Chapter: 10 – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Teaching Hours 5
One Mark 2

QUESTIONS
Two Marks 1
Three marks -
Five Marks (LA) -
Five Marks (NP) -
TOTAL 4

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Introduction: Matter exists in 3 states.
1. Solid is a state of matter, which has a definite shape and volume.
2. Liquid is another state of mater, which has definite volume but not definite
shape of its own. Liquids take the shape of the vessel in which it is placed and
it is highly incompressible.
3. Gas is the third state of matter. Gas has neither definite shape of its own nor
definite size. Gas is highly compressible.
Liquid and gases can flow. Therefore they are called fluids
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Fluid:
“Fluid is a substance that can flow under the action of external force
on it and does not have any shape of its own.”
Fluids have no definite shape of its own. Liquids and gases are called fluids.
Hydrostatics: The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatics
Hydrodynamics: The study of fluids in motion is known as hydrodynamics.
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Thrust:
The total normal force exerted by the fluid at rest on a surface is called
thrust.
Pressure:
“The pressure is defined as the magnitude of the normal force acting per
unit surface area.”
If is the magnitude of the normal force an a
surface of area , then the average pressure is
defined as the normal force acting per unit area
i.e.
Device used to measure pressure in a fluid
An idealized device for measuring a pressure in a
fluid is as shown. It is known as pressure
measuring device. It consists of an evacuated
clamber with a spring between the piston and the
bottom of the chamber and the spring is calibrated
to measure the force acting by the fluid. This devise
is placed inside the fluid. The inward force exerted
by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the
outward spring force and there by the pressure at a
point inside the fluid is measured.
Unit of pressure:
1. SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 (or) pascal (Pa)
 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2
2. The common unit of pressure is the atmosphere (atm)
i.e. the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the sea level
[1 atm = 1.03 x 105 Pa].
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Pressure is a scalar quantity. Dimensional formula of pressure is [M 1L-1T -2]
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Density ( ): “Density is defined as the mass per unit volume”.
For a fluid of mass of and volume ,
then density
 Density is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit is kg m-3 and
 Dimensional formula is [M1 L-3]
Ex: Density of water at 4 0C (277 K) is
1.0 x 103 kgm-3 (1000 kgm-3)
Relative density (Specific Gravity):
“The relative density of a substance is defined as
the ratio of density substance to the density of water at
40 c”.
i.e.
Ex: (1) Relative density of aluminum ( ) is 2.7 and its density is 2.7 x 10 +3 kg m-3
(2) Relative density of gold = 19.32 and its density is 19.32 x 10 +3 kg m-3
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PASCAL’S LAW
Statement: “Pascal’s law states that the increase in pressure at any point of
an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally to all other points of the liquid and
the walls of the container”.
Proof of Pascal’s law:
Consider a vessel filled with liquid. Let ABC – DEF is an object in the form of
prism. This object is very small so that every part of the object is at the same depth
from the surface of the liquid and there force the effect of gravity is same at all
points of the object.
Let and be the force existed
normally the surfaces BEFC, ADFC and
ADEB respectively. Let, and be
their corresponding areas.
Thus, the fluid exerts pressure
and on the surface of areas ,
and respectively.
Then,
(By equilibrium)

(By geometry)
Thus, = = [since, ]

Hence, pressure exerted is same in all discretion in a fluid at rest. This is Pascal’s
law.
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Derivation of expression for pressure at a point due to a liquid:
Consider a vessel containing liquid at rest. Consider a cylindrical element of
fluid having area of cross-section and height . The pressure at the points and
is and respectively as shown in fig. As the fluid is at rest, the resultant
horizontal forces should be zero and the resultant vertical forces should balance
the weight of the element.
The force acting in the vertical down ward direction is at the top and in
vertical upward direction on the bottom. the weight of the fluid
element acting downward. Since the fluid is in equilibrium, then the net force
acting on the cylinder is zero.
i.e.

