The operating
system manages the memory and resources among the
various users according to the requirements.
• The task of one user will not affect the tasks of the other
users. UNIX and Linux are two examples of multi user
operating systems.
• A time sharing operating system allows multiple users in
different locations to use a particular computer system
concurrently.
• In distributed operating system, the data processing task is
divided among the processors accordingly. It is also a
multiuser operating system.

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 CPU Scheduling
• CPU Scheduling is a process of determining
which process will own CPU for execution
while another process is on hold.
• The main task of CPU scheduling is to make
sure that whenever the CPU remains idle, the
OS at least select one of the processes
available in the ready queue for execution

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 Why do we need scheduling?
• A typical process involves both I/O time and
CPU time.
• In a uni programming system like MS-DOS,
time spent waiting for I/O is wasted and CPU
is free during this time.
• In multi programming systems, one process
can use CPU while another is waiting for I/O.
• This is possible only with process scheduling.
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 Objectives of Process Scheduling
Algorithm
• Max CPU utilization [Keep CPU as busy as possible]
• Fair allocation of CPU.
• Max throughput [Number of processes that complete
their execution per time unit]
• Min turnaround time [Time taken by a process to finish
execution]
• Min waiting time [Time a process waits in ready queue]
• Min response time [Time when a process produces first
response]

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 Arrival Time: Time at which the process arrives in the ready queue.
Completion Time: Time at which process completes its execution.
Burst Time: Time required by a process for CPU execution.
Turn Around Time: Time Difference between completion time and
arrival time.
Turn Around Time = Completion Time – Arrival Time
Waiting Time(W.T): Time Difference between turn around time and
burst time.
Waiting Time = Turn Around Time – Burst Time
Response time: It is an amount to time in which the request was
submitted until the first response is produced.

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 Preemptive Scheduling
In Preemptive Scheduling, the tasks are mostly assigned with their priorities. Sometimes
it is important to run a task with a higher priority before another lower priority task,
even if the lower priority task is still running. The lower priority task holds for some time
and resumes when the higher priority task finishes its execution.
Non-Preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling method, the CPU has been allocated to a specific process. The
process that keeps the CPU busy will release the CPU either by switching context or
terminating. It is the only method that can be used for various hardware platforms.
That's because it doesn't need special hardware (for example, a timer) like preemptive
scheduling.

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 When scheduling is Preemptive or
Non-Preemptive?
• To determine if scheduling is preemptive or non-
preemptive, consider these four parameters:
• A process switches from the running to the waiting state.
• Specific process switches from the running state to the
ready state.
• Specific process switches from the waiting state to the
ready state.
• Process finished its execution and terminated.
• Only conditions 1 and 4 apply, the scheduling is called
non- preemptive.
• All other scheduling are preemptive.

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FCFS
• First come first serve (FCFS) scheduling algorithm
simply schedules the jobs according to their
arrival time.
• The job which comes first in the ready queue will
get the CPU first.
• The lesser the arrival time of the job, the sooner
will the job get the CPU.
• FCFS scheduling may cause the problem of
starvation if the burst time of the first process is
the longest among all the jobs.
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 Process ID Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn Waiting
Time Time Around Time
Time
0 0 2 2 2 0
1 1 6 8 7 1
2 2 4 12 10 6
3 3 9 21 18 9
4 6 12 33 29 17

Avg Waiting Time=33/5

Gantt chart

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 Convoy Effect in FCFS

• FCFS may suffer from the convoy effect if the burst

time of the first job is the highest among all.
• As in the real life, if a convoy is passing through the
road then the other persons may get blocked until it
passes completely. This can be simulated in the
Operating System also.
• If the CPU gets the processes of the higher burst time
at the front end of the ready queue then the processes
of lower burst time may get blocked which means they
may never get the CPU if the job in the execution has a
very high burst time. This is called convoy
effect or starvation.

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 Process ID Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn Waiting
Time Time Around Time
Time
1 0 40 40 40 0
2 1 3 43 42 39
3 1 1 44 43 42

Avg waiting Time = 81/3

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 Process ID Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn Waiting
Time Time Around Time
Time
1 1 40 44 43 3
2 0 3 3 3 0
3 0 1 4 4 3

P2 P3 P1

0 3 4 44

Avg Waiting Time=6/3

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Advantages of FCFS
• Simple
• Easy
• First come, First serv
Disadvantages of FCFS
• The scheduling method is non preemptive, the
process will run to the completion.
• Due to the non-preemptive nature of the
algorithm, the problem of starvation may occur.
• Although it is easy to implement, but it is poor in
performance since the average waiting time is
higher as compare to other scheduling
algorithms.

