Lesson 1:

Digestive System
Parts and Functions
 Lesson 2:
The Process of
Digestion
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will
be able to:
• identify the variations in feeding
mechanism of animals and their types of
feeding mechanism;
• differentiate the methods in gathering
food;
• explain the stages of food processing;
and
• discuss the role of accessory organs in
the process of digestion.
 Variations in
Feeding Mechanism
of Animals
 1. Absorptive
Feeders
- Some animals lack a
developed digestive
tract so they resort to
absorbing available
nutrients using their
body surface.
2. Ingestive Feeders
- Some animals have
fully-developed
digestive systems. So
they typically ingest
food through their
mouth which leads to
their digestive tract
where food is processed.
 Types of Feeding
Mechanism that Involve
an Animal’s Preference
for Food:
 Methods in
Gathering Food
1. Omnivores
- are animals that ingest both plants and animals.
2. Herbivores
- are some animals feed exclusively on plants.
3. Carnivores
- some animals feed exclusively on meat or flesh
of other animals.
Ingestive Feeders Display
Various Mechanism of
Obtaining Food
a. Suspension Feeders
- These animals typically depend on the
available nutrients or food particles
suspended in the surrounding water.
- Modified structures such as mucus and
cilia found on the gills sweep the food
particles toward the oral cavity for
ingestion.
 Mussels

Example:

Oysters
b. Substrate Feeders
- Other animals live in or on their food
source, or even eat their way through the
food.
- These animals are also called substrate
feeders.
 Caterpillars

Example:

Earthworms
c. Fluid Feeders
- Certain animals suck nutrient-rich
fluids from a living host to obtain food
supply.
- The living hosts can be either plants or
animals.
 Aphids

Example:

Mosquitoes
d. Bulk Feeders
- Several animals, however, prefer
obtaining large chunks of food particles.
- Other animal bulk feeders use modified
structures such as fangs (snakes),
tentacles (spiders), claws, jaws, and teeth
to ingest a prey and tear it off into
several pieces for ingestion.
 Humans

Example:

Snakes
Stages of Food
Processing
1. Ingestion
- This is often referred to as the “act of
eating” which involves either absorption of
food through body surfaces or getting food
to enter the digestive tract through the oral
cavity or mouth.
2. Digestion
- Involves the breaking down of food particles
into smaller particles fit for absorption by the
body.
- Organic matter contained in food consists of
macromolecules such as proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates. These big molecules’ must be
broken down into simpler units or monomers.
2. Digestion
- Digestion can occur by mechanical or
chemical means. Mechanical means
involve specialized structures such as
teeth and acids while chemical digestion
occurs with the help of specific enzymes
that break down polymers into smaller
monomer units.
3. Absorption
- Involves taking up smaller nutrients by
cells that make up the digestive tract.
- Smaller molecules of food travel from
these absorptive cells to the rest of the
body. Typically, the nutrients are carried
through the bloodstream.
3. Elimination
- The undigested materials from the food
intake are eliminated out of the body.
Role of Accessory
Organs in Food
Processing
The processing of food in the human
digestive system is aided by several
accessory organs. These include the
pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. These
accessory organs have their corresponding
secretions that open through ducts into the
small intestines.
Pancreas
- large gland that secretes digestive fluids
into the duodenum of the small
intestines.
Digestive Fluid or Pancreatic Juice
- commonly referred to as pancreatic
juice, enters the small intestines through
the pancreatic duct.
- The pancreatic juice contains several
enzymes such as trypsin and
chymotrypsin, pancreatic amylase, and
lipase.
Trypsin and Chymotrypsin
- Trypsin and chymotrypsin digest
proteins.
Pancreatic Amylase
- while pancreatic amylase digests
starch molecules.
Lipase
- is responsible for digesting fats and
lipids. These enzymes are released as
inactive enzymes, which are later on
activated in the small intestines following
enzyme activation of trypsin.
Pancreas also functions as an
endocrine gland. It secretes the
hormones insulin and glucagon that
control the level of glucose in the
blood.
Liver
- known to be the largest organ in the human
body, with an approximate weight of 1.5
kilograms.
- functions to detoxify the blood from harmful
substances.
- also performs other functions such as protein
synthesis and glycogen storage, as mentioned
earlier.
Liver
- also takes part in the digestion process by
producing bile, a mixture of bile salts and
pigments that are responsible for the
emulsification of fat molecules in food.
Bile
- Bile is produced in the liver but gets stored
in the gallbladder.
- When fatty food reaches the duodenum of
the small intestines, nerve, and endocrine it
signals and stimulates the gallbladder to
transport the stored bile into the small
intestine via the common bile duct.
 Lesson 3:
Keeping a Healthy
Digestive System
Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will
be able to:
• discuss the relationship between
nutrition and the digestive system;
• explain how diseases of the digestive
system are prevented, detected, and
treated; and
• identify healthful practices that affect
the digestive system.
Digestion and
Nutrition
Why do people need
energy?
Cellular Metabolism
- Cellular metabolism allows for the production
of the chemical energy ATP. The production
of ATP is dependent on the presence of
molecules from food such as glucose.
- The energy content of food is measured in
kilocalories or “Calories” (1 kcal = 1000
calories).
Nutrition
Facts
Nutrition
- is the process by which food is taken in
and utilized by the body for the various
aforementioned reasons.
Nutrients
- chemicals taken into the body that
provide energy and serve as building
block for new molecules.
Six Classes of
Nutrients
1. Carbohydrates
- are one of the three macronutrients, alongside
proteins and fats, that serve as the primary
source of energy for the human body.
- are found in a wide variety of foods, including
grains, bread, beans, milk, popcorn, potatoes,
cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, and corn.
2. Lipids
- often referred to as fats, are a diverse group of
organic molecules that play essential roles in the
human body. Like carbohydrates, lipids are also
important organic nutrients present in food.
- food items such as meat, dairy products, eggs,
nuts, coconut oil, and palm oil are composed of
saturated fats while olive oil, peanut oil, fish,
sunflower, and corn oil have unsaturated fats.
3. Proteins
- are essential for overall health and well-being. Protein
also plays a role in maintaining muscle mass, supporting
immune function, and regulating hormone levels.
- obtained from animal sources are known to be complete
proteins that contain all nine essential amino acids in
needed proportions. Examples include red meat, fish,
poultry, milk, cheese, and eggs. On the other hand,
proteins obtained from plant sources are found to be
incomplete.
Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids in the Body
4. Vitamins
- are micronutrients required in small amounts to
support metabolism, growth, development, and
overall health.
- are found in a wide variety of foods, including fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds, dairy products,
meat, fish, and fortified foods. The vitamin content of
foods can vary depending on factors such as soil
quality, ripeness, processing methods, and cooking
techniques.
 Vitamins are Classified into Two Main
Groups Based on their Solubility:
1. Water-Soluble Vitamins
- these vitamins dissolve in water and
are not stored in the body to a
significant extent. Examples include
vitamin C and the B vitamins.
2. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
- these vitamins dissolve in fat and are
stored in the body's fatty tissues and
liver. Examples include vitamins A, D,
E, and K.
Important Vitamins Needed by the Body
5. Minerals
- do not contain carbon unlike any other organic
nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Minerals are derived from the soil and water,
primarily through the plants and animals we
consume.
- excessive intake of certain minerals, either through
supplementation or overconsumption of fortified
foods, can lead to toxicity and adverse health effect.
6. Water
- the basis of blood, digestive juices, urine and
perspiration, and is contained in lean
muscle, fat and bones. As the body can't
store water, we need fresh supplies every
day to make up for losses from the lungs,
skin, urine and feces (poo).
Institute Of Medicine (IOM) Provides
Recommendations for Total Water
Intake from All Beverages and Foods,
which Include:
• Adult Men: The IOM recommends
that adult men consume about 3.7
liters (or about 13 cups) of total
water per day, including fluids