If is the density of the fluid then mass of

the fluid to be where

( )
( )
……………….. (1)
If the pressure is at the surface of the
fluid become atmospheric pressure ( ) and
pressure at a depth from the surface is
then
( – )
……………………. (2)
This is the expression for pressure at a point
inside a liquid.
Thus, the pressure inside a fluid at a depth
is more than the atmospheric pressure by an
amount .
Note: The pressure at appoint in a liquid depends
1. vertical distance
2. mass ’, density and
3. Acceleration due to gravity
Pressure gauge (or) Gauge pressure:
“The excess pressure ( – ) at depth is called pressure gauge at that
point”. (Or) Gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and
atmospheric pressure( – ).
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Note:
1) in the absence of gravity ( ), ( ) or
2) If two points lie in the same level in liquid (h=0), ( ) or
This shows that in the presence of gravity, the pressure is same at all points
inside the liquid lying at the same horizontal surface.
3) Let , then
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Hydrostatic Paradox:
Consider threes vessel A B and C of
deferent shapes as shown is fig. They ate
connected at the bottom by a horizontal pipe
the vessels filled with water the level of water
in the vessel is the same through they have
deferent amounts of water. This is because the
pressure at the bottom due to water has the
same below each section of the vessel.
This is known as hydrostatic paradox.

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Atmospheric pressure
Earth is surrounded by a gaseous envelop called atmosphere (or) air and it
consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.94% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, 0.01%
hydrogen and the traces of inert gases [neon and helium].
“The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the surface of the earth is
called atmospheric pressure’. (or)
“Atmospheric pressure on any point is equal to the weight of a column
of air of unit cross sectional area extending from that point to the top of the
atmosphere”.
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MEASUREMENT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
1. Mercury barometer:
The device used to measure
atmospheric pressure is known as
“Barometer”.
Italian scientist Torricelli (1608-1647)
invented this for the first time. In a
barometer a long glass tube closed at one
end, filled with mercury, and is in inverted in
to mercury as shown in figure. The space
above the mercury column the tube contains
only mercury vapors whose pressure is so
small and it can be neglected. The pressure
inside the column at point A must equal to
the pressure at the point B, which is at the
same level.

Where, is the density of mercury and is is the height of the mercury column in
the tube. It is found that height of the mercury in the column is about at sea
level and it is equivalent to atmospheric pressure ( ).
Standard atmospheric pressure:
“The standard atmospheric (or) normal atmospheric pressure is defined
as the pressure due to a column of of mercury at 0 0c at sea level”.
At 0 C ρ = 13600 kg m ,
0 -3

ms-2 and

Now

( )
2. Open – tube manometer :
An open tube manometer is used to measure
pressure gauge (or) pressure difference.
It consists of – filled with liquid [low
density liquid such as oil] for measurement of
small pressure and high density liquids
[mercury] for measuring large pressure
difference.
One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other and is
connected to a system where pressure to be measured is as shown in figure.
At equilibrium the pressure ‘ ’ at A is equal to the pressure at B the
pressure difference ( ) is measured which is proportional to the manometer
heights ‘ ’. ( ) = pressure gauge
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Different Units of atmospheric pressure:
1. ( ) = 76cm of Hg column at 00c at sea level
1atm = 1.013x10 Pa. 5

2. = 1mm mercury column = 133.3 Pa.

torr’ is used in the field of medicine and physiology or in vacuum technology
or
3. = 105 Pascal = 106 dengue cm-2
and
4. = 10 bar = 102 Nm-2 = 102 Pa bar and milibar are used in
-3

meteorology
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APPLICATIONS OF PASCAL’S LAW
1. Hydraulic lift
2. Hydraulic press
3. Hydraulic breaks
Hydraulic Machines:
Hydraulic machines are the machines works on the principle of Pascal’s law
Ex: hydraulic lift, hydraulic press,
hydraulic brakes, syringe etc….

