SRM MADURAI

COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

UNIT-I
WATERANDITSTREATEMENTS
Introduction:
Water is the most important compound for the existence of human beings,
animals and plants. About 80% of the earth's surface is occupied by water. The main
sources of water are,
 Rain
 Rivers and lakes (surface water)
 Wells and springs (underground water)
 Sea water.

The process of removing all types of impurities from water and making it fit for
domestic or industrial purposes is called water treatment. Before treating the water, we
should know the nature as well as the amount of impurities.

Types of impurities in Water:

The impurities present in the water may be broadly classified in to three types:

Impurities

Physical Chemical Biological

impurities Impurities Impurities

Impurities
# Suspended impurities. # Dissolved Salts

# Colloidal impurities # Dissolved gases

1. Physical impurities

(a) Suspended impurities like sand, oil droplets, vegetable and animal matter,
impart turbidity to water.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

(b) Colloidal impurities like finely divided silica, clay and organic waste
products impart colour, odour and taste to water.

2. Chemical impurities

(a) Dissolved salts like bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of Ca and Mg and
carbonates, bicarbonates of Na and K.
(b) Dissolved gases like O2, CO2, H2S, SO2 make the water “acidic". So they
accelerate the rate of corrosion.

3. Bacterial impurities like fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms cause diseases.

Water quality parameters:

The quality of water is very important parameter to be determined in order to
decide the type of application or treatment required. The quality of water varies to
place to place and seasons.

1. Colour
2. Taste and odours
3. Turbidity and sediments
4. PH
5. Alkalinity
6. TDS
7. Fluride
8. Arsenic
9. Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD)
10. Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD)

1. Colour:

Colour is a shade imparted by organic or inorganic material, which changes the

appearance of the water.

Colour is found mostly in surface water. The colours of natural water range
from pale straw through yellowish-brown to dark brown. The colour of natural
waters is mainly due to the presence of dissolved or colloidal organic or inorganic
materials.

Sources:

1. Organic sources ⇒ Algae, tannins, humic compounds organic dyes, etc.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

2. Inorganic sources ⇒ Fe and Mn compounds, chemicals and inorganic dyes from

various industries.

Sanitary Significance:

 The colours and the materials which produce colour are often objectionable in
which the water and the manufactured product come into contact.

Eg: Dyeing, scouring and laundering

 Variation in colour of water from the same source with time serves as index of
quality of the water.

Eg: a) Yellowish tinge ⇒ indicates the presence of ‘Cr' and organic matter.

(b) Yellowish red ⇒ indicates the presence of iron.

(c) Red-brown ⇒ indicates the presence of peaty matter.

Removal of colour:

Colour and colour producing materials are removed by coagulation, settling,

adsorption and filtration.

2. Tastes and Odours:

Taste:

Taste is the sensation of flavour perceived in the mouth and throat on contact
with a substance.

Odour:

Odour is a smell (or) scent caused by one (or) more volatilized chemical
compounds that are generally found in low concentration.

Sources:

Organic sources: Algae and decaying vegetation, etc.

Inorganic sources: Mercaptans, amines and sulphides, etc.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

The tastes and odours observed in chlorinated waters are due to chloro-organic
compounds formed by the reaction between chlorine and organic matter present in the
water.

Significance:

 Disagreeable odours and tastes are objectionable for various industrial

processes such as food products, beverages, textiles, paper, pulp. Most of the
odours in natural waters are organic in nature, except H2S.

 Taste helps us to decide what to eat and influences how efficiently we digest
these foods.

Removal of Tastes and Odours:

 Organic tastes and odours may be removed by aeration (or) activated carbon
treatment.

 Inorganic tastes due to H2S (or) Iron may be removed by chemical methods
like oxidation, chlorination (or) precipitation

3. Turbidity and sediments:

Turbidity is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the presence of

finely divided, insoluble impurities suspended in water.

Sources:

1. Inorganic sources

Clay, silt, silica, ferric hydroxide, calcium carbonate, sulphur, etc.,

2. Organic sources

Finely divided vegetable or animal matter, oils, fats, greases, micro-organisms, etc.,

Significance:

 Turbidity affects the taste and odour of drinking water.

 As turbidity affects the disinfection process, it must be removed.

 Turbidity have many negative effects on aquatic life, it block light to aquatic
plants, aquatic organisms.