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 Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling
• Till now, we were scheduling the processes
according to their arrival time (in FCFS
scheduling).
• However, SJF scheduling algorithm, schedules the
processes according to their burst time.
• In SJF scheduling, the process with the lowest
burst time, among the list of available processes
in the ready queue, is going to be scheduled next.
• However, it is very difficult to predict the burst
time needed for a process hence this algorithm is
very difficult to implement in the system.
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 PID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting
Time Time Time

1 1 7 8 7 0
2 3 3 13 10 7
3 6 2 10 4 2
4 7 10 31 24 14
5 9 8 21 12 4

Avg Waiting Time = 27/5

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 Shortest Remaining Time First (SRTF)
Scheduling Algorithm
• This Algorithm is the preemptive version of SJF scheduling. In SRTF,
the execution of the process can be stopped after certain amount
of time
• At the arrival of every process, the short term scheduler schedules
the process with the least remaining burst time among the list of
available processes and the running process.
• Once all the processes are available in the ready queue, No
preemption will be done and the algorithm will work as SJF
scheduling.
• The context of the process is saved in the Process Control
Block when the process is removed from the execution and the
next process is scheduled. This PCB is accessed on the next
execution of this process.

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Process ID Arrival Burst Time Completion Turn Waiting Response
Time Time Around Time Time
Time
1 0 8 20 20 12 0
2 1 4 10 9 5 1
3 2 2 4 2 0 2
4 3 1 5 2 1 4
5 4 3 13 9 6 10
6 5 2 7 2 0 5

Avg Waiting Time = 24/6

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 Round Robin Scheduling Algorithm

• Round Robin scheduling algorithm is one of the most popular

scheduling algorithm which can actually be implemented in most of
the operating systems.
• This is the preemptive version of first come first serve scheduling.
The Algorithm focuses on Time Sharing. In this algorithm, every
process gets executed in a cyclic way.
• A certain time slice is defined in the system which is called
time quantum.
• Each process present in the ready queue is assigned the CPU for
that time quantum, if the execution of the process is completed
during that time then the process will terminate else the process
will go back to the ready queue and waits for the next turn to
complete the execution.

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 Time quantum=4

Process ID Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Turn Around Waiting Time
Time Time

1 0 5 17 17 12
2 1 6 23 22 16
3 2 3 11 9 6
4 3 1 12 9 8
5 4 5 24 20 15
6 6 4 21 15 11

Avg Waiting Time = (12+16+6+8+15+11)/6 = 76/6 units

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 Priority Scheduling
• In Priority scheduling, there is a priority number
assigned to each process. In some systems, the
lower the number, the higher the priority.
• While, in the others, the higher the number, the
higher will be the priority. The Process with the
higher priority among the available processes is
given the CPU.
• There are two types of priority scheduling
algorithm exists. One is Preemptive priority
scheduling while the other is Non
Preemptive Priority scheduling.
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 Non Preemptive Priority Scheduling
• In the Non Preemptive Priority scheduling,
The Processes are scheduled according to the
priority number assigned to them.
• Once the process gets scheduled, it will run till
the completion.
• Generally, the lower the priority number, the
higher is the priority of the process.

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Process Id Priority Arrival Burst Time Completion Turnaround Waiting Response
Time Time Time Time Time

1 2 0 3 3 3 0 0
2 6 2 5 18 16 11 13
3 3 1 4 7 6 2 3
4 5 4 2 13 9 7 11
5 7 6 9 27 21 12 18
6 4 5 4 11 6 2 7
7 10 7 10 37 30 18 27

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 Preemptive Priority Scheduling
• In Preemptive Priority Scheduling, at the time of arrival of a process
in the ready queue, its Priority is compared with the priority of the
other processes present in the ready queue as well as with the one
which is being executed by the CPU at that point of time.
• The One with the highest priority among all the available processes
will be given the CPU next.
• The difference between preemptive priority scheduling and non
preemptive priority scheduling is that, in the preemptive priority
scheduling, the job which is being executed can be stopped at the
arrival of a higher priority job.
• Once all the jobs get available in the ready queue, the algorithm will
behave as non-preemptive priority scheduling, which means the job
scheduled will run till the completion and no preemption will be
done.

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 1. At 0 arrival time we have process P4 which will execute for 1ms. Now, remaining
time for P4 is 0ms so it won't be added to table T.
2. At arrival time 1 we have process P1 which will execute for 1ms. Now, remaining
time for P1 is 3ms so it will be added to table T.
3. At arrival time 2 we have process P2. Compare priority of P2 and P1. Clearly, P1 has
higher priority so P1 will be scheduled again for 1ms.Now, remaining time for P1 is
2ms. P2 will also be added to table T with remaining time 5ms.
4. At arrival time 3 we have process P3. Compare priority of P2, P1, P3. Clearly, P3 has
higher priority so P3 will be scheduled for 1ms.Now, remaining time for P3 is 5ms. P3
will also be added to table T with remaining time 5ms.

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 5. At arrival time 4 we have process P5. Compare priority of P2, P1, P3, P5. Clearly, P5
has higher priority so P5 will be scheduled for 1ms.Now, remaining time for P5 is 1ms.
P5 will also be added to table T with remaining time 1ms.
6. At arrival time 5 we have process P6. Compare priority of P2, P1, P3, P5, P6. Clearly,
P6 has higher priority so P6 will be scheduled.Since no process have arrived after P6
thus P6 will execute for complete 3ms.
7. P6 has completed execution.
8. Remaining process in table T are P2, P1, P3, P5. Clearly, P5 has highest priority so P5
will be scheduled for its remaining time which is 1ms.
9. P5 has completed execution.
10. Remaining process in table T are P2, P1, P3. Clearly, P3 has highest priority so P3
will be scheduled for its remaining time which is 5ms.
11. P3 has also completed execution.
12. Remaining process in table T are P2, P1. Clearly, P1 has highest priority so P1 will
be scheduled for its remaining time which is 2ms.
13. P1 has also completed execution.
14. Remaining process in table T are P2 so P2 will be executed for 5ms.
15. P2 has also completed execution.
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 Process AT Priority BT CT TA WT
P1 1 5 4 16 15 11
P2 2 2 5 21 19 14
P3 3 6 6 14 11 5
P4 0 4 1 1 1 0
P5 4 7 2 9 5 3
P6 5 8 3 8 3 0