1. Hydraulic lift:
It is a device used works on the
principle of Pascal’s law to lift
heavy load such as vehicles.
It consists of two cylinders with
pistons of different area of cross
section separated by a horizontal
container filled with a liquid as
shown. A piston of small area of
cross section is used to exert a
force on the liquid.
The pressure is transmitted
throughout the liquid to a large cylinder with a
larger piston of area of cross section which
result in the upward force . Therefore, the piston supports a large load.

By changing, the force at the platform on the larger piston moves up (or)
down easily. The applied force has been increased by a factor of and this
factor is called mechanical advantage of the device.
2. Hydraulic breaks: It works on the principle of Pascal’s law. In this device, a
small force is applied to stop the vehicle.
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Archimedes’s Principle
“When a body immersed in a fluid either partially (or) wholly it
experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced i.e the
apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
body”.
Buoyancy : When a body is immersed in a liquid, the force acting on the body are
its weight acting down ward at its centre of gravity and the resultant up thrust
(normal force) exerted by the liquid.
Buoyant force: “The resultant of all the forces in an upward direction is called
buoyant force”.
The resultant of all the forces acting on a body is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid. The resultant force acting through the centre of gravity of the
displaced liquid and this point is called centre of buoyancy.
Law of floatation:
When an object immersed in a liquid, the relative values of the weight ‘W’
and the resultant upward force determines the object whether sink in liquid
(or) float on it.
1. If the body mill sink
2. If the object in side the liquid in equilibrium.
3. If , the body moves towards the surface and floats.
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Fluid dynamics: Fluid dynamics is the study of the properties of fluids in motion.
There are two types of fluid motions. They are, (1) streamline flow and (2) Turbulent
flow.
Streamline flow:
“When a fluid flows such that the velocity of every particle at any point
is same in magnitude and direction, then the flow of fluid is said to be steady
flow (or) streamline flow”. (Or)
The regular and orderly flow of liquid is known as streamline flow,
Consider the flow of fluid as shown
in the figure. The path followed by
particles of the fluid is represented
by . Let , and be the velocities
of the particles at P, Q and R respectively.
If all the succeeding particles of the fluid
move along PQR with velocities , and
respectively then the flow is said to be
steady (or) streamline flow.
Ex: calm flow of river, steady flow of water in hose pipe, gentle breeze

Streamline:
“A streamline is a straight (or) curved path of the particles of the fluid.
The tangent to stream line at any point gives the direction of flow of the fluid
at that point”.
Properties of streamline:
1. The tangent at any point on the streamline gives the direction of flow of fluid
2. No two streamlines cross each other.
3. Greater is the crowding of streamlines at a place, the greater is the velocity
of the practices of the fluid and vice-versa
Tube of flow:
 “A bundle of streamlines having the same velocity of the particles of
the fluid over any cross section perpendicular to the direction of flow of liquid
is called tube of flow”
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Note: Laminar flow: A flow in which the liquid moves in a layer is called laminar
flow or the velocities of the particles have different magnitudes but parallel to each
other is called laminar flow.
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Equation of continuity:
Consider a fluid flowing as show in
fig. let and be the planes
perpendicular to the direction of fluid
flow.
Let , and be the areas of cross sections at these point and ,
and are the speed of the particles respectively. Then the mass of the fluid
crossing at in a small interval of time is t. Similarity mass of fluid
flowing at in a time t is and mass of fluid flowing at
in a time is The mass of the fluid flowing equally through the point
, and .
Therefore, ……………………(1)
…………………………. (2)
This equation is called equation of continuity.
In general
This is the equation of continuity.
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Turbulent flow:
The irregular and disorderly flow of liquid is called turbulent flow (OR)
If a fluid flows such that the velocity of the flow at a point is not same in
magnitude and direction, then the flow is said to be turbulent.
Ex: river in flood, waterfall, hurricane