Removal of Turbidity and Sediments:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Turbidity of water may be removed by sedimentation followed by

(a) Coagulation and filtering

(b) Coagulation and settling

(c) Coagulation, settling and filtering.

4.pH

The hydrogen ion concentration is represented by the pH value, which is

defined as

pH = - log10[H+]

pH is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. The pH value

ranges from 0-14 as

0< 7< 14

Acidic < -------- Neutral → Basic

Generally pH of natural waters lies in the neutral range. For drinking water
recommended pH = 6.5 to 8.5. For irrigation recommended pH = 6.0 to 9.0. Some
surface waters passing over areas rich in sodium and potassium posses alkaline pH.
The rain water contaminated by the dissolved gases such as SO2 and NOx will have
acidic pH.

Significance of pH:

 pH determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in water).

 It also determines the biological availability (amount that can be utilized by

aquatic life).

5. Alkalinity

Alkalinity of water is a measure of its acid-neutralising ability. The natural

alkalinity in waters is imparted by the hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates.

Sources:

Hydroxides, carbonates and bicarbonates of alkali metals, borates, silicates,

phosphates. ⇒ Industries like fertilizer, detergent, leather and paint.

Sanitary significance:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

 Very high values of alkalinity are harmful to aquatic organisms.

 Alkalinity in boiler feed water causes caustic embrittlement of pipes.

Removal of Alkalinity:

Alkalinity in water, can be removed by adding limited amount of HCl.

6. TDS:

TDS stands for Total Dissolved Solids. It is defined as the measure of all
inorganic and organic substances present in water.

Significance

 TDS impacts the salinity of water.

 TDS in water may not be ideal for your health and must be filtered out before
intake.

 Water with TDS level higher than 300 ppm may not be potable as it can taste
salty.

7. Fluoride:

Fluoride is found in ground water as a result of dissolution from geologic

formulations. Surface waters generally contain much smaller concentration of
fluoride.

Sources:

Fluoride containing minerals } ⇒ Fluorapatite (Ca10 F2 (PO4)6),

cryolite (Na3 AlF6) and igneous rocks containing fluosilicates.

Contaminated domestic sewage, run-off from agricultural lands } ⇒ Phosphate

fertilizers

Sanitary significance:

 Optimum fluoride concentrations, prescribed in public water supplies, are in

the range of 0.7 to 1.2 mg / lit.
 Beneficial health effects have been observed where the fluoride levels are
optimum.
 If the fluoride concentration is low in drinking water it causes dental caries in
children.

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Removal of fluoride (Defluoridation):

 Precipitation using aluminium salts in alkaline media.

 Using strongly basic anion exchange resin.

8. Arsenic:

Arsenic is a metallic element that forms a number of poisonous compounds. It

is found in nature at low levels, mostly in compounds, with oxygen, chlorine and
sulfur.

Source:

Arsenic can get into drinking water from natural deposits (or) runoff from
agriculture, mining and industrial processes.

Significance

 Long-term intake of arsenic contaminated water leads to arsenic poisoning with

cancer of skin, bladder, kidney.
 Association of arsenic contaminated water produces diabetes, hypertension and
reproductive disorders.
 Children may have more exposure to arsenic in drinking water. As a result,
children may be at greater risk of illness when higher levels of arsenic are
present.

9. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):

COD is defined as, “the measure of amount of oxyge required to chemically

oxidise all the oxidisable impuriti present in the sewage using an oxidising agent like
acidifie K2Cr2O7”.

Significance of COD:

 Determination of COD is carried out only in 3 hour but determination of BOD

is carried out after 5 days.

 It measures both the biologically oxidisable and biologically inert organic

matter.

 COD test is used to monitor water treatment plant efficiency.

10. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

BOD is defined as, “the amount of free oxygen require by bacteria for the
biological oxidation of the organic matter under aerobic conditions at 20°C for a
period of 5 days”.

Significance of BOD:

 It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter present in the sewage..

 Lesser the BOD, better is the quality of water. ie. the water sample with BOD
of less than 3 ppm is considere as pure water, whereas the water more than 4
ppm i considered as polluted water.

11. Hardness of Water:

Hardness is the property (or) characteristics of water, which does not produce
lather with soap.

