UNIT-03

Q.Co-Channel Interference :-Definition:As discussed in frequency

reuse, a number of cells operating at the same set of frequencies are called
as the co-channel cells. And the interference taking place between the
signals originating from these cells is called as the co-channel
interference.

Co-channel cells :- In frequency reuse, a number of cells operate on the

same set of frequencies. Such cells are called as the co-channel cells.- And
the interference taking place between the signals originating from these
cells is called as the co-channel interference. The co-channel interference
can be reduced by separating the co-channel cells physically by a
minimum distance. Assume that all the cells are of the same size and all
the base stations are transmitting equal amount of power. Also let the cell
radius be (R) and the distance between centers of the co-channel cells that
are closest to each other be equal to (D).The co-channel interference
reduction ratio is denoted by D/R. The co-channel interference ratio is
independent of the transmitted power, but it will be dependent on the
values of R and D. If we increase the ratio (D/R) then the co-channel
interference will reduce.
Q.Adjacent Channel Interfernce :- Definition: The interference that
results from signals which are close (adjacent) in frequency domain to the
desired signal frequency is called as adjacent channel interference. The
principle of adjacent channel interference is illustrated in Fig. 3.12.2.
Fig.shows that due to imperfect receiver filters, the frequencies from
adjacent channels interfere with the passband of the desired signal to
create the adjacent channel interference. Near-far effect:The adjacent
channel interference will be serious if an adjacent channel user is
transmitting from a very close distance to the subscribers receiver. This is
called as the near-far effect in which a nearby strong transmitter captures
the subscriber's receiver.

Q.Mobile Controlled Hand-off:-Step 1: Handoff Detection :-The mobile

device continuously monitors the signal strength of the serving base
station and neighboring base stations. If the signal strength of the serving
base station falls below a certain threshold, the mobile device starts
searching for a new base station. Step 2: Handoff Decision:-The mobile
device selects the new base station based on various factors such as signal
strength, received signal quality, and network load. Step 3: Handoff
Execution :-The mobile device sends a handoff request message to the
new base station. The new base station verifies the availability of
resources and initiates the handoff procedure.The mobile device switches
its connection to the new base station. In some systems the mobile unit
continuously monitors the signals of surrounding base stations and
initiates the process of hand off when required. Such systems are known
as Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO). Advantages of MCHO:Faster
handoff process as the mobile device takes the initiative.More efficient
resource allocation as the mobile device selects the best available base
station.Disadvantages of MCHO:Increased processing overhead on the
mobile device.Requires complex algorithms for handoff decision
making.May not be suitable for all applications, especially real-time
applications.
 Q.Network-Controlled Hand-off (NCHO)Step 1: Handoff Detection
The base stations monitor the signal strength of the mobile devices within
their c:-overage areas. When the signal strength of a mobile device falls
below a certain threshold, the base station reports this information to the
BSC. Step 2: Handoff Decision The BSC selects a new base station for
the mobile device based on various factors such as signal
strength, network load, and available resources.Step 3: Handoff
ExecutionThe BSC sends a handoff command to the mobile device and
the new base station.The new base station prepares for the handoff by
allocating resources.The mobile device receives the handoff command
and switches its connection to the new base station.Advantages of
NCHO:-Simpler implementation as the mobile device does not need to
perform complex calculations.More centralized control allows for better
resource optimization.Disadvantages of NCHO:Slower handoff process
as the network needs to make decisions before initiating the handoff. May
not always select the best base station for the mobile device.In analogue
systems such as in AMPS the base stations performs the radio channel
measurments and the mobile terminal is totally passive it is known as
Nnetwork-Controlled Handoff (NCHO).

Q.Frequency Reuse :- Concept In frequency reuse concept the radio

channels use the same frequency to cover different areas that are
physically separate from each other. in frequency reuse it is necessary to
see that the co-channel interference is not objectionable. Frequency reuse
is an important concept because . in this a single transmitter of higher
power need not be used to cover the entire area. Instead many transmitter
of small output power operating at the same frequency can be used. This
technique also reduces the minimum height of the transmitting antenna,
because now each antenna has to cover a small area. Frequency reuse is
very important concept of the cellular mobile radio system. The users
located in different geographical areas ie different cells can use the same
frequency simultaneously. The advantage of frequency reuse is that it
drastically increases the spectrum efficiency but the disadvantage is that
if the system is not designed properly then co-channel interference may
take place.
Q.Cell Sectoring:- Definition: - Sectoring is another method of
increasing the number of channels per unit area. But the technique is
different than that used for cell splitting. - Sectoring is a technique in
which an omni directional antenna at the base station is replaced by
several directional antennas. - In sectoring, the cell radius R is kept
constant and the D/R ratio is decreased. Concept: - The Sectoring
technique is used for increasing the signal to interference ratio (SIR) so as
to reduce the cluster size N. - In the sectoring approach, the SIR improves
due to the use of directional antennas, and the system capacity increases
as the number of cells are reduced in a cluster and the frequency reuse is
increased. However all this can be achieved only if we reduce the
interference, by keeping the transmitter power unchanged. The co-channel
interference is reduced by replacing the omni-directional antenna at the
base station by several directional antennas. Each directional antenna is
allowed to radiate within a specific sector, so that that the transmitters in
adjacent cells will not interfere with each other. The amount of reduction
in the co-channel interference depends on the amount of sectoring. During
the process of cell sectoring, the number of cells that make up a particular
cluster is reduced, and the distance that separates co-channels is also
brought closer together. Therefore, cell sectoring is the process of
reducing co-channel interference in order to boost the capacity of the
cellular system. Types of sectoring: There are two types of sectoring as
shown in Fig. 3.13.2(a) and (b) namely, 120° sectoring and 60° sectoring.
In the 120° sectoring, a cell is divided into three sectors, with each sector
occupying 120° whereas in 60° sectoring a cell is split into six sectors
with each sector occupying 60°. - While carrying out the sectoring, the
channels used in a cell are divided into sectored groups (3 or 6) and used
only within a particular sector (1, 2, 3 or 1, 2, 6) as shown in Fig. 3.13.2(a)
and (b).
Q.Cell Splitting :- Definition- Cell splitting is the technique of dividing
a larger cell into smaller cells to increase capacity in congested areas.
Separate antennas are placed in smaller cells which transmit low power
compared to larger cells. Concept:-In order to improve the spectrum
efficiency of a cellular mobile systems, we can take the following two
steps:1 Implement some frequency reuse technique. 2. Use the cell
splitting technique. Every cell is supposed to handle a particular value of
maximum traffic. But sometimes the demand (traffic) is higher thar. this
maximum permissible traffic which can be handled by a cell. Under such
circumstances, a technique called cell splitting is used for handling the
increased traffic within that cell. In cell splitting, the cell boundaries are
changed in such a way that the local area which was earlier considered as
one single cell will now contain a number of smaller calls. These new cells
which are smaller than the original cells are called as microcells. Thus in
cell splitting the original cell is split into smaller cells.Generally the radius
of a new cell is one half of the radius of the original cell as shown in Fig

Hand-off/Hand-over :- Definition: The call in progress will continue

even when the mobile station moves from one cell to the other. This
process of continuing the call in progress without terminating it is called
as "hand-off". - It is also called as handover. Need of hand-offs: - Assume
that there is a call going on between two parties over a voice channel. -
When the mobile unit moves out of coverage area of a particular cell site,
the reception becomes weak.
Then the present cell site will request a handoff. The system will switch
the call to a new cell site without interrupting the call. This procedure is
called as the hand off procedure or handover procedure. The user can
continue talking without even noticing that the handoff procedure has
taken place. The advantage of handoff procedure is increase in the
effectiveness of the mobile system.

Fig. 3.11.1 shows two co-channel cells separated by a distance D and

using the frequency f₁. Other cells such as C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 etc. exist
in- between the two co-channel using frequency f₁. The cells C1, C2, C3
and C4 use different frequencies f1, f2, f3, f4, etc. as shown in Fig. 3.11.1.
Suppose a mobile unit initiates a call in cell C₁ and then moves to cell C2.
-Then as it starts going away from C₁, the call is dropped and reinitiated
in the frequency channel from f₁ to f₂ when the mobile unit (such as car)
moves form C₁ to C2 Similarly when the mobile unit moves from cell C₂
to C, the frequency is changed automatically from f₂ to f, as shown in Fig.
3.11.1. The process of changing the frequency is done automatically by
the system and the user does not even notice it.Significance of Handoff
in Cellular Systems :-1.Maintaining network capacity: By efficiently
transferring mobile devices between cells, handoff helps to prevent
overloading any single base station and ensures efficient use of network
resources.Improving network coverage: Handoff allows mobile devices
to access signals from multiple base stations, which can help to extend the
coverage area of the cellular network. Providing better quality of
service (QoS): Handoff helps to maintain a consistent signal strength for
mobile devices, even when they are moving. This is especially important
for real-time applications like voice calls and video streaming. Algorithm
for Handoff :- Signal strength monitoring: The mobile device and the
base stations continuously monitor the signal strength of neighboring
cells. Handoff detection: When the signal strength of the current serving
cell falls below a certain threshold, the mobile device or the network
infrastructure determines that a handoff is necessary. Target cell
selection: The mobile device or the network infrastructure selects a new
base station to which the mobile device will be handed off. Handoff
initiation: The mobile device or the network infrastructure initiates the
handoff process by sending a message to the new base station. Handoff
execution: The new base station allocates resources for the mobile device
and establishes a connection. Completion: The mobile device switches
its connection to the new base station and continues its communication
session Q.Types of Hand-off :- 1. Hard hand off: The hand off is known
as hard handoff if a mobile station transmits between two base stations
operating on different frequencies. It means that all the old radio links in
the MS are removed before the new radio links are established It is
generally used in GSM. We can say that it is a Break before Make strategy
Hence in this case higher rates of call drops is found When mobile (in
Call) switches to a new sector/Cell which is on different frequency, then
it performs hard Handover. It is basically an inter-frequency handover.2.
Soft hand off: -The hand off is known as soft handoff if the MS starts
communication with a new base station without stopping the
communication with the older base station. In a soft hand off the operating
frequencies of the old and new base stations are identical. Soft hand off
enhances the signal by providing different-site selection diversity. In
simple words we can say that the soft hand-off is based on the Make
before Break strategy. This technique is used to lower the rates of call
drops, Soft hand-off is used in CDMA systems. 3. Delayed hand off(Two
level hand-off):-In many situations, instead of one level, a two level
handoff procedure is followed, in order to ensure a higher possibility of a
successful handoff.A hand off can be delayed if no available cell could
accept the call. 4. Forced handoff: A forced handoff is defined as the
hand off which would normally occur but is not allowed to happen by
force or a handoff that should not occur but is forced to take place. 5.
Queued handoff: In the queued handoff process, the MTSO arranges the
handoff requests in a queue instead of rejecting them, if it finds that new
cell sites are too busy to makes the handoff possible. These handoff
requests are then acted upon in a sequential manner. Queueing of handoffs
is more effective than the two threshold handoff. 6.MAHO: Mobile
Assisted Hand-off: In the second-generation (2G) systems, the hand off
decisions is assisted by the mobile stations. The mobile assisted hand offs
are known as MAHO In MAHO, every mobile station measures the power
it receives from all the base stations around it and continuously reports
these measured power levels to the serving base station If the power
received from the base station of the neighbouring cell begins to go
beyond the power received from the current base station by a certain
margin then the hand off will be initiated. The advantage of MAHO is that
this method reduces the time required to handover the call between the
base stations. MAHO is particularly suitable for the microcellular
environment where the hand off procedure needs to be followed very
frequently.7.inter cell hand-off:- During an ongoing call, if a mobile
station moves from one cell to another cell, then the corresponding
handover is known as inter cell hand-off. Thus the inter cell hand-off
switches a call in progress from one cell to the other cell. 8.Intra cell
hand-off:- The Intra cell handover is the handover within one sector or
between different sectors of the same cell. It does not require network
connections to be altered The intra cell handover switches a call in
progress from one channel to the other channel of the same cell.
Q.Draw a neat diagram of GSM Architecture and explain the
function of each block in it.