Critical velocity:
The velocity of liquid flow up to which the flow become steady and
above which the flow become turbulent is called critical velocity.
Difference between streamline and turbulent flow:
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Differences between streamline flow and turbulent flow
Streamline flow Turbulent flow
the velocity of every particle at any the velocity of the flow at a point of flow
point of flow is same in magnitude is not same in magnitude and
and direction, the flow is said to be direction, the flow is said to be
streamline flow turbulent flow
It is regular and orderly flow of liquid It is irregular and disorderly flow of
liquid
The motion of liquid particles are The motion of the liquid particles are
parallel to each other not parallel to each other
There is no eddies and vertices There is eddies and vertices formation
formation
Velocity is less then critical velocity Velocity is more than critical velocity
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BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE:
Statement: “Bernoulli’s principle states that the for a streamline flow of an
ideal fluid, sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
per unit volume remains constant”.
i.e. ( )
Proof:
Consider an ideal fluid of density
flowing through a varying area of cross
– section. Let the pipe at varying height
as shown in figure. Consider the fluid
flow in two regions BC and DE. Let is
the speed at B and is the speed at D,
then the fluid moves through a distance
from B to C in ∆t is . In the same
time interval ∆t fluid moves through a
distance from D to E is . Let and
be the pressure act on the surface
at B and at E.
The work done on the liquid at the
BC is ( )
Since, the same volume passer through both the region (equation of continuity)
The work done by the fluid at the end DE is ( )
The net work done on the fluid by pressure is
– ( )
This work done changes the kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. If is
the density of the fluid and is the mass passing through the pipe in ,
then the change in gravitational potential energy of the fluid is
( ).
The change in is K ( ) ( ).
From the work energy theorem, work done on the fluid is equal to change in energy
of the fluid
i.e. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Divide on both sides
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(or) ………………….. (1)
In general
This is Bernoulli’s equation
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Note:
1. When a fluid is at rest, ie velocity is zero Bernoulli’s equation becomes
i. (or) ( ) ( )
2. For horizontal flew ‘h’ is constant than
i.e. In horizontal flow, the velocities of fluid increase as the pressure
decrease and vice -versa.
Ideal fluid: ideal fluid is one, which is incompressible and non-viscous.
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Speed of Efflux: [Torricelli’s law]
“Efflux means fluid out flow”.
Consider a tank containing a liquid of density with a small hole in its side
at a height from the bottom. The air above the liquid surface is at . Let be
the pressure of air above the surface of liquid and Pa pressure at the hole.
From the equation of continuity .
Where and are velocities of the liquid at the hole and on the surface of the
liquid respectively.
Therefore ( )
The area of cross section , then the liquid at the surface is approximately
at rest
i.e.
Applying the Bernoulli’s equations at the point
( ) and( )
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( ) ( – )
Taking ( – ) then

( )
( )