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 Introduction to Dead lock
• A process in operating systems uses different
resources and uses resources in the following
way.
1) Requests a resource
2) Use the resource
3) Releases the resource

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Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process is
holding a resource and waiting for another resource acquired by some other process.

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 Deadlock can arise if the following four conditions hold
simultaneously (Necessary Conditions)

Mutual Exclusion: One or more than one

resource are non-shareable (Only one process
can use at a time)
Hold and Wait: A process is holding at least one
resource and waiting for resources.
No Preemption: A resource cannot be taken from
a process unless the process releases the
resource.
Circular Wait: A set of processes are waiting for
each other in circular form.

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 Strategies for handling Deadlock

• Deadlock prevention
• Deadlock avoidance
• Deadlock detection and recovery

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 Deadlock prevention
• To prevent a deadlock, we must ensure that
any one of the following four conditions listed
below should not hold.
1. Mutual exclusion condition
2. Hold and wait condition
3. Non-Preemption condition
4. Circular wait condition

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 Deadlock avoidance
• Deadlock avoidance can be done with Banker’s
Algorithm.
• Banker’sAlgorithm
Bankers’s Algorithm is resource allocation and
deadlock avoidance algorithm which test all the
request made by processes for resources, it
checks for the safe state, if after granting request
system remains in the safe state it allows the
request and if there is no safe state it doesn’t
allow the request made by the process.
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 Deadlock detection and recovery
• Deadlock Detection
• If resources have single instance:
In this case for Deadlock detection we can run
an algorithm to check for cycle in the Resource
Allocation Graph. Presence of cycle in the
graph is the sufficient condition for deadlock.

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 In the above diagram, resource 1 and resource 2 have single instances.
There is a cycle R1 → P1 → R2 → P2. So, Deadlock is Confirmed.

If there are multiple instances of resources:

Detection of the cycle is necessary but not sufficient condition for deadlock
detection, in this case, the system may or may not be in deadlock varies according
to different situations.

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 Deadlock Recovery
• A traditional operating system such as Windows doesn’t deal with
deadlock recovery as it is time and space consuming process. Real-
time operating systems use Deadlock recovery.
Recovery method
• Killing the process: killing all the process involved in the deadlock.
Killing process one by one. After killing each process check for
deadlock again keep repeating the process till system recover from
deadlock.
• Resource Preemption: Resources are preempted from the
processes involved in the deadlock, preempted resources are
allocated to other processes so that there is a possibility of
recovering the system from deadlock. In this case, the system goes
into starvation.

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 Memory Management

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• Computer Memory is basically known as a collection of data that is
represented in binary format. Main Memory refers to a physical
memory that is the internal memory of the computer. The word
main is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices
such as disk drives.
• Main memory is also known as RAM. The computer is able to
change only data that is in the main memory. Therefore, every
program we execute and every file we access must be copied from
a storage device into main memory.
• All the programs are loaded in the main memory for execution.
Sometimes the complete program is loaded into the memory, but
sometimes a certain part or routine of the program is loaded into
the main memory only when it is called by the program, this
mechanism is called Dynamic Loading, which enhances the
performance.
• Also, at times one program is dependent on some other program.
In such a case, rather than loading all the dependent programs, the
CPU links the dependent programs to the main executing program
when required. This mechanism is known as Dynamic Linking.

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 Introduction
• Memory Management is the process of
coordinating and controlling the memory in a
computer, Blocks are assigning portions that are
assigned to various running programs in order to
optimize the overall performance of the system.
• This technique helps in keeping the track of each
and every memory location, whether the
memory location is allocated to some process or
it is free.
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 Swapping in OS
• A process needs to be in memory for
execution. But sometimes there is not enough
main memory to hold all the currently active
processes in a timesharing system.
• So, the excess process is kept on disk and
brought in to run dynamically. Swapping is the
process of bringing in each process in the
main memory, running it for a while, and then
putting it back to the disk.

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Multiple Partition Allocation: The multiple partition allocation may be further classified as

Single Partition Allocation: The memory is divided into two parts. One to be used by os and the
other one is for user programs. The as code and data is protected from being modified by user
programs using a base register.

Multiple Partition Allocation: The multiple partition allocation may be further classified as

1. Fixed partition scheme

2. Variable partition scheme

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 Fixed Partition Scheme
• This is the oldest and simplest technique used
to put more than one processes in the main
memory.
• In this partitioning, number of partitions (non-
overlapping) in RAM are fixed but size of each
partition may or may not be same.
• As it is contiguous allocation, hence no
spanning is allowed. Here partition are made
before execution or during system configure.