Types of Hardness

Temporary hardness Permanent hardness

1. Temporary hardness (or) Carbonate hardness (CH) (or) Alkaline hardness

This is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can

be removed by

(i) boiling the water

(ii) (ii) adding lime to the water.

2. Permanent hardness (or) Non-carbonate hardness (NCH) (or) Non-alkaline

hardness

This is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and

magnesium. It cannot be removed by boiling the water. But, it can be removed by

(i) Lime-soda process

(ii) (ii) Zeolite process.

Significance of Hardness:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

 Hardness affects the amount of soap that is needed to produce foam (or) lather.

 Hardness is very important in industrial uses, because it forms scale in heat

exchange equipment boilers and pipe lines.

TREATMENT OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC SUPPLY (Or) MUNICIPAL

WATER TREATMENT

Rivers and lakes are the most common sources of water used by municipalities.
This water should be free from colloidal impurities, domestic sewages, industrial
effluents and disease producing bacterias. Hence domestic supply of water involves
the following stages in the purification processes.
Sources of
Water Screening Aeration Coagulation
Filtration

Sterilisation (or) Disinfection Sedimentation

I. Primary Treatment:

1. Screening:

It is a process of removing the floating materials like, leaves, wood pieces, etc.
from water. The raw water is allowed to pass through a screen, having large number
of holes, which retains the floating materials and allows the water to pass.

2. Aeration:

The process of mixing water with air is known as aeration. The main purpose
of aeration is

 To remove gases like CO2, H2S and other volatile impurities causing bad taste
and odour to water.

 To remove ferrous and manganous salts as insoluble ferric and manganic salts.

3. Sedimenation:

It is a process of removing suspended impurities by allowing the water to stand

undisturbed for 2-6 hours in a biy tank. Most of the suspended particles settle down at

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

the bottom, due to forces of gravity, and they are removed. Sedimentation removes
only 75% of the suspended impurities.

4. Coagulation:

Finely divided clay, silica, etc. do not settle down easily and hence cannot be
removed by sedimentation. Such impurities are removed by coagulation method.

In this method certain chemicals, called coagulants, like alum,

Al2(SO4)3 etc.are added to water. When the Al2(SO4)3 is added to water, it gets
hydrolysed to form a gelatinous precipitate of Al(OH)3. The gelatinous precipitate of
Al(OH)3 entraps the finely divided and colloidal impurities, settles to the bottom and
can be removed easily.

5. Filtration:

It is the process of removing bacteria, colour, taste, odour and suspended

particles, etc., by passing the water through filter beds containing fine sand, coarse
sand and gravel. A typical sand filter is shown in the figure 1.1.

The sand filter consists of a tank containing a thick top layer of fine sand
followed by coarse sand, fine gravel and coarse gravel. When the water passes
through the filtering medium, it flows through the various beds slowly. The rate of
filtration decreases slowly due to the clogging of impurities in the pores of the sand
bed. When the rate of filtration becomes very slow, the filtration is stopped and the
thick top layer of fine sand is scrapped off and replaced with clean sand. Bacterias are
also party removed by this process.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

II. STERILISATION (or) DISINFECTION

 The process of destroying the harmful bacterias.

 The chemical used is called disinfectants.

1. By using ozone:
 O3 → O2 + [0]
 Nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and kills the bacterial.
Disadvantages:
 Costly process.
 Cannot be used large scale.
 Ozone cannot be store.
2. By using ultraviolet (UV) radiation:
Electric Used for

Mercury Vapour Lamp UV Rays sterilizing water in swimming

Current
pool
Disadvantages
 It is costly.
 Turbid water cannot be treated.

3. By Chlorination:
 The process of adding chlorine to water
Following methods:
I. By adding chlorine gas:
 Chlorine gas can be bubbled in the water – good disinfectant.
II. By adding Chloramine:
Cl2 + NH3 ClNH2 + HCL
Chlorine Ammonia Chloramin
e
III. By adding Bleaching powder:
CaOCl2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Bleaching powder

Cl2 + H2O HCL + HOCl

HypochlorousAcid

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

HOCL + Bacterias Bacteria’s are the killed

4 .Break – point Chlorination:

The water containing following impurities are
I. Bacteria’s
II. Organic impurities
III. Reducing substance (Fe2+,H2S etc…)
IV. Free ammonia
Process:
 Chlorine may be added to water directly as a gas (or) in the form of
bleaching powder.
 When chlorine is added to water. The result is graphically shows.

From the graph:

Step 1:

 Initially the amount of chlorine applied

 It is used to kill the bacterias and oxidation the reducing substance in
water.
 There is no free residual chlorine
Step 2:

 As the amount of applied chlorine increase, the amount of combined

residual chlorine also increases.
 This is due to formation of chloramine and other chloro componds.
Step 3:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

 At one point, on further chlorination, the oxidation of chloramines and

chloro compondsand other componds. There is a decrease in the
combined residual chlorine.
 This point is called as break point chlorination.
Significance:

 The Break point Chlorination eliminates Bacterias, reducing substances

in the water
 It eliminates bad taste and odour from the water.
DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER

The process of removing common salt (sodium chloride) from the water is
known as desalination. The water containing dissolved salts with a peculiar salty (or)
brackish taste is called brackish water.

Depending upon the quantity of dissolved solids, water is graded as

1. Fresh water - Contains < 1000 ppm of dissolved solids.

2. Brackish water - Contains > 1000 but < 35,000 ppm of dissolved solids.

3. Sea water - Contains > 35,000 ppm of dissolved solids.

Sea water and brackish water can be made available as drinking water through
desalination process. Desalination is carried out by reverse osmosis.\

REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO)

When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi-

permeable membrane, solvent (water) flows from a region of lower concentration to
higher concentration. This process is called osmosis. The driving force in this
phenomenon is called osmotic pressure.

If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on the higher

concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed i.e., solvent flows from higher
concentration to lower concentration. This process is called reverse osmosis (Fig. 1.3)
Thus, in the process of reverse osmosis pure water is separated from salt water. This
process is also known as super-filtration. The membranes used are cellulose acetate,
cellulose butyrate, etc.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Advantages:

 The life time of the membrane is high, and it can be replaced within few
minutes.

 It removes ionic as well as non-ionic, colloidal impurities.

 Due to low capital cost, simplicity, low operating, this process is used
for converting sea water into drinking water.

BOILER TROUBLES (OR) BOILER FEED WATER

The water fed into the boiler for the production of steam is called boiler feed
water. Boiler feed water should be free from turbidity, oil, dissolved gases, alkali and
hardness causing substances. If hard water obtained from natural sources is fed
directly into the boilers, the following troubles may arise.

Boiler troubles (or) disadvantages of using hardwater in boilers

1. Formation of Scales and sludges in boilers.

2. Priming and foaming (carry over).

3. Caustic embrittlement.

4. Boiler corrosion.

1. Formation of Scales and Sludges in boilers

When water is continuously converted into steam in , boilers (or) heat

exchangers, the concentration of dissolved salts in water increases progressively.
When the concentration of the salts reaches their saturation point, they are thrown out

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

in the form of precipitates on the inner walls of the boilers (or) heat exchangers. The
least soluble one gets precipitated first.

Sludge: Scale:

1. Sludge (Loose deposit):

If the precipitate is loose and slimy it is called sludge. Sludges are formed by
the substances like MgCl2, MgCO3, MgSO4 and CaCl2 . They have greater solubilities
in hot water than cold water.

2. Scale (Hard deposit):

On the other hand, if the precipitate forms hard and adherent coating on the
inner walls of the boiler, it is called scale. Scales are formed by substances like
Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and Mg(OH)2

Sludge:

1. Sludge is a loose slimy and non-adherent precipitate.

2. The main sludge forming substance are MgCO3 , MgCl2, MgCO3, and CaCl2 etc,.

3. Disadvantages : Sludges are poor conductors of heat. Excess of sludge formation

decreases the efficiency of boiler.

4. Prevention:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

o Sludge formation can be prevented by using softened water.

o Sludges can also be removed by “blow-down operation”.

o Blow-down operation is a process of removing a portion of concentrated

water frequently from the bolier during steam production.

Scale:

1. Scale is a hard, adherent coating.

2. The main scale forming substances are Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2.

3. Disadvantages : Scale act as thermal insulators. It decreases the efficiency of

boliler. Any crack developed on the scale, leads to explosion.

4. Prevention:

o Scale formation can be prevented by dissolving using acids like HCl,

H2SO4.

o Scale formation can be removed by

 External treatment.

 Internal treatment

o They can also be removed by applying thermal shocks, scrapers, wire

brush, etc,.