obtained from beverages and foods.
• Adult Women: For adult women,
the recommended total water intake
is slightly lower, at about 2.7 liters
(or about 9 cups) per day.
 Diseases and
Disorders of the
Digestive System
1. Constipation
- is characterized by the
difficulty or painful
bowel movement, that
usually occurs less
than three times in a
week.
- The stool is typically
hard and dry.
Causes:
- Constipation may be caused by lack of
water intake or even anxiety.
- However, chronic constipation may be
caused by impacted stool, a tumor,
hernia that causes blockage in the
intestines or rectum.
Causes:
- Problems in pelvic muscles or hormonal
imbalances caused by diabetes, hypo or
hyperthyroidism can also result in
constipation.
Treatment:
- Depending on the severity, medications
such as laxatives are recommended to
people suffering from constipation.
 2. Diarrhea
- it is characterized
by watery and
loose stool.
- is sometimes
accompanied with
fever, abdominal
pain, or nausea.
Causes:
- It may be caused by ingesting contaminated
water or food. Several pathogens such as
bacteria or parasites can contaminate water
or food and cause diarrhea.
- People with lactose intolerance can also
suffer from diarrhea following intake of
food or drink with lactose in it.
Causes:
- However, chronic
diarrhea may be
caused by severe
gastrointestinal
disease such as
celiac disease or
Crohn’s disease.
Treatment:
- People suffering from diarrhea, after being
attended to by doctors, may be given antibiotic
or anti-parasitic treatments.
- Dehydration is also a common problem that is
encountered by people suffering from diarrhea.
That is why, proper hydration is also part of the
treatment. This can be done by drinking plenty
of fluids or by taking a rehydrating solution.
Alternative
Bristol Stool
Chart
3. Hemorrhoids
- is defined as the
enlargement and
displacement of the normal
anal cushions. Hemorrhoids
are characterized by
swollen veins in the lower
part of the rectum and
anus, which sometimes
stretch that veins bulge
during defecation.
Detection:
1. Internal bleeding
- may be observed as indicated by blood on the
toilet paper or toilet bowl following egestion of
waste materials. In more severe cases, the tissue
bulges outside the anus.
2. External hemorrhoids
- is associated with pain because of the activation
of perianal innervations.
Treatment:
- Eating high-fiber food and using topical
treatments such as hemorrhoid cream or
suppository containing hydrocortisone
may help ease swelling and inflammation
of hemorrhoids, for the cases that are not
severe.
Treatment:
- Doctors may also perform minimally
invasive procedures such as rubber band
ligation or sclerotherapy.
- In more severe cases, Hemorrhoidectomy
may be advised. Hemorrhoidectomy is the
surgery performed to remove internal or
external hemorrhoids that are severe.
4. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
(GERD)
- is a common digestive disorder worldwide.
- is a digestive condition that results from the reflux
of stomach contents in the esophagus.
Illustration:
Causes:
- Some patients are seen to display heartburn
in response to acid suppression.
- In patients with GERD, the lower esophageal
sphincter (LES) does not work properly and
does not close properly. During an acid
reflux, digestive juices and other contents of
the stomach rise up in the esophagus.
Treatment:
- GERD is diagnosed using an upper
gastrointestinal endoscopy, or
esophagogastroduodenoscopy (ED).
Treatment:
- Lifestyle management and modification
remain to be one of the most significant
preventions of GED.
- People should avoid unhealthy lifestyle
practices such as smoking, heavy alcohol
consumption, large evening meals, nighttime
snacks, and high dietary fat intake.
Treatment:
- Some GED patients are given medications
such as antacids, H2 receptor blockers, and
proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). In some
cases, surgery (fundoplication) may be
advised by doctors, but this has also been
significantly controversial among people in
the medical field.
5. Peptic Ulcer
- is an acid-induced lesion found in the stomach
and the duodenum of the small intestines.
- Most peptic ulcers involve Helicobacter pylori, an
acid-resistant bacterium.
Causes:
- Patients with duodenal ulcer typically complain
from worsening abdominal pain on an empty
stomach and describe hunger or abdominal pain
two to three hours after meat or at night.
- Severe symptoms may include Gl bleeding,
weight loss, early satiety, dysphagia or
odynophagia. Like GERD, peptic ulcers are
usually detected using ECD.
Treatment:
- Peptic ulcers are often treated with antibiotics against
H. pylori combine with bismuth suspensions such as
Pepto-Bismol.
- Risk factors for peptic ulcer include smoking and use
of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammaton
drugs (NSAIDs). The use of NSAIDs are found to
suppress the synthesis o prostaglandins that are
responsible for stimulating the secretion of protective
mucus and acid-neutralizing bicarbonate.
Taking Care of the
Digestive System
In 1941, recommended dietary allowances
(RDAs) were established to accurately
describe the proper nutrient intakes of
certain age and gender groups DAs are
meant to establish a minimum value of
vitamins and minerals needed by human
beings to stay away from diseases caused
by vitamin or mineral deficiencies.
Recommended energy
intake per day (DOST-
FNRI, 2018):
In the Philippines, the promulgation of Presidential
Decree No. 491 otherwise known as the “Nutrition
Act of the Philippines” in 1974 created the National
Nutrition Council (NC), the country's highest
policy-making and coordinating body on nutrition.
The NC is tasked to formulate national food and
nutrition policies as well as propose strategies and
policies for food, nutrition, and health concerns in
Filipinos. Nutrition committees are overseen in the
localities in the country.
In addition, nutrition action officers are tasked
to attend local community nutrition programs
spearheaded by the NC. In 2018, the DOST
Food and Nutrition Research Institute (FRI)
revised the Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDAs) for Filipinos in order to arrive at
recommended energy and nutrient intakes for
the maintenance of good health.
 Recommended nutrient
intake per day (Vitamins
and Minerals):
Aside from a proper diet, proper exercise also helps
maintain a healthy digestive system. Findings from
research suggest that physical exercises have short-term
and long-term positive effects on the gastrointestinal
system such as improved gastrointestinal immune
function. Routine exercise has been associated with
reduced risk of developing certain gastrointestinal
diseases such as colorectal, gastric and esophageal
cancers, in addition to numerous benign gastrointestinal
conditions. Interestingly, exercise was also found to be
beneficial.
END
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