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As illustrated in above figure, first process is only consuming 1MB out of 4MB in the
main memory.
Hence, Internal Fragmentation in first block is (4-1) = 3MB.
Sum of Internal Fragmentation in every block = (4-1)+(8-7)+(8-7)+(16-14)= 3+1+1+2 =
7MB.
Suppose process P5 of size 7MB comes. But this process cannot be accommodated
inspite of available free space because of contiguous allocation (as spanning is not
allowed). Hence, 7MB becomes part of External Fragmentation.

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Advantages of Fixed Partitioning –
• Easy to implement:
Algorithms needed to implement Fixed Partitioning are easy to implement. It simply requires
putting a process into certain partition without focussing on the emergence of Internal and
External Fragmentation.
• Little OS overhead:
Processing of Fixed Partitioning require lesser excess and indirect computational power.
Disadvantages of Fixed Partitioning –
• Internal Fragmentation:
Main memory use is inefficient. Any program, no matter how small, occupies an entire
partition. This can cause internal fragmentation.
• External Fragmentation:
The total unused space (as stated above) of various partitions cannot be used to load the
processes even though there is space available but not in the contiguous form (as spanning is
not allowed).
• Limit process size:
Process of size greater than size of partition in Main Memory cannot be accommodated.
Partition size cannot be varied according to the size of incoming process’s size. Hence,
process size of 32MB in above stated example is invalid.
• Limitation on Degree of Multiprogramming:
Partition in Main Memory are made before execution or during system configure. Main
Memory is divided into fixed number of partition. Suppose if there are partitions in RAM
and are the number of processes, then condition must be fulfilled. Number of processes
greater than number of partitions in RAM is invalid in Fixed Partitioning
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 Overlays
• The main problem in Fixed partitioning is the size of a process has
to be limited by the maximum size of the partition, which means a
process can never be span over another.In order to solve this
problem, earlier people have used some solution which is called as
Overlays.
• The concept of overlays is that whenever a process is running it will
not use the complete program at the same time, it will use only
some part of it.Then overlays concept says that whatever part you
required, you load it an once the part is done, then you just unload
it, means just pull it back and get the new part you required and run
it.
Formally,
“The process of transferring a block of program code or other data
into internal memory, replacing what is already stored”.

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 Variable Partitioning
• It is a part of Contiguous allocation technique. It is used to alleviate
the problem faced by Fixed Partitioning. In contrast with fixed
partitioning, partitions are not made before the execution or during
system configure. Various features associated with variable
Partitioning-
• Initially RAM is empty and partitions are made during the run-time
according to process’s need instead of partitioning during system
configure.
• The size of partition will be equal to incoming process.
• The partition size varies according to the need of the process so
that the internal fragmentation can be avoided to ensure efficient
utilisation of RAM.
• Number of partitions in RAM is not fixed and depends on the
number of incoming process and Main Memory’s size.

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 Advantages of Variable Partitioning
• No Internal Fragmentation:
In variable Partitioning, space in main memory is allocated strictly
according to the need of process, hence there is no case of internal
fragmentation. There will be no unused space left in the partition.
• No restriction on Degree of Multiprogramming:
More number of processes can be accommodated due to absence
of internal fragmentation. A process can be loaded until the
memory is empty.
• No Limitation on the size of the process:
In Fixed partitioning, the process with the size greater than the size
of the largest partition could not be loaded and process can not be
divided as it is invalid in contiguous allocation technique. Here, In
variable partitioning, the process size can’t be restricted since the
partition size is decided according to the process size

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Disadvantages of Variable Partitioning
• Difficult Implementation:
Implementing variable Partitioning is difficult as compared to Fixed
Partitioning as it involves allocation of memory during run-time
rather than during system configure.
• External Fragmentation:
There will be external fragmentation inspite of absence of internal
fragmentation.
• For example, suppose in above example- process P1(2MB) and
process P3(1MB) completed their execution. Hence two spaces are
left i.e. 2MB and 1MB. Let’s suppose process P5 of size 3MB comes.
The empty space in memory cannot be allocated as no spanning is
allowed in contiguous allocation. The rule says that process must be
contiguously present in main memory to get executed. Hence it
results in External Fragmentation

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Now P5 of size 3 MB cannot be accommodated in spite of required available space
because in contiguous no spanning is allowed.

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 Compaction
• This is strategy to solve the problem of
external fragmentation.
• All free memory is placed together by moving
processes to new locations

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 Non-Contiguous Allocation in
Operating System
• Paging and Segmentation are the two ways which allow a process’s
physical address space to be non-contiguous.
• It has advantage of reducing memory wastage but it increases the
overheads due to address translation.
• It slows the execution of the memory because time is consumed in
address translation.
• In non-contiguous allocation, Operating system needs to maintain the
table which is called Page Table for each process which contains the base
address of the each block which is acquired by the process in memory
space.
• In non-contiguous memory allocation, different parts of a process is
allocated different places in Main Memory. Spanning is allowed which is
not possible in other techniques like Dynamic or Static Contiguous
memory allocation.
• That’s why paging is needed to ensure effective memory allocation. Paging
is done to remove External Fragmentation.

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 Logical and Physical Address in
Operating System
• Logical Address is generated by CPU while a program is running. The
logical address is virtual address as it does not exist physically, therefore, it
is also known as Virtual Address.
• This address is used as a reference to access the physical memory location
by CPU. The term Logical Address Space is used for the set of all logical
addresses generated by a program’s perspective.
The hardware device called Memory-Management Unit is used for
mapping logical address to its corresponding physical address.
• Physical Address identifies a physical location of required data in a
memory. The user never directly deals with the physical address but can
access by its corresponding logical address.
• The user program generates the logical address and thinks that the
program is running in this logical address but the program needs physical
memory for its execution, therefore, the logical address must be mapped
to the physical address by MMU before they are used. The term Physical
Address Space is used for all physical addresses corresponding to the
logical addresses in a Logical address space.

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 Paging in Operating System

• Paging: It is a memory management technique, which

allows the memory to be allocated to the process wherever
it is available.
• Physical memory is divided into fixed size blocks called
frames. Logical memory is broken into blocks of same size
called pages.
• The backing store is also divided into same size blocks.
• When a process is to be executed its pages are loaded into
available page frames.
• A frame is a collection of contiguous pages. Every logical
address generated by the CPU is divided into two parts. The
page number (P) and the page offset (d).
• The page number is used as an index into a page table.
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Each entry in the page table contains the base address of the page in physical
memory (f).
The base address of the Pth entry is then combined with the offset (d) to give the
actual address in memory.

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Logical Address or Virtual Address (represented in bits): An address generated by the
CPU
Logical Address Space or Virtual Address Space( represented in words or bytes): The set
of all logical addresses generated by a program
Physical Address (represented in bits): An address actually available on memory unit
Physical Address Space (represented in words or bytes): The set of all physical
addresses corresponding to the logical addresses
Example:
If Logical Address = 31 bit, then Logical Address Space = 231 words = 2 G words
(1 G = 230)
If Logical Address Space = 128 M words = 27 * 220 words, then
Logical Address = log2 227 = 27 bits
If Physical Address = 22 bit, then Physical Address Space = 222 words = 4 M words
(1 M = 220)
If Physical Address Space = 16 M words = 24 * 220 words, then
Physical Address = log2 224 = 24 bits
The mapping from virtual to physical address is done by the memory management unit
(MMU) which is a hardware device and this mapping is known as paging technique.
The Physical Address Space is conceptually divided into a number of fixed-size blocks,
called frames.
The Logical address Space is also splitted into fixed-size blocks, called pages.
Page Size = Frame Size
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• Let us consider an example:
• Physical Address = 12 bits, then Physical
Address Space = 4 K words
• Logical Address = 13 bits, then Logical Address
Space = 8 K words
• Page size = frame size = 1 K words
(assumption)

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 Address generated by CPU is divided into
Page number(p): Number of bits required to represent the pages
in Logical Address Space or Page number
Page offset(d): Number of bits required to represent particular
word in a page or page size of Logical Address Space or word
number of a page or page offset.
Physical Address is divided into
Frame number(f): Number of bits required to represent the
frame of Physical Address Space or Frame number.
Frame offset(d): Number of bits required to represent particular
word in a frame or frame size of Physical Address Space or word
number of a frame or frame offset

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 Segmentation
• In Operating Systems, Segmentation is a memory
management technique in which the memory is
divided into the variable size parts. Each part is known
as a segment which can be allocated to a process.
• The details about each segment are stored in a table
called a segment table. Segment table is stored in one
(or many) of the segments.
• Segment table contains mainly two information about
segment:
• Base: It is the base address of the segment
• Limit: It is the length of the segment.
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Advantages of Segmentation
•No internal fragmentation
•Average Segment Size is larger than the actual page size.
•Less overhead
•It is easier to relocate segments than entire address space.
•The segment table is of lesser size as compared to the page table in paging.
Disadvantages
•It can have external fragmentation.
•it is difficult to allocate contiguous memory to variable sized partition.
•Costly memory management algorithms.

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 Sr No. Paging Segmentation
1 Non-Contiguous memory allocation Non-contiguous memory allocation

2 Paging divides program into fixed size pages. Segmentation divides program into variable
size segments.
3 OS is responsible Compiler is responsible.
4 Paging is faster than segmentation Segmentation is slower than paging

5 Paging is closer to Operating System Segmentation is closer to User

6 It suffers from internal fragmentation It suffers from external fragmentation

7 There is no external fragmentation There is no external fragmentation

8 Logical address is divided into page number and Logical address is divided into segment number
page offset and segment offset

9 Page table is used to maintain the page Segment Table maintains the segment
information. information
10 Page table entry has the frame number and some Segment table entry has the base address of
flag bits to represent details about pages. the segment and some protection bits for the
segments.

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 Virtual Memory
• Separation of user logical memory from physical memory. It
is a technique to run process size more than main memory.
Virtual memory is a memory management scheme which
allows the execution of a partially loaded process.

Advantages of Virtual Memory

• The advantages of virtual memory can be given as
• Logical address space can therefore be much larger than
physical address space.
• Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes.
• Less I/O is required to load or swap a process in memory, so
each user can run faster.

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Demand Paging :
The process of loading the page into memory on demand (whenever page fault occurs)
is known as demand paging.

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Contd..
• If CPU try to refer a page that is currently not available in the main
memory, it generates an interrupt indicating memory access fault.
• The OS puts the interrupted process in a blocking state. For the execution
to proceed the OS must bring the required page into the memory.
• The OS will search for the required page in the logical address space.
• The required page will be brought from logical address space to physical
address space. The page replacement algorithms are used for the decision
making of replacing the page in physical address space.
• The page table will updated accordingly.
• The signal will be sent to the CPU to continue the program execution and
it will place the process back into ready state.
• Hence whenever a page fault occurs these steps are followed by the
operating system and the required page is brought into memory.

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• Page Fault Service Time :
The time taken to service the page fault is
called as page fault service time. The page
fault service time includes the time taken to
perform all the above six steps.
• Let Main memory access time is: m
• Page fault service time is: s
• Page fault rate is : p
• Then, Effective memory access time = (p*s) + (1-p)*m

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 Page Replacement Algorithms

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 Introduction
• In an operating system that uses paging for memory
management, a page replacement algorithm is needed to
decide which page needs to be replaced when new page
comes in.
• Page Fault – A page fault happens when a running program
accesses a memory page that is mapped into the virtual
address space, but not loaded in physical memory.
• Since actual physical memory is much smaller than virtual
memory, page faults happen. In case of page fault,
Operating System might have to replace one of the existing
pages with the newly needed page. Different page
replacement algorithms suggest different ways to decide
which page to replace. The target for all algorithms is to
reduce the number of page faults.
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1. First In First Out (FIFO) –
This is the simplest page replacement algorithm. In this algorithm, the operating
system keeps track of all pages in the memory in a queue, the oldest page is in the
front of the queue. When a page needs to be replaced page in the front of the
queue is selected for removal

Example-1Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6 with 3 page frames.Find

number of page faults.

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Optimal Page replacement –
In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would not be used for the longest duration
of time in the future.
Example-2:Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2, with 4 page
frame. Find number of page fault.

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 Least Recently Used –
In this algorithm page will be replaced which is least recently used.
Example-3Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0, 3, 2 with 4 page
frames.Find number of page faults

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 Disk Scheduling Algorithms

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 Introduction
• Disk scheduling is done by operating systems to schedule
I/O requests arriving for the disk. Disk scheduling is also
known as I/O scheduling.
Disk scheduling is important because:
• Multiple I/O requests may arrive by different processes and
only one I/O request can be served at a time by the disk
controller. Thus other I/O requests need to wait in the
waiting queue and need to be scheduled.
• Two or more request may be far from each other so can
result in greater disk arm movement.
• Hard drives are one of the slowest parts of the computer
system and thus need to be accessed in an efficient
manner.

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• Seek Time:Seek time is the time taken to locate the disk arm to a specified
track where the data is to be read or write. So the disk scheduling
algorithm that gives minimum average seek time is better.
• Rotational Latency: Rotational Latency is the time taken by the desired
sector of disk to rotate into a position so that it can access the read/write
heads. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum rotational
latency is better.
• Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time to transfer the data. It depends on
the rotating speed of the disk and number of bytes to be transferred.
• Disk Access Time = Seek Time + Rotational Latency + Transfer Time
• Disk Response Time: Response Time is the average of time spent by a
request waiting to perform its I/O operation. Average Response time is the
response time of the all requests. Variance Response Time is measure of
how individual request are serviced with respect to average response
time. So the disk scheduling algorithm that gives minimum variance
response time is better.

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 FCFS
• FCFS: FCFS is the simplest of all the Disk
Scheduling Algorithms. In FCFS, the requests are
addressed in the order they arrive in the disk
queue.Let us understand this with the help of an
example.
Example:
• Suppose the order of request is-
(82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is : 50
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So, total seek time:
=(82-50)+(170-82)+(170-43)+(140-43)+(140-24)+(24-16)+(190-16)
=642

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Advantages:
• Every request gets a fair chance
• No indefinite postponement
Disadvantages:
• Does not try to optimize seek time
• May not provide the best possible service

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 SSTF
• In SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First), requests
having shortest seek time are executed first. So,
the seek time of every request is calculated in
advance in the queue and then they are
scheduled according to their calculated seek
time.
• As a result, the request near the disk arm will get
executed first. SSTF is certainly an improvement
over FCFS as it decreases the average response
time and increases the throughput of system.
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Example:
Suppose the order of request is- (82,170,43,140,24,16,190)
And current position of Read/Write head is : 50

So, total seek time:

=(50-43)+(43-24)+(24-16)+(82-16)+(140-82)+(170-40)+(190-170)
=208

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Advantages:
• Average Response Time decreases
• Throughput increases
Disadvantages:
• Overhead to calculate seek time in advance
• Can cause Starvation for a request if it has higher
seek time as compared to incoming requests
• High variance of response time as SSTF favours
only some requests
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 SCAN
• In SCAN algorithm the disk arm moves into a
particular direction and services the requests
coming in its path and after reaching the end of
disk, it reverses its direction and again services
the request arriving in its path.
• So, this algorithm works as an elevator and hence
also known as elevator algorithm.
• As a result, the requests at the midrange are
serviced more and those arriving behind the disk
arm will have to wait.
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Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And the Read/Write
arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should move “towards the larger value”.