Disadvantages of Scale Formation:

1. Wastage of fuels:

Scales have low thermal conductivity, so the heat transfer from boiler to inside
water is not efficient. In order to provide steady supply of heat to water, overheating is
done and this causes wastage of fuel.

2. Decrease in efficiency:

Scales sometimes deposit in the valves and condensers of the boiler and choke.
This results in decrease efficiency of the boiler.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

3. Boiler explosion:

Sometimes due to overheating the thick scales may crack and causes sudden
contact of high heated boiler material with water. This causes formation of a large
amount of steam and high pressure is developed which may lead to explosion.

Prevention of scale formation:

1. At the initial stage, scales can be removed using scraper, wire brush etc.

2. If scales are brittle, they can be removed by thermal shocks.

3. By using suitable chemicals like dil. acids (for CaCO3 scale), EDTA (for
CaSO4 scale) with which they form suitable complexes.

4. If the scales are loosely adhering, they can be removed by frequent blow down
operation

2. Priming and Foaming (carry over):

During the production of steam in the boiler, due toʻrapid boiling, some
droplets of liquid water are carried along with steam. Steam containing droplets of
liquid water is called wet steam. These droplets of liquid water carry with them some
dissolved salts and suspended impurities, This phenomenon is called carry over. It
occurs due to printing and foaming.

1. Priming:
Priming is the process of production of wet steam. Priming is caused by
o High steam velocity.
o Very high water level in the boiler.
o Sudden boiling of water.
o Very poor boiler design.
Prevention:

Priming can be controlled by

o Controlling the velocity of steam.

o Keeping the water level lower.

o Good boiler design.

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

o Using treated water.

2. Foaming:

The formation of_stable bubbles above the surface of water is called foaming.
These bubbles are carried over by steam leading to excessive priming.

Foaming is caused by the

o Presence of oil, and grease,

o Presence of finely divided particles.

Prevention:

Foaming can be prevented by

o Adding coagulants like sodium aluminate, aluminium hydroxide,

o Adding anti-foaming agents like synthetic polyamides.

3. Caustic Embrittlement (Intercrystalline Cracking):

Caustic embrittlement means intercrystalline cracking of boiler metal.

Boiler water usually contains a small proportion of Na2CO3. In high pressure

boilers this Na2CO3 undergoes decomposition to give NaOH.

Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2

This NaOH flows into the minute hair cracks and crevices, usually present on
the boiler material, by capillary action and dissolves the surrounding area of iron as
sodium ferroate.

Fe + 2NaOH → Na2FeO2 + H2 ↑

This causes brittlement of boiler parts, particularly stressed parts like bends,
joints, rivets, etc., causing even failure of the boiler.

Prevention

Caustic embrittlement can be prevented by

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

o using sodium phosphate as softening agent instead of sodium carbonate.

o by adding tannin, lignin to the boiler water, which blocks the hair
cracks.

4. Boiler corrosion:

Corrosion in boilers is due to the presence of

1. dissolved oxygen.

2. dissolved carbon dioxide.

3. dissolved salts.

1. Dissolved oxygen:

Dissolved oxygen in water is mainly responsible for the corrosion of boiler.

The dissolved oxygen in water attacks the boiler material at higher temperature.

4Fe + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4Fe(OH)3 ↓

Removal of dissolved oxygen:

Dissolved oxygen can be removed by chemical (or) mechanical methods.

(a) Chemical method:

Sodium sulphite, hydrazine are some of the chemicals used for removing
dissolved oxygen.

2Na2SO3 + O2 → 2Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2 → N2 + 2H2O

Hydrazine is found to be an ideal compound for removing dissolved oxygen in

the water, since the products are water and inert N2 gas.

(b) Mechanical de-aeration:

Dissolved oxygen can also be removed from water by mechanical deaeration

(Fig. 1.5).

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

In this process, water is allowed to fall slowly on the perforated plates fitted inside the
tower. The sides of the tower are heated, and a vacuum pump is also attached to it.
The high temperature and low pressure produced inside the tower reduce the dissolved
oxygen content of the water.

2. Dissolved carbon dioxide:

Dissolved carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid, which is acidic and
corrosive in nature

CO2+ H2O → H2CO3

Carbon dioxide gas is also produced from the decomposition of bicarbonate

salts present in water.

Removal of dissolved Carbon dioxide:

(a) Carbon dioxide can be removed from water by adding a calculated amount of
NH4OH into water.

2NH4OH+CO2 → (NH4)2CO3 + H2O

(b) Carbon dioxide along with oxygen can also be removed mechanically by de-
aeration method.

3. Dissolved MgCl2:

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COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Acids, produced from salts dissolved in water, are also mainly responsible for
the corrosion of boilers. Salts like MgCl2, CaCl2, etc, undergo hydrolysis at higher
temperature to give HCl, which corrodes the boiler.

MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 ↓+ 2HCI

Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↓

FeCl2 + 2H2 O → Fe(OH)2 + 2HCI

Removal of acids by neutralization:

Corrosion by acids can be avoided by the addition of alkali to the boiler water.

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

TREATMENT OF BOILER FEED WATER (SOFTENING OR

CONDITIONING METHODS)

Water used for industrial purposes should be free from hardness producing
substances, suspended impurities and dissolved gases etc. The process of removing
hardness producing salts from water is known as softening (or) conditioning of water.

Treatment of Boiler Feed

Water

Internal Treatment External Treatment

Conditioning Methods Ion exchange Zeolite process

process
Phosphate Conditioning

Colloidal Conditioning

Sodium Aluminate
Conditioning

Calgon Conditioning
Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET
 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

1. Internal Conditioning (or) Internal Treatment (or) Boiler Compounds

It involves the removal of scale forming substance, which were not completely
removed in the external treatment, by adding chemicals directly into the boiler. This
chemicals are also called boiler compounds.

1. Phosphate conditioning

Scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate. It is used in high

pressure boilers. The phosphate reacts with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ salts to give soft sludges of
calcium and magnesium phosphates.

3 CaSO4 + 2 Na3PO4 → Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

Generally 3 types of phosphates are employed.

(a) Trisodium phosphate - Na3PO4 (Too alkaline) - used for too acidic water.

(b) Disodium hydrogen phosphate - Na2HPO4 (weakly alkaline) - used for weakly
acidic water.

(c) Sodium dihydrogen phosphate - NaH2PO4 (acidic) - used for alkaline water.

2. Colloidal conditioning

Scale formation can be avoided by adding colloidal conditioning agents like

kerosene, agar-agar, gelatin, etc., It is used in low pressure boilers. These colloidal
substances get coated over the scale forming particles and convert them into non-
adherent, loose precipitate called sludge, which can be removed by blow down
operation.

3. Sodium aluminate conditioning

Sodium aluminate (NaA1O2) under goes hydrolysis in boiler water to give

gelatinous white precipitate of aluminium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.

NaA1O2 + 2H2O → Al(OH)3 + NaOH

The sodium hydroxide, thus formed, precipitates magnesium as magnesium

hydroxide. The gelatinous precipitates of aluminium hydroxide and magnesium
hydroxide entrap the colloidal silica and finely divided solids and settled easily. This
can be removed easily by blow down operations.
Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET
 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

4. Calgon conditioning

Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2 [Na4(PO3)6]. This substance

interacts with calcium ions forming a highly soluble complex and thus prevents the
precipitation of scale forming salt.

2 CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] → Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2 Na2SO4.

The complex Na2 [Ca2(PO3)6] is soluble in water and there is no problem of

sludge disposal. So calgon conditioning is better than phosphate conditioning.

2. External conditioning (or) External Treatment

It involves the removal of hardness producing salts from the water before
feeding into the boiler. The external treatment can be done by two process

1. Demineralisation (or) Ion-exchange process

2. Zeolite process.

1. lon Exchange (or) Demineralisation process

This process removes almost all the ions (both anions and cations) present in
hard water.

The soft water, produced by zeolite processes, does not contain hardness
producing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, but it contains other ions like Na+, K+, SO2-4, Cl- etc.,
On the other hand D.M. (Demineralised) water does not contain both anions and
cations.

Thus a soft water is not demineralised water whereas a demineralised water is soft
water.

Demineralisation process is carried out by using ion exchange resins, which are
long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers with a microporous structure. The
functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion exchanging
properties. The following two types of ion exchange resins are used.

1. Cation exchange resin (or) cation exchanger

2. Anion exchange resin (or) Anion exchanger

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

1. Cation exchanger

Resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH -SO3H) are capable of

exchanging their H+ ions with other cations of hard water. Cation exchange resin is
represented as RH2.

Examples

(i) Sulphonated coals.

(ii) Sulphonated polystyrene.

R - SO3H ; R-COOH ≡ RH2

2. Anion Exchanger

Resins containing basic functional groups (-NH2, -OH) are capable of

exchanging their anions with other anions of hard water. Anion exchange resin is
represented as R (OH)2.

Examples

(i) Cross-linked quaternary ammonium salts.

(ii) Urea-formaldehyde resin.

Process:

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

The hard water first passed through a cation exchange column, (Fig. 1.6) which
absorbs all the cations like Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, etc., present in the hard water.

RH2 + CaCl2 → RCa + 2HCl

RH2 + MgSO4 → RMg + H2SO4

RH + NaCl → RNa + HCl

The cation free water is then passed through a anion exchange column, which
absorbs all the anions like Cl-, SO2-4, HCO-3, etc., present in the water.

R'(OH)2 + 2HC1 → R'Cl2 + 2H2O

R'(OH)2 + H2SO4 → R'SO4 + 2H2O

The water coming out of the anion exchanger is completely free from cations
and anions. This water is known as demineralised water (or) deionised water.

Regeneration

When the cation exchange resin is exhausted, it can be regenerated by passing a

solution of dil HCl (or) dil H2SO4.

RCa + 2HCl → RH2 +CaCl2

RNa + HCI → RH + NaCl

Similarly, when the anion exchange resin is exhausted, it can be regenerated by

passing a solution of dil NaOH.

R'Cl2 + 2NaOH → R'(OH)2 + 2NaCl.

Advantages of ion-exchange process

o Highly acidic (or) alkaline water can be treated by this process.

o The water obtained by this process will have very low hardness (nearly
2. ppm).

Disadvantages of ion-exchange process

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

o Water containing turbidity, Fe and Mn cannot be treated, because

turbidity reduces the output and Fe, Mn form stable compound with the
resin.

o The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.

2. Zeolite (or) Permutit process

Zeolites are naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. Its general

formula is Na2O. Al2O3 . xSiO2 .yH2O. (x = 2 – 10, y = 2 – 6) . Natural zeolites are
green sand and non-porous. The synthetic form of zeolite is known as permutit, which
is porous and possess gel like structure, hence it is generally used for water softening.

Synthetic zeolite is represented by Na2Ze. The sodium ions which are loosely held
in Na2Ze are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in the water.

Process:

When hard water is passed through a bed of sodium zeolite (Na2Ze), kept in a
cylinder (Fig. 1.7), it exchanges its sodium ions with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in the
hard water to form calcium and magnesium zeolites. The various reactions taking
place during softening process are

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2Ze → CaZe + 2NaHCO3

Mg(HCO3) 2 + Na2Ze → MgZe + 2NaHCO3

CaSO4 + Na2Ze → CaZe + Na2SO4

MgSO4 + Na2Ze → MgZe + Na2SO4

CaCl2 + Na2Ze → CaZe + 2NaCl

MgCl2 + Na2Ze → MgZe + 2NaCl

The softened water is enriched with large amount of sodium salts, which do not
cause any hardness, but cannot be used in boilers.

Regeneration

After some time zeolite gets exhausted. The exhausted zeolite is again
regenerated by treating with 10% solution of NaCl.

CaZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + CaCl2

MgZe + 2NaCl → Na2Ze + MgCl2

Advantages of Zeolite process

o Water obtained by this process will have only hardness of 1-2 ppm.
o This method is cheap, because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
o No sludge is formed during this process
o The equipment used is compact and occupies a small space.
o Its operation is easy.

Disadvantages of Zeolite process

o Turbid water cannot be treated, because it blocks the pores of the zeolite
bed.
o Acidic water cannot be treated, because it decomposes the structure of
zeolite.
o The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts like NaHCO3,
Na2CO3, etc. When such water is boiled in boilers, CO2 and NaOH is
produced resulting in boiler corrosion and caustic embrittlement.

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET

 SRM MADURAI
COLLEGE FOR ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi | Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

o Water containing Fe, Mn cannot be treated because regeneration is very

difficult.
o This process cannot be used for softening brackish water, because
brackish water contains Na+ ions. So the ion exchange reaction will not
occur.

Dr.M.Ananda kumar,Assistant Professor,SRMMCET