Mobile station (MS): This equipment is used to support the connections

of the external terminals such as a PC or FAX. Base station subsystem
(BSS): The BSS and MS are connected to each other via a radio interface.
It is also connected to NSS in the same way. GSM operation is based on
the open system inter connection (OSI) model.
Network and switching subsystem (NSS): NSS as uses an intelligent
network (IN). A signaling NSS is one of the main switching function of
GSM. The primary job of NSS is the management of the communication
between GSM users and other communication users.
Each BSC has hundreds of BTSs. (Bus Transceiver Stations) connected
to it. These BTSs are controlled by the corresponding BSCs. The BTSs
are connected to BSCs either physically or via microwave links or
dedicated leased lines. The interface between BTS to BSC is called as
Abis interface. This interface is expected to carry the voice data (traffic)
and maintenance data.
- The BSCs are physically connected to MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
via dedicated / leased lines or microwave link. This interface is known as
the A interface.
The NSS contains three different databases, called Home Location
Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR) and Authentication
Center (AUC).
The HLR is a database containing the subscriber information and location
information of each user, who is staying in the same city as MSC.
Each subscriber is assigned a unique International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI) and this number will identify each user.
VLR database is used to temporarily store the IMSI and customer
information for each roaming subscriber.
AUC is the strongly protected database which takes care of authentication
and handles the encryption keys for all the subscribers in HLR and VLR.
The OSS supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC).
The OMC is used for monitoring and maintaining the performance of each
MS, BS, BSC and MSC used in a GSM system.

Q.What is Handoff? Why is it necessary in mobile Cellular System?

Explain mechanism of handoff:-Handoff, also known as handover, is
the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one base
station to another in a cellular network. This occurs when a mobile user
moves between different cells, ensuring uninterrupted
communication.Why is Handoff Necessary:-Limited coverage area of
individual cells: Cellular networks are divided into hexagonal cells, each
served by a base station. As a user moves across these cells, the signal
strength from the original base station weakens, necessitating a switch to
a new one with better signal strength. Maintaining quality of
service: Handoff ensures consistent call quality and data transfer rates by
preventing dropped calls and data interruptions. Efficient resource
allocation: By dynamically assigning mobile devices to base stations
with better signal strength, handoff optimizes network resources and
prevents overloading any single base station. Mechanism of Handoff:

1. Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO):The mobile device monitors

the signal strength of nearby base stations. When the signal strength of the
current serving cell falls below a certain threshold, the mobile device
initiates the handoff process by selecting a new base station with better
signal strength. The mobile device sends a handoff request to the new base
station. The old and new base stations coordinate the handoff, ensuring a
smooth transition. The mobile device switches its connection to the new
base station.2. Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO):-The base
stations and the Base Station Controller (BSC) monitor the signal strength
of mobile devices within their coverage areas.When the signal strength of
a mobile device falls below a certain threshold, the base station reports
this information to the BSC.The BSC determines the need for handoff and
selects a new base station for the mobile device.The BSC sends handoff
commands to the old and new base stations.The old and new base stations
coordinate the handoff, ensuring a smooth transition.The mobile device
receives the handoff command and switches its connection to the new
base station.

Q.Cell Geometry :- The signal strength decreases as it travels a from the

base station. The coverage area of a BS is defined as the region over which
the signal strength is highe than the threshold value say X dB. If the
antenna at BS is assumed to be isotrope then the coverage area must be a
circular region Footprint is defined as the actual radio coverag of a cell.
We can find out the footprint either from the fig measurements or the
propagation predictio models. Fig. 3.5.1 shows the footprints of different
cal present in the same geographical area.

As shown in Fig. 3.5.1 there may be an over between the adjacent circular
coverage areas there may be a gap between the coverage are of two
adjacent cells. Therefore we cannot use such a circular geometry, as a
regular shape to describe cells. It is important that for the cells of same
shape in the same geographical area, there are no ambiguous areas
belonging to multiple cells or to no cell. These requirements are satisfied
if each cell is having one of the following shapes: equilateral triangle,
square or regular hexagon.

Out of these shapes, the hexagonal cell is the closest approximation of a

circle. It is used for the cellular system. . Hexagonal shape makes the
analysis of a cellular system easy and manageable. 2. The circular cell
pattern allows either overlap or gaps in the adjacent cells. This is avoided
if hexagonal shape is selected. 3. A hexagon closely approximates the
circular radiation pattern and provides greater coverage without creating
ambiguous areas. 4. With the hexagon used as cell geometry, we need less
number of cells to cover a large area as compared to the triangular or
square cell geometry.
Q.List out steps in Cellular radio system design and need of frequency
reuse channels:-1.Frequency planning: This involves allocating radio
spectrum for different cells within the network, ensuring efficient use of
available frequencies and minimizing interference between
cells. Frequency reuse plays a significant role in this process. 2.Cell size
and site selection: Determining the size and location of cells depends on
factors like terrain, population density, and desired coverage area. Cell
size optimization balances capacity and coverage requirements. 3 Base
station selection and deployment: Choosing the appropriate base station
technology and antennas depends on the desired coverage
range, capacity, and traffic load.4.Handoff management: Implementing
effective handoff mechanisms ensures seamless connectivity for mobile
users as they move between cells. 5.Power control: Adjusting
transmission power levels of base stations helps manage interference and
optimize resource utilization. 6.Channel coding and
modulation: Selecting appropriate coding and modulation schemes
ensures reliable data transmission and efficient use of bandwidth.7.
Network management and optimization: Continuously monitoring and
optimizing the network through various techniques like cell breathing and
dynamic channel allocation ensures peak performance and user
experience.8.Security and authentication: Secure communication
protocols and encryption techniques are crucial for protecting user data
and preventing unauthorized access.
Need for Frequency Reuse Channels:
  Sharing the same spectrum across multiple cells: By carefully
spacing out cells that use the same frequency, co-channel
interference is minimized, allowing multiple users to share the same
spectrum simultaneously.
 Increased capacity: Frequency reuse allows for more users to be
accommodated within the same geographical area compared to
using unique frequencies for each cell.
 Improved spectral efficiency: By utilizing the same frequencies
multiple times, the overall system efficiency in terms of bits
transmitted per unit of spectrum is enhanced.

Q.Explain :- 1 Femtocells :-Femtocells are the smallest unit of hierarchy

used for connection of personal equipment such as laptops and cellular
telephones. The femtocells cover only few meters where these devices are
used within physical range of users. 2. Picocells :- Picocells are the small
cells inside a building that support local indoor networks. For example,
wireless LANS, Wi-Fi networks..The size of these networks is in the
range of a few tens of meters. 3. Microcells :- The microcells cover the
interiors of streets and its antenna is located at the heights lower than the
rooftop of the building. The microcell covers range of few hundreds of
meter. It is used for personal communication systems. 4. Macrocells:-
Macrocells cover metropolitan areas and its antennas are mounted above
the rooftop of the buildings in the coverage area. The macrocells cover
areas on the order of several kilometers.

UNIT-04
Q.Link Budjet Analysis :- In cellular communication system the link
power budget indicates how is the power getting consumed when the
signal is travelling from a transmitter to the receiver or vice versa. The
link budget takes into considerations various parameters, such as, the
transmitted power, antenna gains, various losses, cell sizes and shapes,
cell capacity, handoffs etc.
Path Loss : A very important criterion in the link budget analysis is the
path loss. We may define path loss as the signal power loss as a function
of distance.Therefore, the received signal strength varies with variation in
distance between transmitter and receiver. We can use various path loss
models to estimate the variation of received signal strength (RSS).
Various factors affecting the path loss are as follows: 1. Distance,2.
Frequency,3. Line of sight (LOS) or NLOS transmission,4. Antenna
heights,5. Type of terrain,6. Weather conditions
Q.Link Budget:Link budget of a cellular link is an equation which
contains the transmitted power, antenna gains, received power and all the
losses as follows: Pr(dBW) Pt(dBW) + ∑dB Gains - ∑dB Losses It is also
possible to write the link budget for S/N ratio at the receiver as follows:
S/N Pr(dBW) - Pn(dBW) = Pt (dBW) + ∑dB Gains - ∑dB Losses - Pn
(dBW)
Q.Grade of Service :-This is the parameter of congestion which is
specified as the probability of a call being blocked or call being delayed
beyond certain amount of time. - That means, some calls may be rejected
and retried when the lines are used by other subscribers. The grade of
service is defined as the proportion of unsuccessful calls as compared to
the total number of calls.GOS is defined as the ratio of lost traffic because
of busy hours to the offered traffic in busy hour.
GOS= Lost busy hour calls
Offered busy hour calls
GOS = A-A0
 A
Where,
A0 = Carried traffic
A = Offered traffic
A-A0 =Lost traffic.

Q.Blocking Probability :-We can define the blocking probability as the

probability that all servers in a system are busy. When all servers are busy,
the system cannot carry any further traffic. The basic difference between
GOS and blocking probability is that GOS is measured from subscriber
point of view while the blocking probability is a measured from the
network or switching point of view.
B= Number of calls lost
Number of calls offered

B= Traffic lost
Offered traffic

Q.Lost Call System:-The system in which a blocked call is merely

refused and then it is lost is called loss system. If the number of trunks is
finite and the number of users is higher, then there is a possibility of
system congestion.- If there is a new call request in the circumstances of
congestion, it is either rejected or delayed. A call system in which, a call
is rejected is known as the lost call system. An example of such a system
is the traditional analog telephone system.- If the call request is delayed
and waiting in queue so it is called as delayed call system e.g. modern
telephone networks.
Erlang determined Grade of Service (GoS) of lost call system of finite
number of trunks (N) based on following assumptions: 1. Pure chance
traffic 2. Statistical equilibrium 3. Full availability 4. Calls which face
congestion and get lost.