( )
√ ………………………… (1)
If the tank is open to the atmosphere, i.e ,
then √ ……………………. (2)
This is the speed of efflux as same as freely falling body through height. This
equation is called Torricelli’s law.
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Applications of Bernoulli’s principle
1. Venturimeter: Venturimeter is a
device used to measure the speed of
flow of liquid in a pipe. Its works on
Bernoulli’s principle.
2. Carburetor: The carburetor of automobile has a
venture channel [nozzle] through which air flows
with a large speed. The pressure is then lowered at
the chamber to provide the correct mixture of air and petrol necessary for
combustion.
3. Atomizer (or) sprayer:
Atomizer (or) sprayers ate used to
spray perfumer (or) insecticides, which
works on the principle of Bernoulli
theorem.
It consists of a spray gun and
container containing liquid to be spray.
The forward stroke of the piston produces a stream of air with high speed over the
open end of the tube, which is immersed in the liquid. Due to this the pressure of
the liquid reduces and riser up in the tube and is pushed out is the air through the
nozzle in the form of spray.
4. Bunsen burner and Filter pumps (or) Aspirator bottle work on the principle
of Bernoulli’s principle
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ILLUSTRATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
Blood flow and heart Attack:
Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow and heart attack.
The artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner
walls. In order to drive the blood through this constriction the heart is under
pressure. The speed of the flow of blood in this region is raised which lower the
pressure inside the artery may collapse due to external pressure. The heart exerts
further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through it. As the blood
flow through the openings, the internal pressure once again drops due to same
reason. This leads to repeated collapse of the artery. This may result in heart
attack.
Dynamic lift:
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body such as airplane wing, a
hydraulic foil (or) a spinning ball by virtues of its motion through a fluid.
Dynamic lift is due to Bernoulli principle.
1. Ball moving without spin: The streamlines
around a non-spinning ball are symmetric. The
velocity of fluid (air) above and below the ball at
corresponding points is the same. Thus, the
resultant pressure difference is zero. Thus, there is
no upward (or) downward pressure on the ball by
the air.
2. Ball moving with spin [Magnus effect]:
When a ball spins, it drags air along with
it. The ball is spinning and moving at the same
time. The streamlines around the ball is as
shown. When the ball moves forward, the air
relative to ball moves backwards.
Therefore, the velocity of air above the ball relative to it is
larger and below it is smaller. Thus, more stream lines
above the ball. This difference in velocities of air results in
the pressure difference between the upper and lower
surface of the ball and there is a net upward forcer on the
ball. Thus, the ball lifts upward. This dynamic lift due to
spinning is called Magnus effect.
3. Aerofoil (or) uplift of an aircraft wing:- An aerofoil is a solid piece
shaped body (streamlined body) to provide an upward dynamic lift when
it moves horizontally through air.
The shape of the aerofoil is such
that it is slightly convex upward and
concave down ward. Therefore, the air
passing over the top of airfoil travels a
longer path than that of the lower surface
in the same time. Thus, the velocity of air
above the airfoil is more than the velocity
of air below the airfoil.
 Hence, according to Bernoulli principle, the pressure of the upper surface
is less than the lower surface of airfoil. This pressure difference provides the
upward force on the airfoil. This results in the dynamic lift of airfoil (or) wings of
the aircraft and this balances the weight of the plane.
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Viscosity
“Viscosity is the property of a liquid by virtues of which it opposes the
relative motion between the different layers the liquid”.
Viscous force
“The tangential force (internal force) which opposes the relative motion
between the layers of liquid is called viscous force.”
Explanation of viscous force:
Consider a liquid enclosed between two glass
plates as shown in figure. The bottom plate is fixed
while the top plate moves with a constant velocity
relative to the fixed plate. The liquid in confect in the
top plate has the same velocity as that of the surface.
The layer in content in the bottom plate is at rest.
The velocities of layers of the liquid
increase uniformly from to .
For any layer of liquid its upper
layer pulls forward while lower layer pulls
it back ward, this result in force between
the layers.
Thus there is an opposing force
between the layers exist to oppose the
relative motion between the layers. This
property is called viscosity. The force is
called viscous force.
When a liquid flowing in a pipe (or)
tube, the velocity of liquid layer along of
the tube is maximum and decreases
gradually as we move towards the wall of
the tube and it becomes zero as shown in
the figure. The velocity of the layer in
contact with the surface of the tube is
constant.
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Co-efficient of viscosity:
Consider a liquid flowing between the two plates as shown in the figure. The
portion of the liquid at some instant has a shape of ABCD: take the shape of AEFD
after short interval of time ( ). During the time the liquid under goes shearing
strain of . Since, the strain in a flowing liquid increases continuously in time,
here the stress depends on the rate of change of strain (or) strain rate
i.e. or
Where is velocity of the upper layer of the liquid
The co-efficient of viscosity ( ) for a
liquid is defined as the ratio of shearing
stress to strain rate
i.e.