Seek time=(199-50)+(199-16)
=332

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• Advantages:
• High throughput
• Low variance of response time
• Average response time
• Disadvantages:
• Long waiting time for requests for locations
just visited by disk arm

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 CSCAN
• In SCAN algorithm, the disk arm again scans the path
that has been scanned, after reversing its direction.
• So, it may be possible that too many requests are
waiting at the other end or there may be zero or few
requests pending at the scanned area.
• These situations are avoided in CSCAN algorithm in
which the disk arm instead of reversing its direction
goes to the other end of the disk and starts servicing
the requests from there.
• So, the disk arm moves in a circular fashion and this
algorithm is also similar to SCAN algorithm and hence
it is known as C-SCAN (Circular SCAN).

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Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And the
Read/Write arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should move “towards the
larger value”.

Seek time is calculated as:

=(199-50)+(199-0)+(43-0)
=391
Advantages:
Provides more uniform wait time compared to
SCAN

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 LOOK
• It is similar to the SCAN disk scheduling
algorithm except for the difference that the
disk arm in spite of going to the end of the
disk goes only to the last request to be
serviced in front of the head and then
reverses its direction from there only.
• Thus it prevents the extra delay which
occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the
end of the disk.

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Example:
Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And the Read/Write
arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should move “towards the larger
value”.

So, the seek time is calculated as:

=(190-50)+(190-16)
=314

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 CLOOK
• As LOOK is similar to SCAN algorithm, in similar
way, CLOOK is similar to CSCAN disk scheduling
algorithm.
• In CLOOK, the disk arm in spite of going to the
end goes only to the last request to be serviced in
front of the head and then from there goes to the
other end’s last request.
• Thus, it also prevents the extra delay which
occurred due to unnecessary traversal to the end
of the disk.
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Example:
Suppose the requests to be addressed are-82,170,43,140,24,16,190. And the
Read/Write arm is at 50, and it is also given that the disk arm should move “towards
the larger value”

So, the seek time is calculated as:

=(190-50)+(190-16)+(43-16)
=341

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 Free Space Management
A file system is responsible to allocate the free blocks to the file therefore it has to keep
track of all the free blocks present in the disk. There are mainly two approaches by
using which, the free blocks in the disk are managed.
1. Bit Vector
In this approach, the free space list is implemented as a bit map vector. It contains the
number of bits where each bit represents each block.
If the block is empty then the bit is 1 otherwise it is 0. Initially all the blocks are empty
therefore each bit in the bit map vector contains 1.
LAs the space allocation proceeds, the file system starts allocating blocks to the files
and setting the respective bit to 0.
The given instance of disk blocks on the disk in Figure 1 (where green blocks are
allocated) can be represented by a bitmap of 16 bits as: 0000111000000110.

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 Linked List –
In this approach, the free disk blocks are linked together i.e. a free block contains a
pointer to the next free block. The block number of the very first disk block is stored
at a separate location on disk and is also cached in memory.

In Figure-2, the free space list head points to Block 5 which points to Block 6, the next free
block and so on. The last free block would contain a null pointer indicating the end of free
list.
A drawback of this method is the I/O required for free space list traversal.
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• Grouping
This approach stores the address of the free blocks in the first free
block. The first free block stores the address of some, say n free
blocks. Out of these n blocks, the first n-1 blocks are actually free
and the last block contains the address of next free n blocks.
An advantage of this approach is that the addresses of a group of
free disk blocks can be found easily.
• Counting
This approach stores the address of the first free disk block and a
number n of free contiguous disk blocks that follow the first block.
Every entry in the list would contain:
– Address of first free disk block
– A number n
• For example, in Figure-1, the first entry of the free space list would
be: ([Address of Block 5], 2), because 2 contiguous free blocks
follow block 5.

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 Interprocess Communication

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 Introduction
• Inter process communication (IPC) is used for
exchanging data between multiple threads in one
or more processes or programs. The Processes
may be running on single or multiple computers
connected by a network.
• It is a set of programming interface which allow a
programmer to coordinate activities among
various program processes which can run
concurrently in an operating system. This allows a
specific program to handle many user requests at
the same time.

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Pipes
• Pipe is widely used for communication between two related processes. This is a
half-duplex method, so the first process communicates with the second process.
However, in order to achieve a full-duplex, another pipe is needed.
Message Passing:
• It is a mechanism for a process to communicate and synchronize. Using message
passing, the process communicates with each other without resorting to shared
variables.
• IPC mechanism provides two operations:
• Send (message)- message size fixed or variable
• Received (message)
Message Queues:
• A message queue is a linked list of messages stored within the kernel. It is
identified by a message queue identifier. This method offers communication
between single or multiple processes with full-duplex capacity.
Direct Communication:
• In this type of inter-process communication process, should name each other
explicitly. In this method, a link is established between one pair of communicating
processes, and between each pair, only one link exists.

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Indirect Communication:
• Indirect communication establishes like only when processes share
a common mailbox each pair of processes sharing several
communication links. A link can communicate with many processes.
The link may be bi-directional or unidirectional.
Shared Memory:
• Shared memory is a memory shared between two or more
processes that are established using shared memory between all
the processes. This type of memory requires to protected from
each other by synchronizing access across all the processes.
FIFO:
• Communication between two unrelated processes. It is a full-duplex
method, which means that the first process can communicate with
the second process, and the opposite can also happen.

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 Why IPC?
• Here, are the reasons for using the interprocess
communication protocol for information sharing:
• It helps to speedup modularity
• Computational
• Privilege separation
• Convenience
• Helps operating system to communicate with
each other and synchronize their actions.

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 Process Synchronization
• On the basis of synchronization, processes are categorized as one of the
following two types:
• Independent Process : Execution of one process does not affects the
execution of other processes.
• Cooperative Process : Execution of one process affects the execution of
other processes.
• Process synchronization problem arises in the case of Cooperative process
also because resources are shared in Cooperative processes.
Race Condition
When more than one processes are executing the same code or accessing
the same memory or any shared variable in that condition there is a
possibility that the output or the value of the shared variable is wrong so
for that all the processes doing the race to say that my output is correct
this condition known as a race condition.

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Contd..
• A race condition is a situation that may occur
inside a critical section. This happens when the
result of multiple thread execution in the critical
section differs according to the order in which the
threads execute.
• Race conditions in critical sections can be avoided
if the critical section is treated as an atomic
instruction. Also, proper thread synchronization
using locks or atomic variables can prevent race
conditions.
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Critical Section Problem
Critical section is a code segment that can be accessed by only one process at a time.
Critical section contains shared variables which need to be synchronized to maintain
consistency of data variables.

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 The solution to the Critical Section Problem

• A solution to the critical section problem must satisfy the following

three conditions:
1. Mutual Exclusion
• Out of a group of cooperating processes, only one process can be in
its critical section at a given point of time.
2. Progress
• If no process is in its critical section, and if one or more threads
want to execute their critical section then any one of these threads
must be allowed to get into its critical section.
3. Bounded Waiting
• After a process makes a request for getting into its critical section,
there is a limit for how many other processes can get into their
critical section, before this process's request is granted. So after the
limit is reached, the system must grant the process permission to
get into its critical section.
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Peterson’s Solution
Peterson’s Solution is a classical software based solution to the critical section problem.
In Peterson’s solution, we have two shared variables:
boolean flag[i] :Initialized to FALSE, initially no one is interested in entering the critical
section
int turn : The process whose turn is to enter the critical section.

Disadvantages of Peterson’s Solution

It involves Busy waiting
It is limited to 2 processes.

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 TestAndSet
• TestAndSet is a hardware solution to the
synchronization problem. In TestAndSet, we have a
shared lock variable which can take either of the two
values, 0 or 1.
• 0 Unlock 1 Lock Before entering into the critical
section, a process inquires about the lock. If it is
locked, it keeps on waiting until it becomes free and if
it is not locked, it takes the lock and executes the
critical section
• In TestAndSet, Mutual exclusion and progress are
preserved but bounded waiting cannot be preserved.

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 Semaphores
• Semaphore was proposed by Dijkstra in 1965 which is a very
significant technique to manage concurrent processes by using a
simple integer value, which is known as a semaphore. Semaphore is
simply a variable that is non-negative and shared between threads.
This variable is used to solve the critical section problem and to
achieve process synchronization in the multiprocessing
environment.
Semaphores are of two types:

• Binary Semaphore –
This is also known as mutex lock. It can have only two values – 0
and 1. Its value is initialized to 1. It is used to implement the
solution of critical section problems with multiple processes.
• Counting Semaphore –
Its value can range over an unrestricted domain. It is used to control
access to a resource that has multiple instances.
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Some point regarding P and V operation

P operation is also called wait, sleep, or down operation, and V operation is also called
signal, wake-up, or up operation.
Both operations are atomic and semaphore(s) is always initialized to one. Here atomic
means that variable on which read, modify and update happens at the same
time/moment with no pre-emption i.e. in-between read, modify and update no other
operation is performed that may change the variable.
A critical section is surrounded by both operations to implement process synchronization.
See the below image. The critical section of Process P is in between P and V operation.

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 Problem-01:

A counting semaphore S is initialized to 10. Then, 6 P operations and 4 V

operations are performed on S. What is the final value of S?

Solution-

We know-
P operation also called as wait operation decrements the value of
semaphore variable by 1.
V operation also called as signal operation increments the value of
semaphore variable by 1.

Thus,
Final value of semaphore variable S
= 10 – (6 x 1) + (4 x 1)
= 10 – 6 + 4=8

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 A counting semaphore S is initialized to 7. Then, 20 P operations and 15 V
operations are performed on S. What is the final value of S?

Solution-

We know-
P operation also called as wait operation decrements the value of semaphore
variable by 1.
V operation also called as signal operation increments the value of semaphore
variable by 1.

Thus,
Final value of semaphore variable S
= 7 – (20 x 1) + (15 x 1)
= 7 – 20 + 15
=2

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• Semaphore can be used in other synchronization
problems besides Mutual Exclusion.
• Below are some of the classical problem
depicting flaws of process synchronaization in
systems where cooperating processes are
present.
• We will discuss the following three problems:
• Bounded Buffer (Producer-Consumer) Problem
• Dining Philosophers Problem
• The Readers Writers Problem

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