The assumption of pure chance traffic, implies that call arrival and call
termination are independent random events. The meaning of statistical
equilibrium is that probabilities do not change. The meaning of full
availability is that every arriving call can be connected to any outgoing
trunk which is free. And finally, the lost call assumption means that if any
attempted call encounters congestion, then the system immediately clears
it. Here we assume that the traffic offered is the sum of all successful and
unsuccessful calls. Let there be "x" calls in progress, then we can write,
Q.GoS and Blocking Probability in Lost Call System:We may define
the grade of service (B) in a los call system as follows:
B= Number of calls lost
Number of calls offered

B= Traffic lost
Offered traffic
We can use two formulae namely Erlang-B and Erlang-C to calculate the
blocking probability. We can select the appropriate formula based on the
method of handling of customers when all resources are busy Erlang-B
formula is used for lost-call systems when calls are lost due to all
resources being busy. Erlang-C is used for queueing systems when calls
are queued due to all resources being busy.
Significance of GOS and Blocking Probability:-The GOS is same as
the blocking probability. The value of GOS should be as low as possible.
A higher value of GOS implies that the probability of call loss during the
busy hour will be high. The significance of blocking probability is that
there is a chance of a customer being denied service due to lack of
resources. If the blocking probability of a system is 0.05 it means 5%.

Q.Queuing System :- Definition:The system which keeps call requests

waiting in queue because of unavailability of trunks is known as a queuing
system.A queue system consists of storage space services such as blocks
of memory in a message switching mode or it may consist of only list of
sources waiting for service.

Q.Second Erlang Distribution:- Let us now obtain the expression for

second Erlang distribution. The probability of encountering delay is based
on the following assumptions:-1. Pure chance traffic, 2. Statistical
equilibrium, 3. Full availability, 4. Calls encountering congestion will
enter a queue and are stored there until a server becomes free. Out of these
assumptions, the first three are common to those for a lost call system.
The queueing system with all these assumptions is known as M/M/N
queueing system. Under static equilibrium condition the offered traffic is
less than or equal to the number of trunks i.e. A ≤ N and the queue is not
needed. However if the traffic offered is higher than number of trunks i.e.
A ≥ N, then the queue comes into existence and its length increases with
increase in traffic. Let x be the total number of calls in the system of N
trunks.
We will consider the following two operating conditions:
1 Condition-1: xs Nand
2. Condition-2: x > N
Condition 1: - Xsn Here, the total number of calls (x) is less than number
of trunks. Therefore, there will be no delays in serving the calls and there
is no queue. This system behaves as the lost call system without any
congestion. For this operating condition, A x! P(x) = P(0)
Condition 2: x≥N Here, the number of calls (x) is much higher than the
number of trunks (N).Therefore, there will be delays in serving the calls
and the queues will come into existence. The incoming calls will
encounter delays because all the servers will be busy.
For this operating condition,
 UNIT-05

Q.Draw a neat diagram of GSM Architecture and explain the

function of each block in it.

Mobile station (MS): This equipment is used to support the connections

of the external terminals such as a PC or FAX. Base station subsystem
(BSS): The BSS and MS are connected to each other via a radio interface.
It is also connected to NSS in the same way. GSM operation is based on
the open system inter connection (OSI) model.
Network and switching subsystem (NSS): NSS as uses an intelligent
network (IN). A signaling NSS is one of the main switching function of
GSM. The primary job of NSS is the management of the communication
between GSM users and other communication users.
Each BSC has hundreds of BTSs. (Bus Transceiver Stations) connected
to it. These BTSs are controlled by the corresponding BSCs. The BTSs
are connected to BSCs either physically or via microwave links or
dedicated leased lines. The interface between BTS to BSC is called as
Abis interface. This interface is expected to carry the voice data (traffic)
and maintenance data.
- The BSCs are physically connected to MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
via dedicated / leased lines or microwave link. This interface is known as
the A interface.
The NSS contains three different databases, called Home Location
Register (HLR), Visitor Location Register (VLR) and Authentication
Center (AUC).
The HLR is a database containing the subscriber information and location
information of each user, who is staying in the same city as MSC.
Each subscriber is assigned a unique International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMSI) and this number will identify each user.
VLR database is used to temporarily store the IMSI and customer
information for each roaming subscriber.
AUC is the strongly protected database which takes care of authentication
and handles the encryption keys for all the subscribers in HLR and VLR.
The OSS supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC).
The OMC is used for monitoring and maintaining the performance of each
MS, BS, BSC and MSC used in a GSM system.
Q.LTE Radio Protocol Architecture :-

The transmission protocol of LTE consists of the following layers.

1. Physical layer, 2. Data link layer, 3. Network layer
1. Physical layer (PHY):-Physical Layer (PHY) is responsible for the
coding/decoding. modulation/demodulation, multi-antenna mapping, and
other typical physical-layer functions. The physical layer provides
services to the MAC layer in the form of transport channels. 2. Data link
Layer: The Data Link layer in the LTE protocol stack is subdivided into
three sublayers:-Medium Access Layer (MAC), Radio link control(RLC),
PDCP (Packet Data Convergence protocol), 3.Medium Access Layer
(MAC): Medium-Access Control (MAC) handles functions like
multiplexing of logical channels, hybrid-ARQ retransmissions and uplink
and downlink scheduling.The scheduling functionality is situated in the
eNodeB for both uplink and downlink.The hybrid-ARQ protocol is
present in both the transmitting and receiving ends of the MAC
protocol.The MAC layer offers services to the RLC layer in the form of
logical channels.4.Radio link control(RLC): The packets that are more
suitable for the transmission over the radio channel called as PDU
(Protocol Data Unit), are generated by concatenating the RLC
segments.Radio-Link Control (RLC) is responsible for the
segmentation/concatenation, retransmission handling, duplicate detection
and in-sequence delivery to higher layers. The RLC layer provides
services to the PDCP layer. PDCP (Packet Data Convergence protocol):
PDCP is the topmost layer of LTE protocol stack. It is responsible for the
data integrity and IP header compression and decompression.PDCP is also
responsible for ciphering and deciphering operations. It transmits its
packets known as SDU (service data units) to the RLC (Radio Link
Control) layer.3. Network layer :-This layer is similar to the Network
layer in the OSI model.Network layer is further divided into three
sublayers.1. Non-Access Stratum (NAS), 2. RRC sublayer,3. Internet
Protocol (IP)

Q.LTE NETWORK ARCHITECTURE :-

1. Radio Access Network (RAN):The radio access network is also

known as EUTRAN or Evolved Universal Telecommunications System.
The Radio Access Network consists of an LTE mobile terminal, radio
interface and eNodeB LTE Mobile Terminals: LTE mobile terminals are
the mobile phones and other devices which support the LTE Radio
Interface Radio interface are the radio links that connect the LTE mobile
terminals and eNodeB eNodeB E-UTRAN Node B or eNodeBs are
located all over the network of the mobile operator and they connect the
LTE mobile terminal to the core network via radio interface S1 Functions
of eNodeB: The functions of eNodeB are as given below: 1.
Scheduling/Radio resource allocation.,2. Retransmission control.,3.
Physical layer functions.,4. Air interface communication
2. Core network (EPC):-The Enhanced Packet Core (EPC) developed
for the 4G is also known as System architecture evolution (SAE) which is
based on the packet switched transmission. The LTE Core Network is the
brain of 4G system. Core network consists of: a. Mobility management
Entity (MME), b. Serving gateway (S-GW),Packet data
network(PDN),Packet gateway (P-GW),d. Home subscriber server
(HSS),e. Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) 3.Mobility
management entity (MME): The function of MME is to handle the
signalling of messages, tracking, security and paging of mobile terminals
4.Serving gateway(S-GW): The serving gateway is connected to
RAN(Radio access network) through S1 interface. It serves as a router for
forwarding the data packets between the user equipment and the PDN
gateway.PON (Packat data network) gateway (P-GW) PON (Packet Data
Network) Gateway connects the EPC network with internet through SGI
interface PON routes traffic to and from the PON networks.5.HSS (Home
subscriber server): HSS (Home Subscriber Server) is the database of all
mobile users, which contains all data of subscriber. It is also responsible
for authentication and call and session setup.6.Policy and Charging
Rules Function: PCRF entity manages policy and charging rules. It
controls and manages all data sessions and offers suitable interfaces
towards charging and billing systems. It manages the QoS required by the
network and accordingly assigns the appropriate bearer-level QoS
parameters that must be in conventionality with the user's subscription.
Functions of core network:1. Charging and subscriber management.,2.
Mobility management.,3. Provision of quality of service.,4. Policy control
of user data flows.,5. Connection to other external networks.
3. Radio Interface:to understand different radio interfaces in LTE
Interface x2: This is an interface, which connects different base stations.
The important information required for the coordination of transmission
in neighboring cells can be exchanged through this interface. Interface S1
RAN is connected to the core network through interface $1.
Interface Uu: This is an interface, which connects UE (user equipment)
and eNodeB. This is an interface for the user plane between an E-UTRAN
and S-GW. It provides GTP tunnel per carrier. Interface S1-MME: This is
an interface for the control plane between an E-UTRAN and MME.
Interface S6a: This is an interface for the control plane between an HSS
and MME. It exchanges user subscription and authentication information.
Interface S5/S8: This is an interface defined for the control and user planes
between an S-GW and P-GW. Interface SGI: This is an interface defined
for thecontrol and user planes between an P-GW and Internet.