⁄
⁄

If and , then
Co-efficient of viscosity is also defined as the tangential force required per unit area
to maintain unit velocity gradient ( ) normal to the area.
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SI unit: The SI of viscosity is poiseiulle ( ) (or) Nsm-2 (or) pascal second
(Pa-s) (or) deca poise.
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Note:
1. Liquids like water alcohol etc… are less viscous liquids
2. Liquids like coal, tar, blood, glycerin, honey, edible oil etc are large Viscous
liquids. Castor oil is more viscous then water.
3. 1 Decapolis = 1 N sm-2; The Dimensional formula of viscosity is [M1L-1T-1]
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Effect of temperature on the viscosity:
1. Viscosity of liquid decrease with increase in temperature and increases with
decrease in temperature. i.e.
√
2. The viscosity of gases increase with increase in temperature and vice – versa
i.e. √
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Stokes’ law:
Statement: The viscous force acting on an object moving in a fluid is directly
proportional to the velocity of the object.
Explanation: When a body falls through a fluid, it drags the layer of the fluid in
contact with it. Due to the relative motion between the layers of the fluid, the body
experiences a retarding force. The retarding force (or) viscous force (F) is directly
proportional to the velocity of the body in the fluid.
Strokes prove that the viscous force acting on a spherical body of radius ( ) moving
with a velocity ( ) in a fluid of viscosity ( ) is given by
. This is stokes low.
Expression for Terminal velocity:
The maximum constant velocity acquired by a body falling in a viscous
medium is called the terminal velocity.
Consider a spherical body of radius falling through a viscous medium of
viscosity and density with a constant velocity . Let be the density of the
body. The forces acting on the spherical body are
1. Its weight ( ) acting in the downward
2. Upward thrust (or) buoyant force ( ) acting upward and
3. Viscous force acting in the upward direction
At equilibriums the viscous force and buoyant force balances the height of the
body i.e. (or) –
By Stokes’ law ( )
 ( )

Therefore and
Thus, the terminal velocity varies directly as the square of the radius of the
spherical body and inversely as the viscosity of the medium.
Ex: - The raindrop, parachute etc…..fall with terminal velocity
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Reynolds Number:
Reynolds number is a pure number, which determines the nature of flow of
liquid through a pipe.
According Reynolds the critical velocity ( ) of a liquid flowing in a long narrow tube
is
1. Directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity ( ) of the liquid
2. Inversely proportional to the density of the liquid ( )
3. Inversely proportional to the diameter (d) of the tube
i.e ( )
. Where Reynolds Number
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Note:
1) It is has no units and no dimension.
2) If the value of lies between 0 to 2000, liquid flow is streamline.(laminar)
3) If , the flow is turbulent.
4) If the value of between , the flow becomes unsteady
5) Physical significance of Reynolds number: Reynolds number describes
the ratio of inertial force per unit area to the viscous force per unit area of
flowing liquid. Can be written as
⁄ ( )

Thus

00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
00000000

SURFACE TENSION
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Intermolecular forces: “The force which exists between the molecules of
liquid are called inter-molecular forces.”
The force of attraction that exists between the molecules is due to the electrical
interaction between the charges of the molecules.
There are two types of molecular forces (1) Cohesive force and(2) Adhesive force.
(1) Cohesive force: The force of attraction between the molecules of the same
substance is called the force of cohesion.
Force of cohesion is maximum in solids, lesser in liquids and lest in gases.
(2) Adhesive force: The force of attraction between the molecules of the different
substance is called the force of adhesion.
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Surface tension:
 “Surface tension is that property of a liquid by virtue which, the free
surface of the liquid behaves like elastic stretched membranes which tends to
have minimum surface area.”
Surface tension of a liquid is measured as
the tangential force per unit length acting
normally on either side of any imaginary line
drawn on the surface of the liquid. It is denoted
by S.
i.e. Surface tension =
If is the force acing on liquid surface of length , then

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SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1. Dimensional formula is [M1L0T-
2].

 Surface tension is a scalar quantity.