Q.LTE-A RADIO NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:-

1. E-UTRAN:Nodell in 3G system was replaced by evolved NodeB
(eNB) in LTE-A.eNodeB is a combination of NodeB and radio network
controller (RNC).The function of eNB is to communicate with User
Equipments (UE's) and serve one or several cells at one time.
2. Enhanced Packet Core (EPC):The evolved packet core (EPC)
consists of the following four components:a. Mobility management Entity
(MME), b. Serving gateway(S-GW),C. Packet data network(PDN)
gateway(P-GW)….The function of the mobility management entity
(MME) is to manage user Equipment (UE) access and mobility and
creates the bearer path for UE's.The responsibility of the serving gateway
(S-GW) is to route and forward packets between UE's and packet data
network (PDN) and charging. It is a mobility anchor point for handover.
PDN (Packet Data Network) Gateway connects the EPC network with
internet through SGI interface. PDN routes traffic to and from the PDN
networks. PCRF entity manages policy and charging rules.
3. Radio Interface: to understand different radio interfaces in
LTE.Interface x2: This is an interface, which connects different base
stations. The important information required for the coordination of
transmission in neighboring cells can be exchanged through this interface.
It connects UE (user equipment) and eNodeB.Interface S1: E-UTRAN is
connected to the core network through interface S1. This is an interface
for the user plane between an E-UTRAN and S-GW and MME.Interface
S5: This is an interface defined for the control and user planes between
an S-GW and P-GW.Interface S7: P-GW is connected to the PCRF
through interface 57.Interface SGI : This is an interface defined for the
control and user planes between an P-GW and Internet.
Q.LTE-A RADIO PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE:-

The protocol stack for the user plane includes PDCP (Packet Data
Convergence Protocol), RLC (Radio Link Control), MAC (Medium
Access Control), and the PHY protocol.The protocol stack for the control
plane additionally includes the RRC (Radio Resource Control) and NAS
(non-access stratum).Layers in Protocol Stack:-1. Physical Layer
(PHY),2. Medium Access Control (MAC),3. Radio Link Control
(RLC),4. Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP),5. Radio Resource
Control (RRC),6. Non-Access Stratum (NAS)
Physical Layer (PHY):Physical Layer (PHY) is responsible for the
coding / decoding, modulation / demodulation, multi-antenna mapping,
and other typical physical-layer functions.The physical layer provides
services to the MAC layer in the form of transport channels.Similar to
LTE, LTE-A uses OFDM technology to cancel the Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI).Medium Access Control (MAC):The MAC layer is
responsible for resource scheduling and Hybrid Automatic Repeat
Request (HARQ) for retransmission.
Radio Link Control (RLC):-The function of RLC layer is to manage the
delivery of the data. The responsibility of RLC is data segmentation based
on Transport Block Size (TBS)
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP):It is responsible for the
data integrity and IP header compression and decompression.PDCP is also
responsible for ciphering and deciphering operations, retransmission and
header compression of user dataRadio Resource Control (RRC):The
"RRC sublayer manages radio connections between the UE and the
eNodeß.RRC also manages security functions like authentication, and
authorization, handling mobility, roaming, and handovers.
Non-Access Stratum (NAS):The "Non-Access Stratum (NAS) layer is
responsible for mobility of the core network, authentication, registration,
connection/session management between UE and the core network.

Q.Compare LTE and LTE-A:-

SR.NO PARAMETER LTE LTE-ADVANCED

1. 3GPP releases Release 8/9 Release 10
2. Modulation Qpsk,16QAM,64QAM 64QAM, 64QAM
3 Duplex Method TDD and FDD TDD and FDD
4 Channel 1.4, 1.6, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 Upto 100 MHZ for
Bandwidth mhz downlink and 40
MHZ for uplink with
carrier aggregation
5 Spectral Efficiency Moderate 3 Times than that of
LTE
6 Peak data Rates Downlink 300 mbps Downlink: 1Gbps
Uplink 75 Mbps Uplink:1 Gbps
7 Mobillity < 350 kmph <350 kmph, <500@
Frequency Band
8 Access OFDMA/SC-FDMA OFDMA/SC-FDMA
Methodology
9 Latency roll out -10MS <5 ms
time
Q.Describe with neat diagram wireless LAN. Compare
Infrastructure and Adhoc based wireless LAN.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN):-A Wireless Local Area
Network (WLAN) is a computer network that uses radio waves to connect
devices within a limited area, typically within a home, school, office
building, or public space. Unlike a wired network that connects devices
using cables, a WLAN allows for a more flexible and mobile
environment.Components of a WLAN: Wireless Access Point
(AP): This acts as the central hub of the network. It is connected to the
wired network and transmits and receives data to and from wireless
devices. Wireless Router: This combines the functionalities of an AP and
a router, allowing devices to connect to both the wireless and wired
network and also providing internet access.Wireless Clients: These are
the devices that connect to the WLAN, such as laptops, smartphones,
tablets, and printers.Wireless Network Adapter: This is a hardware
component installed in the client devices that enables them to
communicate with the AP.Types of WLANs:1. Infrastructure: This is the
most common type of WLAN. It uses an access point to connect all
devices to the network and provide internet access. 2. Ad-hoc: This type
of WLAN does not require an access point. Devices connect directly to
each other and share resources without needing a central hub.
Comparison of Infrastructure and Ad-hoc WLANs:
Feature Infrastructure Ad-hoc WLAn
WLAN
Access Point Required Not Required
Range Wider Smaller
Security More Secure Less Secure
Scalability More Scalable Less Scalable
Cost Higher Setup Cost Lower Setup Cost
Complexity More Complex to set Easier to set up
up
Use Case Home, offices, Temporary Network
Schools
 Benefits of using a WLAN:-Flexibility: Users can move around within
the coverage area without losing their connection. Scalability: It is easy to
add new devices to the network. Cost-effective: No need for expensive
cabling. Easy to set up: Especially for ad-hoc networks.Challenges of
using a WLAN:-Security: WLANs are more vulnerable to security
threats than wired networks. Limited range: Signals can be blocked by
walls and other obstacles.Interference: Other wireless devices can
interfere with the signal.

Q.Compare various IEEE 802.11(802.11, 802.11a,

802.11b,80.211g,80.211n) standards.

Standard Frequency Maximum Range Year Main

Band Speed Introduced Features
802.11 2.4GHZ 2Mbps 300 feet 1997 First Wi-Fi
Standard, Low
Speed and
Range
802.11a 5GHZ 54Mbps 100feet 1999 High Speed,
Shorter Range
802.11b 2.4GHz 11Mbps 300feet 1999 Improved
Speed And
Compatibility
802.11g 2.4GHz 54Mbps 300feet 2003 Increased
Speed While
Maintaining
Compatibility
With 802.11b
802.11n 2.4GHz 600Mbps Up to 2009 Introduced
and 5GHz 1000 MIMO
feet Technology for
improved
Speed and
Range
Q.List various simulators used for simulation of wireless network. :-
1. Network Simulator 3 (NS-3):-Open-source and free software network
simulator, Widely used for academic research and development, Supports
various wireless protocols and technologies, Offers a large library of
modules for different network components, Provides powerful scripting
capabilities for customization 2. OMNeT++:-Open-source and free
software network simulator, Popular for research and development of
communication networks, Highly modular and customizable, Offers a
graphical user interface for model creation and simulation, Supports
various network protocols and technologies 3. QualNet :-Commercial
network simulator developed by Scalable Network Technologies, Widely
used by industry and government organizations, Offers a comprehensive
library of models and protocols, Provides powerful analysis tools for
network performance evaluation, Supports various wireless protocols and
technologies 4. OPNET:-Commercial network simulator developed by
Riverbed Technology, Offers a wide range of features for network
simulation, Supports various wireless protocols and technologies,
Provides powerful analysis tools for network performance evaluation,
Offers a user-friendly graphical interface 5. Jist/SWANS:-Open-source
and free software network simulator, Designed for large-scale network
simulation, Offers efficient and scalable simulation capabilities, Supports
various wireless protocols and technologies, Provides a scripting language
for customization6. NetSim:-Commercial network simulator developed
by Tetcos, Inc., Offers a user-friendly graphical interface for simulation
creation, Supports various wireless protocols and technologies, Provides
powerful analysis tools for network performance evaluation, Offers a
wide range of educational resources.7. REAL:-Open-source and free
software network simulator, Developed by the ns-3 consortium, Designed
for realistic simulation of radio networks, Offers a detailed radio
propagation model, Supports various wireless protocols and technologies
8. GlomoSim (GloMoSim):-Commercial network simulator developed
by Glomation, Inc., Offers advanced features for mobile network
simulation, Supports various wireless protocols and technologies,
Provides powerful analysis tools for network performance evaluation 9.
J-Sim:-Commercial network simulator developed by Anite, Inc., Offers
a wide range of features for wireless network simulation, Supports various
wireless protocols and technologies,Provides powerful analysis tools for
network performance evaluation 10. ONE Simulator:-Open-source and
free software network simulator, Designed for simulation of mobile ad
hoc networks (MANETs), Offers a simple and easy-to-use interface,
Supports various wireless protocols and technologies,Provides basic
analysis tools for network performance evaluation

Q.List our detail specification of LTE.

:-Detailed Specifications of LTE (Long Term Evolution)LTE is a standard
for high-speed wireless communication used in mobile networks.
General Specifications:-Technology: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency-
Division Multiple Access) in Downlink, SC-FDMA (Single-Carrier
Frequency-Division Multiple Access) in Uplink Frequency
Bands: Multiple bands between 700 MHz and 3.5 GHz Channel
Bandwidth: 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz Maximum Downlink Data Rate: Up
to 300 Mbps Maximum Uplink Data Rate: Up to 75 Mbps
Latency: Less than 5 milliseconds Duplex Modes: FDD (Frequency
Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex) Multiple Access
Techniques: HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request), MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output) IP Addressing: IPv4 and IPv6.
Network Architecture: -E-UTRAN (Evolved UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network): This consists of base stations called eNodeBs
(evolved Node Bs) and a central controller called the eNB (evolved Node
B). E-UTRAN Core Network (EPC): This consists of several functional
entities, including the MME (Mobility Management Entity), S-GW
(Serving Gateway), and P-GW (Packet Data Network Gateway). Key
Features: High Data Rates: Offers significantly faster data rates
compared to previous generations of mobile networks. Low
Latency: Provides low latency, making it suitable for real-time
applications like video conferencing and gaming. Improved Spectral
Efficiency: Utilizes advanced radio technologies to efficiently utilize the
available spectrum. Scalability: Can be easily scaled to accommodate
increasing data demands. Flexibility: Supports various frequency bands
and deployment modes. Evolution of LTE: LTE Advanced: Provides
further improvements in data rates, capacity, and spectral efficiency. 5G
NR (New Radio): The next generation of mobile network technology,
offering even faster speeds, lower latency, and greater capacity.
Applications of LTE: Mobile broadband internet access, Streaming
multimedia content, Online gaming, Mobile cloud computing, Internet of
Things (IoT)
Q.with neat diagram.explain in detail evolved packet core
architecture of LTE. :-Evolved Packet Core (EPC) Architecture in LTE
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is the core network architecture of LTE
and is responsible for connecting mobile devices to the internet and other
networks. It provides a flat, IP-based architecture that is significantly
simpler and more efficient than the core networks of previous generations
of mobile technology.Components of the EPC: Mobility Management
Entity (MME): The MME is responsible for managing the mobility of
user equipment (UE) within the network. It performs tasks such as
authentication, authorization, and location tracking.Serving Gateway (S-
GW): The S-GW is responsible for routing user data packets to and from
the UE. It also handles packet forwarding, security, and quality of service
(QoS) control.Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW): The P-GW acts
as the interface between the EPC and external networks, such as the
internet. It performs functions such as routing, address translation, and
charging.Home Subscriber Server (HSS): The HSS stores subscriber
information, including security credentials and service profiles. It is
accessed by the MME to authenticate users and authorize their access to
network resources.Policy and Charging Enforcement Function
(PCEF): The PCEF is responsible for enforcing policy rules and charging
information for data sessions. It controls the amount of bandwidth that a
UE can use and applies the appropriate charging rules.

Key Features of the EPC:Flat IP-based architecture: Eliminates the

need for separate networks for voice and data, simplifying network
management and operation. All-IP connectivity: Enables seamless
integration with the internet and other IP-based networks.
Scalability: Can be easily scaled to accommodate increasing network
traffic. High performance: Supports high data rates and low
latency.Security: Provides robust security mechanisms to protect user
data and privacy.Benefits of the EPC: Improved network
efficiency: The flat IP-based architecture and all-IP connectivity reduce
complexity and improve network performance. Reduced costs: The
simpler architecture and efficient operation of the EPC lead to lower
operating costs. Increased flexibility: The scalability and high
performance of the EPC make it suitable for diverse network
deployments. Enhanced user experience: The high data rates and low
latency of the EPC provide a better user experience for mobile
applications.Evolution of the EPC:LTE-Advanced: This version of the
EPC supports faster data rates and higher capacity. 5G NR: The next
generation of the EPC is designed to support the even faster speeds and
lower latency requirements of 5G networks.

Q.With neat schematic explain open wireless architecture of 5G.The

Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) is a new approach to designing and
deploying 5G networks that aims to increase flexibility, efficiency, and
innovation. It promotes the use of open interfaces, standardized protocols,
and disaggregated network components. This shift from traditional
monolithic architectures allows for greater customization and
interoperability between different vendors' equipment. Components of the
OWA: Radio Access Network (RAN): This layer disaggregates the
traditional RAN into three functional elements: gNB (next Generation
Node B): Replaces the eNodeB of LTE and is responsible for radio
resource management and air interface functions. DU (Distributed
Unit): Performs baseband processing tasks close to the antenna, reducing
latency and backhaul traffic. CU (Centralized Unit): Centralized unit
responsible for non-real-time processing tasks like mobility management
and packet forwarding. Core Network (CN): This layer is also
disaggregated into multiple functional entities, including: AMF (Access
and Mobility Management Function): Manages access control and
mobility for user equipment (UE). SMF (Session Management
Function): Establishes and manages sessions for UEs. UPF (User Plane
Function): Processes and forwards user data packets. UDM (Unified
Data Management): Stores and manages subscriber data. AUSF
(Authentication Server Function): Authenticates UEs. PCF (Policy
Control Function): Enforces policy rules and service quality
parameters.Network Repository Function (NRF): This central registry
stores information about all network elements and facilitates their
discovery and communication. Open Interfaces:The OWA defines open
interfaces between different network components, allowing for greater
flexibility and integration with different vendors' equipment.
Standardized protocols like O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network)
enable interoperability between different RAN vendors. Benefits of the
OWA: Increased flexibility: Network operators can choose from a wider
range of vendors and technologies, tailoring their networks to specific
needs. Reduced costs: Open interfaces and disaggregated components
encourage competition and potentially lower equipment costs. Faster
innovation: Openness fosters collaboration and innovation, leading to the
development of new technologies and services.Improved network
performance: Disaggregation can improve network scalability and
efficiency.Enhanced security: Openness allows for better security audits
and vulnerability management. Challenges of the OWA:
Complexity: Managing a disaggregated network with multiple vendors
can be. complex.Standardization: Continued development and adoption
of open standards are necessary.Security: Open interfaces require robust
security measures to prevent vulnerabilities
 Q.Compare all mobile standards (1G to 5G) for following
parameters:
Parameter 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Year of 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s
Implementat
ion
Standard Analog GSM, UMTS.HS LTE,LTE- NR
Use CDMA PA Advanced
Technology Analog Digital Packet Packet Based Packet Based
Cellular Cellular Based with OFDMA with OFDMA
and NR
Multiple FDMA TDMA, W- OFDMA,SCFD OFDM,NR
Access CDMA CDMA,HS MA
Technique PA
Data Rates Up To Up to UP TO 21 UP TO 1 GBPS UP TO 20
2.4 kbps 64kbps MBPS GBPS
Switching Circuit Circuit Packet Packet Switched Packet
Technique Switched Switched Switched Switched
, Packet
Switched
Frequency 800MHz, 850 700 MHz, 2
Spectrum 900MHz MHz,900 2 GHz, 850 GHz, 3 GHz, 28 Below 6 GHz,
Used MHz MHz, 1900 GHz mmWave
MHz
Services Voice Voice Voice calls, High-speed Ultra-fast
Provided Calls Calls, video calls, mobile internet, mobile
SMS,M mobile streaming, internet, IoT
MS internet, mobile gaming, applications,
streaming cloud services AR/VR,
autonomous
vehicles
Advantages First Improve Faster data High-speed Extremely
Generati d Voice speeds, internet access, high data
on of Quality video calls, improved rates, low
 Mobile mobile mobile latency,
Commun internet broadband
massive
ication capacity for
IoT
Disadvantag Low data Limited Requires new Costly to
es Rates, data infrastructure, deploy,
Poor Speeds,B Data not backward limited
Voice attery speeds not compatible with coverage, not
Quality Drain as high as 3G, spectrum yet widely
4G, limited limitations available
coverage in
some areas

Q.Classify and explain in brief Wireless Local area Network. 1.

Architecture: Infrastructure: These networks use access points (APs)
to connect wireless devices to a wired network. APs act as a central
hub, managing communication between devices and the network. Ad-
hoc: These networks do not require APs. Devices communicate directly
with each other, forming a peer-to-peer network. 2. Frequency Band: 2.4
GHz: This band is widely used and offers good range but is prone to
interference from other devices. 5 GHz: This band offers higher speeds
and less interference but has a shorter range. 6 GHz: This band is
relatively new and offers high speeds and low latency, but device
availability is still limited. 3. Standard: 802.11b: This is an older
standard offering low speeds (up to 11 Mbps) but good range.
802.11g: This standard provides better speeds (up to 54 Mbps) but has
shorter range than 802.11b. 802.11n: This standard offers significantly
higher speeds (up to 600 Mbps) and improved range compared to previous
standards. 802.11ac: This standard provides Gigabit-speeds (up to 6.77
Gbps) and lower latency. 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): This is the latest standard
offering even faster speeds (up to 9.6 Gbps), lower latency, and improved
network efficiency.
Brief Explanation of Different Types: 1. Infrastructure WLAN: This
type of WLAN is suitable for offices, schools, and other public spaces
where many devices need to access the internet. It provides centralized
management and security, making it a good choice for organizations with
sensitive data. 2. Ad-hoc WLAN: This type of WLAN is ideal for
temporary networks or when no central access point is available. It is easy
to set up and does not require any additional infrastructure. However, it is
less secure and has limited performance compared to infrastructure
networks. 3. 2.4 GHz WLAN: This band offers good range and works
well for small to medium-sized spaces. However, it is prone to
interference from other devices such as cordless phones and microwave
ovens.4. 5 GHz WLAN: This band provides higher speeds and less
interference, making it ideal for streaming videos and gaming.
However, it has a shorter range than the 2.4 GHz band. 5. 6 GHz WLAN:
This band offers the highest speeds and lowest latency of any WLAN
standard. However, it is still relatively new and device availability is
limited. It is expected to become more popular in the future as more
devices become available.

Q.List out three, why there is a need of series of 802.11 standards.

Describe the utility of IEEE80 2.11a and 80 2.11n.
Reasons for the Need for Series of 802.11 Standards: Technological
Advancements: The need for faster data rates and improved performance
drove the development of new standards. As technology advanced, older
standards became obsolete and unable to meet the increasing demands of
users. Changing User Needs: User demands for mobile internet
access, streaming media, and other bandwidth-intensive applications
grew rapidly. Existing standards could not support these evolving
needs, requiring the development of new technologies with higher
capacities.Market Competition: The competitive mobile industry
constantly seeks innovation and differentiation. New standards offer
opportunities for vendors to introduce new products and services, pushing
the boundaries of what's possible.
Utility of IEEE 802.11a and 802.11n:

1. IEEE 802.11a: Higher Speed and Bandwidth: This standard

operated in the 5 GHz frequency band, offering significantly faster data
rates (up to 54 Mbps) compared to earlier standards like 802.11b (11
Mbps). Less Interference: The 5 GHz band was less congested than the
2.4 GHz band used by 802.11b, resulting in fewer connection drops and
improved performance. Ideal for Multimedia Applications: The
increased speed and bandwidth enabled users to enjoy streaming
videos, online gaming, and other multimedia applications without
disruptions.

2. IEEE 802.11n: Even Higher Speeds and Performance: This

standard offered a significant jump in data rates (up to 600 Mbps), making
it suitable for bandwidth-hungry applications. Improved Range and
Coverage: 802.11n extended the range of wireless networks, enabling
better connectivity in larger areas. Multiple Antenna Technology
(MIMO): This feature used multiple antennas to transmit and receive
data simultaneously, further boosting performance and reliability.Wider
Frequency Band Support: 802.11n could operate in both 2.4 GHz and 5
GHz bands, offering greater flexibility and compatibility with existing
devices.
 UNIT-06
Q.Explain the use of network coding to improve throughput,
robustness,complexity, security.
Ans:-Network coding and its benefits: Network coding is a technique
that involves encoding data before transmission and decoding it upon
receipt. Unlike traditional routing, which simply relays packets, network
coding allows intermediate nodes to combine and mix data packets from
different sources, creating new packets with additional information. This
can offer several advantages: 1.Increased throughput:-By creating
new packets that contain information from multiple sources, network
coding allows data to flow more efficiently through the network. This can
lead to significant increases in throughput, especially in scenarios with
limited bandwidth or bottlenecks. When multiple paths exist between
source and destination, network coding enables simultaneous
transmission of data packets, utilizing all available resources and
maximizing throughput.
2.Enhanced robustness:-Network coding can significantly improve the
network's resilience to failures. Lost or corrupted packets can be
recovered from other received packets, ensuring data delivery even with
unreliable links or congested paths.This is because the encoded packets
contain information from multiple sources, making it less likely for all
necessary information to be lost in a single transmission failure.

3.Reduced complexity:Network coding can simplify network

management by eliminating the need for complex routing protocols. By
allowing intermediate nodes to perform basic encoding and
decoding, network coding can offload some processing tasks from the
core network, making it more efficient and scalable.

4.Improved security:Network coding can offer some security benefits by

making it more difficult to eavesdrop on network traffic.The encoded
packets contain mixed information from various sources, making it
challenging for eavesdroppers to decode the original data without the
necessary decoding keys.
Q.Explain the classification of scheduling algorithm, and explain the
types of scheduling
Ans :-Classification of Scheduling Algorithms:1. Scheduling
type:Preemptive: These algorithms allow a running process to be
interrupted and preempted by a higher priority process. This can improve
system responsiveness and throughput but can also introduce overhead
due to context switching.Non-preemptive: These algorithms allow a
running process to complete its execution before any other process can be
scheduled. This ensures fairness but can lead to longer waiting times for
higher priority processes.
2. Scheduling strategy:Deterministic: These algorithms make
scheduling decisions based on fixed rules and complete information about
the processes. They are simple to implement but may not be able to adapt
to dynamic workloads.Non-deterministic: These algorithms use
heuristics or dynamic information to make scheduling decisions. They can
be more flexible and adaptive but may be more complex to implement.
3. Scheduling objective:Performance-oriented: These algorithms focus
on maximizing system performance metrics like throughput, response
time, and resource utilization.Fairness-oriented: These algorithms focus
on ensuring that all processes receive a fair share of the resources and
have equal opportunities to execute.Utility-oriented: These algorithms
focus on maximizing the overall utility of the system, taking into account
factors like process priorities, user requirements, and system constraints.
4. Scheduling scope:-Processor scheduling: This type of scheduling
focuses on allocating resources to processes on a single processor.
Multiprocessor scheduling: This type of scheduling focuses on
allocating resources to processes across multiple processors, taking into
account inter-processor communication and dependencies. Real-time
scheduling: This type of scheduling focuses on meeting deadlines for
processes that have strict timing constraints.
 Algorithm Preemption Strategy Objective Scope
First Come First Non- Deterministic Fairness Processor
Served preemptive
Shortest Job Non- Deterministic Performance Processor
Next preemptive
Priority Preemptive or Deterministic Performance Processor
Scheduling Non-
preemptive
Round Robin preemptive Deterministic Fairness Processor
(RR)
Multilevel preemptive Non- Performance Processor
Feedback Queue Deterministic
(MLFQ)
Multilevel preemptive Deterministic Real time Processor
Feedback Queue
(MLFQ)
Rate Monotonic preemptive Deterministic Real time MultiProcessor
Scheduling
(RMS)

Q.Explain Radio resource scheduling.Radio Resource Scheduling

(RRS)Radio resource scheduling is a critical aspect of wireless
communication systems, responsible for allocating limited radio
resources (e.g., frequency, time, power) among multiple users efficiently
and dynamically. The goal of RRS is to maximize system performance,
including: Throughput: the amount of data transmitted successfully
within a given time. Fairness: ensuring that all users have a fair chance
to access resources. Latency: the time it takes for data to be transmitted
and received. Resource utilization: maximizing the use of available
resources.Energy efficiency: minimizing the energy consumption of the
system.
RRS involves several key steps:Resource allocation: Identifying the
available resources (e.g., subcarriers, time slots) in each radio
cell.Channel estimation: Estimating the quality of the radio channel
between the base station and each user.User admission
control: Deciding which users to admit to the network based on available
resources and user priorities.Packet scheduling: Selecting which packets
to transmit for each user in each time slot and allocating appropriate
resources.Power control: Adjusting the transmission power for each user
to ensure reliable communication and minimize interference.There are
various types of RRS algorithms : -Proportional fair (PF): Allocates
resources to users proportionally to their average data rates. Max-min
fairness: Allocates resources to users to maximize the minimum data rate
across all users. Weighted fair queuing (WFQ): Allocates resources to
users based on their weights and backlog sizes. Round robin
(RR): Allocates resources to users in a round robin fashion. Minimum
mean square error (MMSE): Allocates resources to users based on the
estimated quality of the radio channel. Deep learning-based: Utilizes
artificial intelligence techniques to learn and adapt to dynamic network
conditions.

Q.Explain network performance parameters used to provide better

quality of experience (QoE) in wireless network.:- 1. Connectivity
and Availability:Signal Strength: This measures the strength of the
received signal, impacting data transmission rates and stability.
Coverage: This refers to the area covered by the network signal, ensuring
consistent user access.Handoff: This involves seamlessly transferring a
user connection between different cells without service
interruption.Network Availability: This measures the percentage of time
the network is accessible and functional.
2.Data Delivery and Performance:Throughput: This measures the
amount of data successfully transmitted per unit time, directly impacting
download and upload speeds.Latency: This measures the time it takes for
data to travel from the source to the destination, impacting responsiveness
and interactivity of applications.Jitter: This measures the variation in
delay between packets, impacting audio and video streaming
quality.Packet Loss Rate: This refers to the percentage of data packets
lost during transmission, causing interruptions and quality degradation.
3.Resource Utilization and Efficiency:Channel Quality: This measures
the suitability of the radio channel for data transmission, impacting signal
strength and reliability.Spectrum Efficiency: This measures the amount
of data transmitted per unit of spectrum bandwidth, indicating efficient
resource utilization.Energy Efficiency: This measures the amount of
energy consumed per unit of data transmitted, indicating the network's
sustainability.
4.Security and Reliability:Data Integrity: This ensures the accuracy
and completeness of transmitted data, preventing errors and
corruption.Authentication and Authorization: This ensures only
authorized users can access network resources, protecting against
unauthorized activity.Privacy Protection: This ensures user data
confidentiality and prevents unauthorized access or tracking.

Q.Explain step by step with neat diagram, how performance

evaluation of a Real System is done.:-1. Define Objectives and
Requirements:Identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) relevant to
your system. Examples include response time, throughput, resource
utilization, accuracy, and availability.Define specific and measurable
goals for each KPI based on user expectations and system functionality.2.
Design Test Cases:Develop test cases that cover various scenarios and
user behavior, ensuring comprehensive evaluation of different system
functionalities.Test cases should include different workloads, input
variations, and potential error conditions. 3. Select Performance
Measurement Tools:Choose appropriate tools to measure and analyze
relevant performance metrics. Examples include: Load testing tools
simulate user traffic and measure system response under varying loads.
Monitoring tools collect performance data over time, providing insights
into resource utilization and system health.Tracing tools track individual
transactions and identify bottlenecks or performance issues.
4. Execute Tests and Collect Data:Conduct the designed test cases in a
controlled environment to gather performance data.Ensure consistent test
conditions and replicate each test case multiple times for reliable results.
5. Analyze Results and Identify Bottlenecks:Analyze collected
performance data against the defined KPIs and identify areas where the
system falls short of expectations.Use statistical analysis and visualization
tools to identify trends, patterns, and potential bottlenecks causing
performance degradation. 6. Develop Improvement Strategies:Based on
the identified issues, formulate actionable strategies to improve system
performance.This may involve revising system architecture, optimizing
code, enhancing resource allocation, or implementing additional
monitoring and control mechanisms. 7. Implement Improvements and
Re-evaluate:Implement the identified performance improvement
strategies and re-evaluate the system using the same test cases and
metrics.Compare the new results with the initial baseline to measure the
effectiveness of the implemented changes.
8. Continuously Monitor and Adapt:Establish continuous performance
monitoring practices to track system performance over time.Regularly
analyze collected data to identify emerging issues and adapt improvement
strategies accordingly.
Q.Explain following network performance parameters used to
manage service performance : i) Throughput ii) Packet loss iii)
Latency iv) Availability and v) Reliability

1. Throughput:Definition: The average rate of successful data transfer

over a network.Significance: Determines how quickly data is
transferred, impacting service responsiveness and user
experience.Measurement: Kilobits per second (kbps) or Megabits per
second (Mbps).Management strategies: Optimize network
resources, upgrade bandwidth, implement traffic shaping and
prioritization.

2. Packet Loss:-Definition: The percentage of data packets that fail to

reach their destination.Significance: Causes data gaps and interruptions
in services like video streaming and VoIP calls.Measurement: Packet
Loss Rate (PLR), calculated as lost packets divided by total packets
sent.Management strategies: Improve network
infrastructure, implement congestion control mechanisms, identify and
address network bottlenecks.

3. Latency:-Definition: The time it takes for data to travel from its source
to its destination.Significance: Impacts the responsiveness of interactive
services like online gaming and real-time
applications.Measurement: Milliseconds (ms).Management
strategies: Minimize network congestion, optimize routing
paths, prioritize latency-sensitive traffic.

4. Availability:Definition: The percentage of time a service is

operational and accessible to users.Significance: Ensures consistent
service delivery and user satisfaction.Measurement: Uptime, calculated
as the total time a service is available divided by the total monitored time.
Management strategies: Implement high availability solutions, perform
regular maintenance, monitor system health proactively.
5. Reliability: -Definition: The consistency and predictability of service
performance. Significance: Ensures users can rely on the service to
perform consistently and meet their expectations. Measurement: Mean
Time Between Failures (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair
(MTTR).Management strategies: Implement fault tolerance
mechanisms, perform regular backups, monitor system performance for
anomalies.

Q.What are four mechanisms to improve link robustness of wireless

network. Explain any one in detail

1. Error Correction Codes (ECC): These codes add redundant

information to data packets, allowing the receiver to detect and correct
errors caused by noise or interference. Common examples include
Hamming codes, BCH codes, and Reed-Solomon codes.ECC can
significantly improve the reliability of data transmission, especially in
noisy or congested environments.

2. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):This mechanism detects lost or

corrupted packets and automatically requests retransmission from the
sender.Various ARQ protocols exist, including stop-and-wait and Go-
Back-N, differing in their retransmission schemes and efficiency.ARQ
ensures reliable data delivery by guaranteeing successful reception of all
packets, but it can introduce latency due to retransmissions.

3. Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC):This technique

dynamically adjusts the modulation scheme and coding rate based on the
current channel conditions.In good channel conditions, higher modulation
schemes are used for increased data rates.In poor channel
conditions, lower modulation schemes and stronger coding are used for
improved reliability.AMC optimizes the trade-off between data rate and
reliability, ensuring efficient communication under varying channel
conditions.
4. Diversity Techniques:-These techniques exploit the spatial separation
of antennas to reduce the impact of fading and interference. Common
diversity techniques include: Frequency diversity: using different
frequencies for transmission. Time diversity: sending data at different
times. Space diversity: using multiple antennas at different locations.
Polarization diversity: using different polarization states for the radio
waves.

Detailed Explanation of Error Correction Codes (ECC):-ECC adds

redundancy to data packets by encoding them with extra bits. These extra
bits can be used to detect and correct errors caused by noise or interference
during transmission. The specific type of ECC used depends on the
desired level of error correction capability and the available bandwidth.
The receiver uses the redundant information to detect and correct errors
in the received data packets. This ensures that the data is received
accurately and reliably, even in noisy environments. ECC is widely used
in various wireless communication systems, including Wi-Fi, cellular
networks, and satellite communications. It plays a crucial role in ensuring
reliable data transmission and improving the overall performance of
wireless networks. Increased link reliability: By mitigating the impact of
noise and interference, ECC makes the link more robust and
reliable, especially in challenging environments.
Q.Write a brief note on the Layered analysis in wireless networks

Wireless networks are complex systems composed of multiple layers,

each with its own functionalities and responsibilities. Analyzing these
layers individually and collectively is crucial for understanding the
overall performance and behavior of the network.

Network Layers:-Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission

of data over the wireless channel. This layer includes aspects like
modulation, coding, synchronization, and error correction.Data Link
Layer: Handles reliable communication between nodes by providing
error detection and correction, flow control, and addressing.Network
Layer: Responsible for routing packets across the network through
efficient path selection and congestion control.Transport
Layer: Provides reliable and end-to-end data transfer between
applications. This layer includes protocols like TCP and UDP.Session
Layer: Manages sessions between communication partners and handles
issues like authentication and authorization.Presentation Layer: Deals
with data representation and format for different applications.Application
Layer: Provides various services to users, such as file
sharing, email, web browsing, and video stream in.
OSI MODEL LAYERS :-Layered Analysis Techniques: Top-Down
Approach: Starts with analyzing the application layer's requirements and
gradually descends to lower layers, ensuring all layers support the desired
functionality.Bottom-Up Approach: Begins with the physical layer and
analyzes how each higher layer builds upon the functionality of the lower
layers.Cross-Layer Design: Considers interactions and dependencies
between different layers and optimizes performance through joint design
and adaptation.

Benefits of Layered Analysis: Modular Design: Simplifies network

design and development by dividing functionalities into separate layers.
Standardization: Enables interoperability between different network
devices and protocols.Performance Optimization: Allows for targeted
optimization within each layer and across layers.
Troubleshooting: Facilitates efficient identification and resolution of
network issues.

Q.What is Network Coding. With neat diagram, explain how network

coding helps in video broadcasting from one device to multiple
receivers
Network Coding for Video Broadcasting:-Network coding is a
communication technique that allows intermediate nodes in a network to
perform additional processing on received data packets before forwarding
them. Instead of simply relaying packets, nodes can combine and mix
packets from different sources, creating new packets with additional
information. This can offer several advantages for video broadcasting,
including: Increased Throughput: By creating new packets that contain
information from multiple sources, network coding allows data to flow
more efficiently through the network. This can lead to significant
increases in throughput, especially in scenarios with limited bandwidth or
bottlenecks.As shown in the diagram below, traditional video
broadcasting transmits video packets from the source to each receiver
individually. This can lead to congestion on the network, especially if
multiple users are watching the same video.
In contrast, network coding allows the source to create new video packets
that contain information from multiple users. This means that each user
only needs to receive a single packet, regardless of the number of other
users watching the video. This reduces the traffic on the network and
improves the overall throughput.

Enhanced Robustness: Network coding can significantly improve the

network's resilience to failures. Lost or corrupted packets can be
recovered from other received packets, ensuring data delivery even with
unreliable links or congested paths. As shown in the diagram
below, traditional video broadcasting may fail if a packet is lost or
corrupted. This can cause the video to stutter or freeze for the user.

3.video broadcasting network with one lost packet

  In contrast, network coding can recover lost packets from other
received packets. This ensures that the video continues to play
without interruptions, even if there are some lost or corrupted
packets.

Reduced Complexity: Network coding can simplify network

management by eliminating the need for complex routing protocols. By
allowing intermediate nodes to perform basic encoding and
decoding, network coding can offload some processing tasks from the
core network, making it more efficient and scalable. Improved Fairness:
Network coding can offer some fairness benefits by ensuring that all users
receive data at the same rate, even if they have different bandwidth
capabilities.

Here's a simplified explanation of how network coding works in

video broadcasting:

1. The video source encodes the video data into packets.

2. These packets are then sent to intermediate nodes in the network.
3. At each intermediate node, the packets are combined with other
packets received from different sources.
4. The combined packets are then forwarded to the receivers.
5. The receivers can decode the combined packets to extract the video
data.
Q.With reference to Scheduler Design, explain following
components in brief : i) Classifier ii) Channel Quality iii) Scheduler

Ans:- 1. Classifier:-The classifier is a component responsible for

identifying the type of traffic flowing through the network. This
information is crucial for the scheduler to make informed decisions about
how to prioritize and allocate resources.

Functionality:- Analyzes packet headers and other features to identify

the type of traffic (e.g., voice, video, data).Classifies traffic into different
categories based on their quality-of-service (QoS) requirements. Provides
the scheduler with information about the traffic characteristics, enabling
intelligent resource allocation.

Benefits: Ensures that critical traffic (e.g., real-time applications)

receives higher priority and lower latency. Improves overall network
performance by optimizing resource utilization based on traffic
type.Enables the network to adapt to changing traffic patterns and
prioritize demanding applications.

2. Channel Quality:-Channel quality refers to the current state of the

wireless channel between the transmitter and receiver. It is a critical factor
in determining the performance of wireless networks and directly impacts
data transmission rates and reliability.

Components:-Signal Strength: The strength of the received

signal, measured in decibel-milliwatts (dBm).Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR): The ratio of the desired signal strength to the noise
level, measured in decibels (dB).Bit Error Rate (BER): The rate at which
errors occur in the transmitted data.Channel fading: The variation in
signal strength over time.
Importance:-Determines the maximum data rate that can be achieved
over the wireless channel.Affects the reliability and robustness of data
transmission.Guides the scheduler in making efficient resource allocation
decisions.

3. Scheduler:-The scheduler is the core component of any resource

allocation system. It is responsible for allocating network resources (e.g.,
bandwidth, time slots, power) to different users and applications based on
various factors, including:

Traffic type: Different types of traffic have different QoS

requirements. The scheduler prioritizes resources based on the importance
and urgency of each traffic type.

 Channel quality: The scheduler allocates resources to users with

better channel conditions, ensuring reliable and efficient data
transmission.
 User fairness: The scheduler aims to ensure fair access to resources
for all users, preventing any single user from dominating the
network.

Types of Schedulers:-Static schedulers: Pre-defined allocation rules

based on fixed priorities.Dynamic schedulers: Adaptively allocate
resources based on real-time traffic conditions and channel quality.

Importance:Optimize network performance by efficiently allocating

resources to maximize throughput, minimize latency, and improve user
experience. Ensures fair allocation of resources and prevents congestion
and starvation. Adapts to changing network conditions and user demands.
Q.Network Coding for Content Distribution in Multi-Hop Networks

Network coding is a powerful technique for improving the efficiency of

content distribution in multi-hop networks, especially those with limited
bandwidth or unreliable links. Traditional routing protocols simply relay
packets from one node to another, which can lead to bottlenecks and
congestion. Network coding, however, allows intermediate nodes to
combine and mix information from different sources, creating new
packets with additional information. This can offer several advantages:

Increased Throughput:

 By creating new packets containing information from multiple

sources, network coding allows data to flow more efficiently
through the network. This can significantly increase throughput,
especially in scenarios with limited bandwidth or bottlenecks.
 As shown in the diagram below, traditional content distribution
involves sending individual packets from the source to each
receiver. This can lead to congestion and delays, especially if there
are many receivers.

Opens in a new window en.wikipedia.org

traditional content distribution network

 In contrast, network coding allows the source to create new

packets that contain information for multiple receivers. This
reduces the number of packets that need to be transmitted and
improves the overall throughput.
Enhanced Robustness:

 Network coding can improve the network's resilience to failures.

Lost or corrupted packets can be recovered from other received
packets, ensuring data delivery even with unreliable links or
congested paths.
 As shown in the diagram below, traditional content distribution
may fail if a packet is lost or corrupted. This can prevent some
receivers from receiving the content.

Opens in a new window

www.techtarget.com

traditional content distribution network with one lost packet

 In contrast, network coding can recover lost packets from other

received packets. This ensures that all receivers can obtain the
content, even if there are some lost or corrupted packets.

Reduced Complexity:

 Network coding can simplify network management by eliminating

the need for complex routing protocols.
 By allowing intermediate nodes to perform basic encoding and
decoding, network coding can offload some processing tasks from
the core network, making it more efficient and scalable.
How Network Coding Works for Content Distribution
 1. The source node divides the content into packets.
2. These packets are then sent to intermediate nodes in the network.
3. At each intermediate node, the packets are combined with other
packets received from different sources.
4. The combined packets are then forwarded to the receivers.
5. The receivers can decode the combined packets to extract the
content.

The specific details of how network coding is implemented can vary

depending on the specific network protocol and application. However,
the basic principle of combining packets from different sources remains
the same.

Q.Classify Schedulers & Explain in brief. i) Weighted Round Robin

Scheduling, ii) Weighted Fair Queuing.

1. Weighted Round Robin Scheduling (WRR): Definition: An

extension of the round-robin scheduling algorithm that assigns weights to
different flows or queues. Functionality: Each queue receives a service
opportunity in a round-robin fashion. The number of service opportunities
each queue gets is proportional to its assigned weight.Advantages:
Simple and easy to implement. Provides fairness among different flows
based on their weights.Offers some degree of throughput
differentiation.Disadvantages:Can lead to starvation for low-weight
flows if high-weight flows are constantly consuming resources.Not
suitable for applications with strict delay requirements.

2. Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ): Definition: A packet-based

scheduling algorithm that provides fair queuing with weights.
Functionality: Each packet is assigned a virtual finish time based on its
arrival time and weight.Packets are served in order of their virtual finish
times.Advantages:Provides accurate and efficient fair queuing.Offers
excellent throughput-delay performance.Can handle variable-length
packets efficiently.Disadvantages:More complex to implement than
WRR. Requires accurate timekeeping mechanisms.May introduce slight
delay variations.

Feature Weighted Round Weighted Fair

Robin Quing
Fairness Proportional to Accurate and Efficient
weights
Throughput Good Excellent
Delay Moderate Good
Complexity Simple Complex
Implementation Easy Difficult

Q.Explain step by step with neat diagram, how performance

evaluation of a Real System is done.

1. Define Objectives and Requirements:-Identify the key performance

indicators (KPIs) relevant to your system. Examples include response
time, throughput, resource utilization, accuracy, and availability.Define
specific and measurable goals for each KPI based on user expectations
and system functionality.

2. Design Test Cases:-Develop test cases that cover various scenarios and
user behavior, ensuring comprehensive evaluation of different system
functionalities.Test cases should include different workloads, input
variations, and potential error conditions.
3. Select Performance Measurement Tools:Choose appropriate tools to
measure and analyze relevant performance metrics. Examples include:
Load testing tools simulate user traffic and measure system response
under varying loads. Monitoring tools collect performance data over time,
providing insights into resource utilization and system health. Tracing
tools track individual transactions and identify bottlenecks or
performance issues.

4. Execute Tests and Collect Data:-Conduct the designed test cases in

a controlled environment to gather performance data. Ensure consistent
test conditions and replicate each test case multiple times for reliable
results.

5. Analyze Results and Identify Bottlenecks:-Analyze collected

performance data against the defined KPIs and identify areas where the
system falls short of expectations. Use statistical analysis and
visualization tools to identify trends, patterns, and potential bottlenecks
causing performance degradation.

6. Develop Improvement Strategies:-Based on the identified issues,

formulate actionable strategies to improve system performance. This may
involve revising system architecture, optimizing code, enhancing resource
allocation, or implementing additional monitoring and control
mechanisms.

7. Implement Improvements and Re-evaluate:-Implement the

identified performance improvement strategies and re-evaluate the system
using the same test cases and metrics. Compare the new results with the
initial baseline to measure the effectiveness of the implemented changes.

8. Continuously Monitor and Adapt:Establish continuous performance

monitoring practices to track system performance over time.Regularly
analyze collected data to identify emerging issues and adapt improvement
strategies accordingly.
Q.What are four mechanisms to improve link robustness of wireless
network. Explain any one in detail.Four Mechanisms to Improve Link
Robustness in Wireless Networks: Error Correction Codes
(ECC):,Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ): Adaptive Modulation and
Coding (AMC):,Diversity Techniques: Detailed Explanation of Error
Correction Codes (ECC):ECC adds redundancy to data packets by
encoding them with extra bits. These extra bits can be used to detect and
correct errors caused by noise or interference during transmission. The
specific type of ECC used depends on the desired level of error correction
capability and the available bandwidth. Types of ECC: Hamming codes:
Can detect and correct single-bit errors. BCH codes: Can correct
multiple-bit errors but require more redundancy overhead. Reed-
Solomon codes: Powerful codes that can correct large bursts of errors but
require even more redundancy. Benefits of ECC: Improved data
integrity: Guarantees data accuracy by correcting errors, preventing them
from corrupting data and impacting applications. Reduced
retransmissions: By correcting errors, ECC reduces the need for
retransmission of packets, improving network efficiency and throughput.
Increased link reliability: Reduces the impact of noise and interference,
making the link more robust and reliable, especially in challenging
environments.

Applications of ECC:Wi-Fi: Ensures reliable data transmission for

various applications like web browsing, streaming, and video
conferencing. Cellular networks: Delivers reliable voice and data
communication even in areas with weak signal strength. Satellite
communications: Enables robust communication over long distances and
through harsh weather conditions.

Drawbacks of ECC:-Increased overhead: Adds redundancy to data

packets, which can slightly reduce available data bandwidth. Increased
complexity: Requires additional processing at both sender and receiver
for encoding and decoding, adding computational overhead.

Overall, ECC is a powerful tool for improving the robustness and

reliability of wireless networks. By adding redundancy and providing
error correction capabilities, ECC ensures accurate and reliable data
transmission, leading to better user experience and improved service
quality.

Q.Explain following terms with reference to Scheduler Design :i)

Classifier ii) Channel Quality
Scheduler Design Terms: i) Classifier: A classifier is a component within
a scheduler design responsible for identifying the type of traffic flowing
through the network. This information is crucial for the scheduler to make
informed decisions about how to prioritize and allocate resources.
Functionality:Analyzes packet headers and other features to identify the
type of traffic (e.g., voice, video, data).Classifies traffic into different
categories based on their quality-of-service (QoS) requirements.Provides
the scheduler with information about the traffic characteristics, enabling
intelligent resource allocation.
Benefits:Ensures that critical traffic (e.g., real-time applications) receives
higher priority and lower latency.Improves overall network performance
by optimizing resource utilization based on traffic type.Enables the
network to adapt to changing traffic patterns and prioritize demanding
applications.Examples of classifiers: Deep Packet Inspection
(DPI): Analyzes the content of packets to identify the specific application
or service generating the traffic. Port-based classification: Uses the
destination port number in the packet header to identify the type of traffic.
Flow-based classification: Analyzes the traffic flow based on source and
destination IP addresses, port numbers, and other characteristics.ii)
Channel Quality:Channel quality refers to the current state of the
wireless channel between the transmitter and receiver. It is a critical factor
in determining the performance of wireless networks and directly impacts
data transmission rates and reliability.Components: Signal
Strength: Measured in decibel-milliwatts (dBm) and indicates the power
of the received signal.Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): Measured in
decibels (dB) and represents the ratio of the desired signal strength to the
background noise level.Bit Error Rate (BER): The rate at which errors
occur in the transmitted data.Channel fading: The variation in signal
strength over time due to multipath propagation and other factors.Adapt
the modulation and coding scheme based on the channel quality to
optimize data rate and error correction.
Q.List various Design forces for link Adoptation Schemes at physical
and MAC layers. Link adaptation schemes play a crucial role in
optimizing the performance of wireless networks by dynamically
adjusting transmission parameters based on the current channel
conditions. These schemes operate primarily at the physical (PHY) and
medium access control (MAC) layers of the network protocol stack.
Several key factors influence the design of link adaptation schemes at
these layers: Physical Layer:- Channel characteristics: -Signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR): This is a measure of the desired signal strength
compared to the background noise level. Higher SNRs indicate better
channel conditions and allow for higher data rates and more complex
modulation schemes.Multipath propagation: This phenomenon causes
the transmitted signal to arrive at the receiver through multiple paths,
leading to signal fading and distortions. Link adaptation schemes need to
account for multipath effects and adapt
accordingly.Interference: Interference from other wireless devices can
significantly degrade the performance of the link. Link adaptation
schemes need to consider interference levels and adjust parameters to
mitigate its impact.Modulation and coding schemes: Different
modulation schemes map digital data onto analog signals with different
efficiencies and error correction capabilities. Link adaptation schemes
need to choose the most appropriate modulation scheme based on the
current channel conditions.Power amplifiers: These amplify the signal
before transmission and consume significant power. Link adaptation
schemes optimize power amplifier operation by adjusting transmission
power based on the channel conditions. MAC Layer:Traffic
characteristics: Different types of traffic (e.g., voice, video, data) have
different delay and bandwidth requirements. Link adaptation schemes
need to prioritize different types of traffic and allocate resources
accordingly.Queueing delays: Data packets are typically queued at the
MAC layer before being transmitted. Link adaptation schemes need to
consider queueing delays and adjust transmission parameters to minimize
congestion and delays.
Feedback mechanisms: Link adaptation schemes often rely on
feedback mechanisms to inform the transmitter about the current channel
conditions. Feedback can be explicit (e.g., ACK/NAK signals) or
implicit (e.g., packet retransmissions).Complexity and overhead: Link
adaptation schemes should be computationally efficient and introduce
minimal overhead to avoid impacting network performance.

Q.Write a brief note on the Layered analysis in wireless

networks.Network Layers: The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model defines seven layers for network communication,
including:1.Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data
over the wireless channel. This layer includes aspects like modulation,
coding, synchronization, and error correction.2.Data Link
Layer: Handles reliable communication between nodes by providing
error detection and correction, flow control, and addressing.3.Network
Layer: Responsible for routing packets across the network through
efficient path selection and congestion control.4.Transport
Layer: Provides reliable and end-to-end data transfer between
applications. This layer includes protocols like TCP and UDP.5.Session
Layer: Manages sessions between communication partners and handles
issues like authentication and authorization.6.Presentation Layer: Deals
with data representation and format for different
applications.7.Application Layer: Provides various services to users,
such as file sharing, email, web browsing, and video streaming.

Layered Analysis Techniques:There are various approaches to

analyzing wireless networks: Top-Down Approach: Starts with
analyzing the application layer's requirements and gradually descends to
lower layers, ensuring all layers support the desired functionality.Bottom-
Up Approach: Begins with the physical layer and analyzes how each
higher layer builds upon the functionality of the lower layers.Cross-
Layer Design: Considers interactions and dependencies between
different layers and optimizes performance through joint design and
adaptation.
Benefits of Layered Analysis:Modular Design: Simplifies network
design and development by dividing functionalities into separate layers.
Standardization: Enables interoperability between different network
devices and protocols.Performance Optimization: Allows for targeted
optimization within each layer and across layers.
Troubleshooting: Facilitates efficient identification and resolution of
network issues.

Challenges of Layered Analysis: Complexity: Dealing with multiple

layers and their interactions can be intricate and requires careful
consideration. Standardization Limitations: Standards may not address
specific network requirements or emerging technologies.Cross-Layer
Design Difficulty: Optimizing across layers requires advanced
techniques and careful coordination.

Q.What is Network Coding. With neat diagram, explain how

network coding helps in video broadcasting from one device to
multiple receivers.
Network Coding for Video Broadcasting Network coding is a technique
that allows intermediate nodes in a network to perform additional
processing on received data packets before forwarding them. Instead of
simply relaying the packets, nodes can combine and mix packets from
different sources, creating new packets with additional information. This
can offer several advantages for video broadcasting, including:

Increased Throughput:-By creating new packets that contain

information from multiple sources, network coding allows data to flow
more efficiently through the network. This can lead to significant
increases in throughput, especially in scenarios with limited bandwidth
or bottlenecks.Enhanced Robustness:Network coding can significantly
improve the network's resilience to failures. Lost or corrupted packets
can be recovered from other received packets, ensuring data delivery
even with unreliable links or congested paths.
Reduced Complexity:- Network coding can simplify network
management by eliminating the need for complex routing protocols.

Improved Fairness:-Network coding can offer some fairness benefits

by ensuring that all users receive data at the same rate, even if they have
different bandwidth capabilities.

How Network Coding Works in Video Broadcasting

1. The video source encodes the video data into packets.

2. These packets are then sent to intermediate nodes in the network.
3. At each intermediate node, the packets are combined with other
packets received from different sources. This combination can be
done using various mathematical operations, such as XOR or
bitwise addition.
4. The combined packets are then forwarded to the receivers.
5. The receivers can decode the combined packets to extract the video
data. They can also use additional information contained within the
combined packets to recover lost or corrupted data.
Diagram of Network Coding for Video Broadcasting

Network Coding for Video Broadcasting