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Consequences of Surface Tension:
(Explanation of some observed phenomenon-using surface tension)
1) Rain drops and a globule of mercury placed on a glass plate are spherical in
shape
2) A greased needle placed gently on the surface of water in a beaker does not
sink.
3) Oil spreads on the surface of water and thin film on it because surface
tension of oil is less than that of water. It may remain as a drop on hot
water.
4) Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree due to surface
tension
5) Water wets the glass but mercury does not wet the glass because of the
property of surface tension.
6) A sheet of blotting paper contain fine pores absorbs ink or water due to the
surface tension
7) Action of a wick of a lamp and action of detergents are due to surface tension.
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Applications of surface tension
1) Action of detergents [when detergents added to water its surface tension get
decreases]
2) Capillary action in the wick of the lamp
3) Molten metal are spherical due to surface tension. They are used to make
lead shots
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Molecular theory of surface tension:
Consider three molecules and
of a liquid. Molecule is well within the
liquid and it is attracts other molecules
equally in all directions. Hence, the net
force on it is zero. Another molecule is
little below the surface of the liquid.
There are more molecules attracting in
the downward direction then in the
upward direction. Therefore, it
experiences net downward force. The
molecule is on the surface of the liquid.
The liquid molecules are only on lower side. Hence, the molecule
experiences a maximum down ward force compare to the molecules lying inside.
Thus, all molecules lying on free surface experiences a net downward force.
When a molecule is taken from inside of the liquid to the surface against the
inward force, work has to be done. This work appears as the extra potential energy
of the molecules on the surface of the liquid. This additional energy of the surface
molecules is called surface energy. However, in the state of stable equilibrium a
system have minimum potential energy. Hence, in order to attain minimum
potential energy, the liquid surface must have minimum number of molecules. In
other words, the liquid surface tends to have minimum area. Thus, the free surface
of a liquid at rest tends to have the minimum area and thereby it behaves like a
stretched membrane. This property of the liquid which occupies the minimum
surface area and the surface behaves a stretched membrane is called surface
tension.
Surface energy:
“The potential energy of surface molecules per unit area of the surface
is called surface energy.”
i.e. Surface energy =
SI unit surface energy is joule/m2 [Jm-2]
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Relation between surface energy and surface tension:

[Expression for surface energy]
Consider a liquid film enclosed in a
rectangular frame and movable arm at one
end. Let ‘ ’ be the length of the movable
arm. Since the liquid film has two
surfaces, then the force acting on the
movable arm towards the film is
.
where S is surface tension of the
liquid.
Suppose if we stretch the surface area through a small
distance ‘ ’, then the area of the film increased by .
The work done is given by
This work done is storied as the additional energy in the film and also called
surface energy
By definition
(or)
Thus,
(or)
Thus, the surface tension is the surface energy per unit area of the liquid.
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Determination of surface tension of a liquid:
To determine the surface tension of
liquid experimentally, the experimental
setup is as shown in figure. It consists of a
flat glass plate at one arm of the balance
just above the vessel containing a liquid.
The plate is balance by the weights on the
other arm of the balance.
The horizontal edge of glass plate is just above the surface of the liquid. The
vessel is raised slightly until the liquid touches the glass plate and pull it down by
the liquid because of surface tension. Add some weights to balance until the plate
just clears the liquid.
Let ‘ ’ be the additional weight added, then surface tension of the liquid air
interface is Here

(or)
Where ‘ ’ is the extra mass and is the length of the plate.
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Angle of contact:
“The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of
contact and solid surface inside the liquid is called angle of contact.”
It is denoted by’
1) For a liquid, which wet the surface,
i.e. Angle of contact is acute.
Ex: angle of contact between water
and glass, water-plastic etc
2) For a liquid, which do not wet the
surface i.e, angle of contact is
obtuse
Ex: Angle contact between mercury
and glass

Angle of Contact of Some Liquid-Solid Interface:

Liquid Solid
---------------------
Water Glass 0
---------------------
Water Silver 90
---------------------
Water Paraffin 107 ---------------------
Kerosene Glass 260 ---------------------
Mercury Glass 140 ----------
Excess pressure inside a liquid drop and a bubble:
Liquid drops and soap bubbles are in spherical shape due to the surface
tension. Due to the surface tension, the pressure inside a liquid drop is more than
the pressure outside.
Case (1): Excess pressure inside a liquid drop
Consider liquid drop of radius having
surface tension . Let Pi be the pressure inside the
drop and Po is the pressure outside the drop.
The excess pressure inside the drop is ( )
Out ward force acting on the drop pressure on
the drop x surface area of the drop
=( ) x 4πr2
Due to this force, the drop expands. Let r be the
increase in radius.
Work done = force x change in radius
 ( ) ------------------- (1)
This work done against the force of surface
tension is stored inside the drop in the form of
potential energy.
i.e Increase in P.E of the drop = surface tension x increase in surface area
i.e = S x [4π (r + r) 2 - 4πr2]
= S x [4π (r2 + r2 +2r r) - 4πr2]
= S x [4πr2+4π r2+8πr r- 4πr2]
Since is small r can be neglected
2

Increase in PE is ----------------------- (2)

From (1) & (2)
Work done = increase in PE
( )x 4πr2 r = 8πrS r
( )
( )
Case (2): Excess pressure inside a liquid bubble
In a liquid bubble, there are two surfaces
inner and outer. Consider liquid bubble of radius
having surface tension. Let ( ) be the excess
pressure inside the bubble. The liquid bubble has
two interfaces.
The out ward force acting on the bubble
= pressure on the bubble x surface area
( )
Due to this force, the bubble expands. Let r be increase in the
radius of the bubble. Hence work done = force x change in
radius
( )
This work against the force of surface tension is stored inside the bubble in the
form of PE.
Increase in PE of the bubble = surface tension x increase in surface energy
( )

As the liquid bubble has two surfaces, so that the increase in surface area of these
two surface are taken.
Since is small can be neglected

Now Work done = increase in PE

( )
( )
Thus excess pressure inside a liquid bubble is two times the excess pressure in a
liquid drop.
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Note: Excess pressure inside liquid drop/ bubble . Larger the drop/bubble
smaller is the excess pressure and vice-versa.
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Capillary Rise: A glass rod with fine bore along the length is called capillary tube.
Capillarity:
 “The rise or fall of the liquid level in a capillary tube due to surface
tension is called capillarity”
Expression for capillary rise:
Consider capillary tube of
radius dipped vertically into a
liquid contained in a vessel. The
angle of contact between the liquid
and glass is acute. The water level
rises up in the capillary tube
through a height; .
The surface of water in the capillary tube is
concave. i.e lower meniscus (air-water interface)
is formed. This means that there is a pressure difference between the two sides of
the top surface. This is given by
( ) ( )
( )
………………………. (1)
Where is the radius of curvature of the meniscus .
Thus, the pressure of the water inside the tube, just at the meniscus (air-water
interface) is less than the atmospheric pressure.
Consider the two points A and B as shown in figure. They should be at the same
pressure

( ) ……………………. (2)
Where is the density of water
From (1) and (2)
……………………. (3)
This is the expression for capillary rise.
Using the capillary rise the surface tension of a given liquid can be calculated by
using ( )
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NOTE:
1) For liquid, which do not wet capillary tube, the liquid level falls inside the
capillary tube i.e depression is formed.
Here θ > 900 , is –ve h is also
2) For a given liquid T, θ , and g are constants
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Detergents and surface tension:
Dirty clothes containing grease, oil stains cannot be remove by pure water
alone. This is because of the area of contact between water and grease is very
small. Hence water does not wet grease (or) oil dirt and its surface tension is very
high. When detergents are added the surface tension of water will decrease and
area of contact between them increases. The oil or grease particle mixed with soap
solution easily and forms water greases interface. When clothes are soaked in soap
solution and shaking, it will carry away the grease or oil dirt, and hence cloths are
cleaned easily.
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Effect of Impurities on Surface Tension of Liquid:
1. When a liquid consists of soluble impurities, the surface tension of the liquid
increases
 2. When a sparingly soluble impurity like phenol is dissolved in water, the
surface tension decreases
Effect of temperature on Surface Tension:
 Surface tension of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature.