CEB606 – GEOLOGY & GEOMECHANICS

CLASS
10.08.2021-WEEK 3

Course Coordinator

Sateesh Kumar Pisini,CEng

MASCE, MISSMGE, MISRM, MEngNZ, MIE, MEERI, LMIGS, LMISET, MISRMTT, MNZGS, MNZTS, MGSNZ, GMICE

Principal Lecturer in Civil Engineering, Fiji National University

INTRODUCTION OF SOIL

2
INTRODUCTION OF SOIL
INTRODUCTION OF SOIL
SOIL FORMATION
ORIGIN OF SOILS…
 Origin of Soils
 Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical
disintegration or chemical decomposition.
 Exposed rocks are eroded and degraded by various physical
and chemical processes.
 The products of erosion are picked up and transported to
some other place by wind water etc.
 This shifting of material disturbs the equilibrium of forces
on the earth and causes large scale movements and
upheavals.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
SOIL TYPES…
RESIDUAL SOILS…
RESIDUAL SOILS…
TRANSPORTED SOILS
TYPES OF TRANSPORTED SOILS
 Types of Soils

(1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of

glaciers.
(2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited along
streams.
(3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes (e.g. soils in
Taipei basin).
(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong Kong).
(5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind (e.g. soils
in the loess plateau, China).
(6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its original
place by gravity, such as during landslide (Hong
Kong). (from Das, 1998)
TYPES OF TRANSPORTED SOILS
TYPES OF TRANSPORTED SOILS
TYPES OF TRANSPORTED SOILS
PHASE RELATIONSHIPS OF SOIL
 Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid Soil particle
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air
THREE PHSE SYSTEM
PHASE DIAGRAM
For purpose of study and analysis, it is convenient to represent the
soil by a PHASE DIAGRAM, with part of the diagram representing the
solid particles, part representing water or liquid, and another part air
or other gas.
Volumetric Ratios
(1) Void ratio e

Volume of voids Vv
e 
Volume of solids Vs

(2) Porosity n%
Volume of voids Vv
n  100
Total volume of soil sample Vt
Saturated
(3) Degree of SaturationDry
S% (0 – 100%)

Total volume of voids contains water Vw

S  100 %
Total volume of voids Vv
 Weight Ratios

(1) Water Content w%

Weight of water Ww
w  100 %
Weight of soil solids Ws
Volume – Volume Relations

Va
PercentageofAirVoids, na =
V

Va
AirContent, ac =
Vv
15/11/17 13
 Soil unit weights
(1) Dry unit weight

Weight of soil solids Ws

d  
Total volume of soil Vt

(2) Total, Wet, Bulk, or Moist unit weight

Total weight of soil W  Ww (4) Submerged unit weight
  s
Total volume of soil Vt  '   sat   w
(3) Saturated unit weight (considering S=100%, Va =0)

Weight of soil solids  water Ws  Ww

 sat  
Total volume of soil Vt

Note: The density/or unit weight are ratios which connects the
volumetric side of the PHASE DIAGRAM with the mass/or weight side.
Specific Gravity
Weight of a Subs tan ce
Specific Gravity =
Weight of an Equal Volume of Water

Unit Weight of a Subs tan ce

Specific Gravity =
Unit Weight of Water

 Unit weight of Water, γw

γw = 9.81 kN/m3 or γw = 1.0 g/cm3 or γw = 62.4 pcf
(strictly accurate at 4° C)
Specific gravity of the soil grains (Gs) typically
varies between 2.6 and 2.8.
15/11/17 20
Specific gravity, Gs

The ratio of the weight of solid particles to the weight of an equal

volume of distilled water at 4°C
ws
Gs 
Vs  w
i.e., the specific gravity of a certain material is ratio of the unit weight
of that material to the unit weight of water at 4o C.

The specific gravity of soil solids is often needed for various

calculations in soil mechanics.

s
Gs  •Gw = 1
w •Gmercury = 13.6
Relationships Between Various Physical Properties
All the weight- volume relationships needed in soil mechanics
can be derived from appropriate combinations of six
fundamental definitions. They are:

1. Void ratio
2. Porosity
3. Degree of saturation
4. Water content
5. Unit weight
6. Specific gravity
 1. Relationship between e and n

Using phase diagram

Given : e e
required: n
1+e
Vv e
n  1
Vt 1  e
2. Relationship among e, S, w, and Gs

ww  wVw  wVw Vw
w   
ws  sVs  wGsVs GsVs

•Dividing the denominator and numerator of the R.H.S. by Vv

yields:

Se  wGs
•This is a very useful relation for solving THREE-PHASE
RELATIONSHIPS.
 Soil Unit weight (kN/m3)

 Bulk (or Total) Unit weight

γ = W T / VT
 Dry unit weight
γd = W s / V T
 Buoyant (submerged) unit weight
γb = γ- γw
15/11/17 18
 Soil Density (kg/m3)

 Bulk (or Total) Density

ρ = M T / VT
 Dry Density
ρd = M s / V T
 Buoyant (submerged) Density
ρb = ρ- ρw

15/11/17 19
 Weight (Mass) – Volume Relation
Bulk, saturated, dry and submerged unit weights (γ)
are defined in a similar manner.
Here, use weight (kN) instead of mass (kg).
γ = ρg

N/m3 kg/m3 m/s2

15/11/17 17
3. Relationship among , e, S and Gs

W Ww  Ws  wVw   sVs  wVw   wGsVs

   
V Vs  Vv Vs  Vv Vs  Vv
( Se  Gs )
 w
1 e
•Notes:
• Unit weights for dry, fully saturated and submerged
cases can be derived from the upper equation
• Water content can be used instead of degree of
saturation.
 Method to solve Phase Problems
Method : Memorize relationships

( Se  Gs )
Se  wGs  w
1 e

e 
n d 
1 e 1 w
 Three Phase System (interms of mass)

Va air Ma=0
Notation Vv
M = mass or weight Vw water Mw
V = volume Mt
s = soil grains Vt
w = water
a = air soil
v = voids Vs Ms
t = total

8
15/11/17
Phase Diagram
 Weight Relationship
Water content (w) is a measure of the
water present in the soil.

Va Ma=0
MW air
w= X 100% Vv
MS Vw water Mw
Vt Mt
Expressed as percentage.

Range = 0 – 100+%. Vs soil Ms

9
15/11/17
Phase Diagram
 Weight (Mass) – Volume Relation
Bulk density (ρm) is the density of the soil in the
current state.

MT
ρm = Va air Ma=0
VT Vv
Vw water Mw
Units: t/m3, g/ml, kg/m3 Vt Mt

Vs soil Ms

14
15/11/17
Phase Diagram
 Weight (Mass) – Volume Relation
Bulk density (ρm) is the density of the soil in the
current state.

MT
ρm = Va air Ma=0
VT Vv
Vw water Mw
Units: t/m3, g/ml, kg/m3 Vt Mt

Vs soil Ms

14
15/11/17
Phase Diagram
Weight (Mass) – Volume Relation

Saturated density (ρsat) is the density of the soil

when the voids are filled with water.

Submerged density (ρ’) is the effective density

of the soil when it is submerged.

ρ’ = ρsat - ρw

UNIT WEIGHT OF SOLIDS = Ws /Vs

15/11/17 15
 Weight (Mass) – Volume Relation
Dry density (ρd) is the density of the soil in dry
state.

MS
ρd = Va air Ma=0
VT Vv
Vw water Mw
Units: t/m3, g/ml, kg/m3 Vt Mt

Vs soil Ms

16
15/11/17
Phase Diagram
 Phase Relations
Consider a fraction of the soil where Vs = 1.

The other volumes can

be obtained from the
previous definitions. air
e
Se water Seρ w
The masses can be
obtained from:
Mass = Density x Volume
1 soil Gsρ w

15/11/17 volumes masses

21
Phase Diagram
 Phase Relations
From the previous definitions,
M W Se
w= =
M S GS
air
VV e e
n= = Se water Seρ w
VT 1 + e
n a = n ac soil
1 Gsρ w

ac = 1 - S
15/11/17 Phase Diagram 22
 Phase Relations

M T GS + Se
ρm = = ρW
VT 1+ e
air
M T GS + e e
ρ sat = = ρW Se water Seρ w
VT 1+ e

MS GS soil
ρd = = ρW 1 Gsρ w
VT 1+ e
15/11/17 Phase Diagram 23
 Phase Relations
γ
γd =
WT GS + Se 1+ w
γ = = γW
VT 1+ e
air
WS GS e
γd = = γW Se water Seϒ w
VT 1+ e

GS − 1 1 soil Gsϒ w
γ sub = γ sat − γ w = γW
1+ e
Phase Diagram 24
 Phase Relations
γ
γd =
WT GS (1+ w) 1+ w
γ = = γW
VT 1+ e
air
e
γ = Gsγ w (1+ w)(1− n) Se water Seϒ w

1 soil
γ d = Gsγ W (1− n) Gsϒ w

Phase Diagram 25
 3.2 Weight–Volume Relationships 67

Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume
of soil, excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, d. Thus,

Ws
d 5 (3.11)
V

From Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11), the relationship of unit weight, dry unit weight, and
moisture content can be given as


d 5 (3.12)
11w

Unit weight is expressed in English units (a gravitational system of measure-

ment) as pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3). In SI (Système International), the unit used is
kiloNewton per cubic meter (kN/m3). Because the Newton is a derived unit, working
with mass densities () of soil may sometimes be convenient. The SI unit of mass
density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). We can write the density equations
[similar to Eqs. (3.9) and (3.11)] as
M
5 (3.13)
V
and
Ms
d 5 (3.14)
V

where  5 density of soil (kg/m3)

d 5 dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M 5 total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms 5 mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)

The unit of total volume, V, is m3.

The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as

g (kg/m3)
 (kN/m3) 5
1000

and
g d (kg/m3)
 d (kN/m3) 5
1000

where g 5 acceleration due to gravity 5 9.81 m/sec2.

Note that unit weight of water (
w) is equal to 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3 or 1000 kgf/m3.
Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content, and dry unit weight in a
natural state are given in Table 3.1.

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68 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

Table 3.1 Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Dry Unit Weight for Some Typical Soils in a Natural State

Natural moisture Dry unit weight, gd

content in a
Type of soil Void ratio, e saturated state (%) lb/ft3 kN/m3
Loose uniform sand 0.8 30 92 14.5
Dense uniform sand 0.45 16 115 18
Loose angular-grained silty sand 0.65 25 102 16
Dense angular-grained silty sand 0.4 15 121 19
Stiff clay 0.6 21 108 17
Soft clay 0.9–1.4 30–50 73–93 11.5–14.5
Loess 0.9 25 86 13.5
Soft organic clay 2.5–3.2 90–120 38–51 6–8
Glacial till 0.3 10 134 21

3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight,

Void Ratio, Moisture Content,
and Specific Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture
content, let us consider a volume of soil in which the volume of the soil solids is one,
as shown in Figure 3.2. If the volume of the soil solids is 1, then the volume of voids

W
Weight V
Volume

V 5e

W 5 Gs V 5 Gs

W V 511 e

Ws 5 Gs Vs 5 1

Air W
Water Solid

Figure 3.2 Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to 1

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 3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity 69

is numerically equal to the void ratio, e [from Eq. (3.3)]. The weights of soil solids
and water can be given as
Ws 5 Gsw
Ww 5 wW
Ws 5 wGsw

where Gs 5 specific gravity of soil solids

w 5 moisture content
w 5 unit weight of water
Specific gravity of soil solids (Gs) was defined in Section 2.6 of Chapter 2. It can
be expressed as
Ws
Gs 5 (3.15)
Vsw

Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight [Eqs. (3.9) and
(3.11)], we can write

W Ws 1 Ww Gsw 1 wGsw (1 1 w) Gsw

5 5 5 5 (3.16)
V V 11e 11e

and

Ws Gsw
d 5 5 (3.17)
V 11e

or

Gsw
e5 21 (3.18)
d

Because the weight of water for the soil element under consideration is wGsgw,
the volume occupied by water is

Ww wGsw
Vw 5 5 5 wGs
w w

Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation [Eq. (3.5)],

Vw wGs
S5 5
Vv e

or

Se 5 wGs (3.19)

This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase relationships.

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70 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

W
Weight V
Volume

W 5 e
 V 5V 5e

W V511e

Ws 5 Gs Vs 5 1

W
Water Solid

Figure 3.3 Saturated soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one

If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void spaces are completely filled with
water (Figure 3.3)—the relationship for saturated unit weight (sat) can be derived
in a similar manner:

W Ws 1 Ww Gsw 1 ew (Gs 1 e)w

sat 5 5 5 5 (3.20)
V V 11e 11e

Also, from Eq. (3.18) with S 5 1,

e 5 wGs (3.21)

As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities in the

SI system, the following equations, similar to unit–weight relationships given in
Eqs. (3.16), (3.17), and (3.20), will be useful:

(1 1 w)Gsw
Density 5  5 (3.22)
11e
Gs w
Dry density 5 d 5 (3.23)
11e
(Gs 1 e) w
Saturated density 5 sat 5 (3.24)
11e

where w 5 density of water 5 1000 kg/m3.

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 3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity 71

V 5e
M 5 Gs 

Ms 5 Gs  Vs 5 1

Air W
Water Solid

Figure 3.4 Three separate phases of a soil element showing mass–volume relationship

Equation (3.22) may be derived by referring to the soil element shown in Figure 3.4,
in which the volume of soil solids is equal to 1 and the volume of voids is equal to e.
Hence, the mass of soil solids, Ms, is equal to Gs w. The moisture content has been
defined in Eq. (3.8) as
Ww (mass of water) ? g
w5 5
Ws (mass of solid) ? g
Mw
5
Ms

where Mw 5 mass of water.

Since the mass of soil in the element is equal to Gs w, the mass of water

Mw 5 wM
Ms 5 wGsw

From Eq. (3.13), density

M Ms 1 Mw Gsw 1 wGsw
5 5 5
V Vs 1 Vv 11e

(1 1 w)Gsw
5
11e

Equations (3.23) and (3.24) can be derived similarly.

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72 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight,

Porosity, and Moisture Content
The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be developed
in a manner similar to that presented in the preceding section. Consider a soil that
has a total volume equal to one, as shown in Figure 3.5. From Eq. (3.4),

Vv
n5
V

If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so Vs 5 1 2 n. The weight of soil solids (W

Ws)
and the weight of water (W Ww) can then be expressed as follows:

Ws 5 Gsw(1 2 n) (3.25)
Ws 5 wGsw(1 2 n)
Ww 5 wW (3.26)

So, the dry unit weight equals

Ws Gsw(1 2 n)
d 5 5 5 Gsw(1 2 n) (3.27)
V 1

The moist unit weight equals

Ws 1 Ww
5 5 Gsw(1 2 n)(1 1 w) (3.28)
V

W
Weight V
Volume

V 5n

W 5 Gs (1 2 n)

V51

Ws 5 Gs (1 2 n) Vs 5 1 2 n

Air W
Water Solid

Figure 3.5 Soil element with total volume equal to one

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 73

W
Weight V
Volume

W 5 n
 V 5V 5n

V51

Ws 5 Gs (1 2 n) Vs 5 1 2 n

W
Water Solid

Figure 3.6 Saturated soil element with total volume equal to 1

Figure 3.6 shows a soil sample that is saturated and has V 5 1. According to this figure,

Ws 1 Ww (1 2 n)Gsw 1 nw
sat 5 5 5 [(1 2 n)Gs 1 n]w (3.29)
V 1

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

Ww nw n
wsat 5 5 5 (3.30)
Ws (1 2 n)wGs (1 2 n)Gs

Example 3.1
For a saturated soil, show that

11 1 w G 2G 
1 1 wsat
sat 5 s w
sat s

Solution

W Ww 1 Ws wsatWs 1 Ws Ws
sat 5 5 5 5 (1 1 wsat) (a)
V V V V

From Eq. (3.15),

Ws 5 GsVsw (b)

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74 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

Also, from Eq. (3.3),

Vv 1 Vs V
e115 5 (c)
Vs Vs

Substituting Eqs. (b) and (c) into Eq. (a),

Gsw
sat 5 (1 1 wsat) (d)
11e

From Eq. (3.21),

e 5 wsatGs (e)

Substituting (e) into (d) gives

1 1 wsat
gsat 5 11 1 w G 2G gsat s
s w

Example 3.2
For a moist soil sample, the following are given.
Total volume: V 5 1.2 m3
Total mass: M 5 2350 kg
Moisture content: w 5 8.6%
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs 5 2.71
Determine the following.
a. Moist density
b. Dry density
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume of water in the soil sample

Solution
Part a
From Eq. (3.13),
M 2350
5 5 5 1958.3 kg/
g/m
g/
/m3
V 1.2

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 75

Part b
From Eq. (3.14),
Ms M 2350
d 5 5 5 5 1803.3 kg/
g/m
g/
/m3
1 2
V (1 1 w)V 8.6
11 (1.2)
100
Part c
From Eq. (3.23),

Gs w
d 5
11e
Gsw (2.71)(1000)
e5 215 2 1 5 0.503
d 1803.3

Part d
From Eq. (3.7),
e 0.503
n5 5 5 0.335
1 1 e 1 1 0.503

Part e
From Eq. (3.19),

1100 2(2.71)
8.6
wGs
S5 5 5 0.463 5 46.3%
e 0.503

Part f
The volume of water is

1 2
2350
2350 2
M 8.6
M2 11
Mw M 2 Ms 11w 100
5 5 5 5 0.186 m3
w w w 1000

Alternate Solution
Refer to Figure 3.7.
Part a
M 2350
5 5 5 1958.3 kg/
g/m
g/
/m3
V 1.2

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76 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

Mass (kg) Volume (m3)

V

V 5 0.402
M 5 186.1 V 5 0.186

M 5 2350 V 5 1.2

Ms 5 2163.9 Vs 5 0.798

Air W
Water Solid

Figure 3.7

Part b
M 2350
Ms 5 5 5 2163.9 kg
11w 8.6
11
100

Ms M 2350
d 5 5 5 5 1803.3 kg/
g/m
g/
/m3
1 2
V (1 1 w)V 8.6
11 (1.2)
100

Part c
Ms 2163.9
The volume of solids: 5 5 0.798 m3
Gs w (2.71)(1000)

The volume of voids: Vv 5 V 2 Vs 5 1.2 2 0.798 5 0.402 m3

Vv 0.402
Void ratio: e 5 5 5 0.503
Vs 0.798
Part d
Vv 0.402
Porosity: n 5 5 5 0.335
V 1.2

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 3.4 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content 77

Part e
Vw
S5
Vv
Mw 186.1
Volume of water: Vw 5 5 5 0.186 m3
w 1000
Hence,
0.186
S5 5 0.463 5 46.3%
0.402
Part f
From Part e,
Vw 5 0.186 m3

Example 3.3
The following data are given for a soil:

Porosity: n 5 0.4
Specific gravity of the soil solids: Gs 5 2.68
Moisture content: w 5 12%
Determine the mass of water to be added to 10 m3 of soil for full saturation.

Solution
Equation (3.28) can be rewritten in terms of density as
 5 Gsw (1 2 n)(1 1 w)
Similarly, from Eq. (3.29)

sat 5 [(1 2 n)Gs 1 n]w

Thus,

 5 (2.68)(1000)(1 2 0.4)(1 1 0.12) 5 1800.96 kg/m3

sat 5 [(1 2 0.4)(2.68) 1 0.4](1000) 5 2008 kg/m3
Mass of water needed per cubic meter equals
sat 2  5 2008 2 1800.96 5 207.04 kg
So, total mass of water to be added equals
207.04 3 10 5 2070.4 kg

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78 Chapter 3 | Weight–Volume Relationships

Example 3.4
A saturated soil has a dry unit weight of 103 lb/ft3. Its moisture content is 23%.
Determine:
a. Saturated unit weight, sat
b. Specific gravity, Gs
c. Void ratio, e

Solution
Part a: Saturated Unit Weight
From Eq. (3.12),

1 2
23
sat 5 d(1 1 w) 5 (103) 1 1 5 126.69 lb/ft3 < 126.7 lb/ft3
100

Part b: Specific Gravity, Gs

From Eq. (3.17),

Gsw
d 5
11e

Also from Eq. (3.21) for saturated soils, e 5 wGs. Thus,

Gsw
d 5
1 1 wGs
So,

Gs(62.4)
103 5
1 1 (0.23)(Gs)
or

103 1 23.69Gs 5 62.4Gs

Gs 5 2.66

Part c: Void Ratio, e

For saturated soils,

e 5 wGs 5 (0.23)(2.66) 5 0.61

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 Important Note
 Do NOT memorise the equations.

 Understand the definitions, and develop the

relations from the phase diagram with V S = 1

 Assume GS (2.6-2.8) when not given

 Do not mix densities and unit weights

 Soil grains are incompressible. Their mass

and volume remain the same at any void ratio.
15/11/17 26
Example 1
 Example 2
Field density testing (e.g., sand replacement method) has shown bulk
density of a compacted road base to be 2.06 g/cc with a water content of
11.6%. Specific gravity of the soil grains is 2.69. Calculate the dry density,
porosity, void ratio and degree of saturation.
•Relative Density
• The relative density is the parameter that compare the volume
reduction achieved from compaction to the maximum possible
volume reduction
• The relative density Dr, also called density index is
commonly used to indicate the IN SITU denseness or
looseness of granular soil.

Volume reduction from compaction of granular soil

•Dr can be expressed either in terms of void ratios
or dry densities.

23
•Remarks
• The range of values of Dr may vary from a minimum of zero for
very LOOSE soil to a maximum of 100% for a very DENSE soil.

• Because of the irregular size and shape of granular particles, it is

not possible to obtain a ZERO volume of voids.
• Granular soils are qualitatively described according to their
relative densities as shown below

• The use of relative density has been restricted to granular soils

because of the difficulty of determining emax in clayey soils.
Liquidity Index in fine-grained soils is of similar use as Dr in
granular soils.
Other useful formulas dealing with phase relationships:
Se = wGS
γs
e= −1
γ dry
Unit weight relationships :
(1 + w)GS γ w (GS + Se)γ w (1 + w)GS γ w
γ= = = = GS γ w (1 − n)(1 + w)
1+ e 1+ e wGS
1+
S
Saturated unit weights :
(GS + e)γ w ⎛ e ⎞⎛ 1 + w ⎞
γ SAT = = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟γ w
1+ e ⎝ w ⎠⎝ 1 + e ⎠
⎛ 1+ w ⎞
γ SAT = γ d + nγ w = ⎡⎣(1 − n ) Gs + n ⎤⎦ γ w = ⎜ ⎟ Gsγ w
⎝ 1 + wGs ⎠
γ SAT = γ '+ γ w

Dry unit weights :

γ GS γ w eS γ w eGsγ w
γd = = Gsγ w (1 − n ) = = =
1+ w 1 + e (1 + e) w ( S + wGs )
⎛ e ⎞
γ d = γ SAT − nγ w = γ SAT − ⎜ ⎟γ w
⎝ 1+ e ⎠
.

20
*Phases of soils-01: Convert from metric units to SI and US units.
(Revision: Oct.-08)
A cohesive soil sample was taken from an SPT and returned to the laboratory in a glass jar. It was
found to weigh 140.5 grams. The sample was then placed in a container of V = 500 cm3 and 423
cm3 of water were added to fill the container. From these data, what was the unit weight of the soil
in kN/m3 and pcf?

Solution.
Notice that the 140.5 grams is a mass. Therefore, the ratio of mass to volume is a density ρ,
m 140.5 g f gf
ρ= = = 1.82
V (500 − 423) cm 3 cm 3
3
⎛ g ⎞ ⎛ 1 kg f ⎞ ⎛ m ⎞ ⎛ 1 kN ⎞ ⎛ 1 0 2 cm ⎞ kN
γ = ρ g = ⎜ 1.82 f 3 ⎜
⎟⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 9.806 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 17.9 3 ( SI un its )
⎠ ⎝ 10 g f ⎟⎠ ⎝
2 3
⎝ cm sec ⎠ ⎝ 10 N ⎠ ⎝ 1 m ⎠ m

⎛ kN ⎞ ⎛ 1000 N ⎞ ⎛ 0.2248 lbs f ⎞ ⎛ 1 m 3 ⎞

γ = ⎜ 17.9 3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ 3 ⎟
= 114 pcf (US units )
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ 1 kN ⎠ ⎝ 1N ⎠ ⎝ 35.3 ft ⎠

21
*Phases of soils–02: Compaction checked via the voids ratio.
(Revision: Sept.- 08)
A contractor has compacted the base course for a new road and found that the mean value of the
test samples shows w = 14.6%, GS = 2.81, and γ = 18.2 kN/m3. The specifications require that e ≤
0.80. Has the contractor complied with the specifications?

Solution:
GS γ W (1 + w ) G γ (1 + w )
γ = ∴ 1+ e = S W
1+ e γ
⎛ kN ⎞
2.81 ⎜ 9.81 3 ⎟ (1 + 0.146 )
⎝ m ⎠
1+ e = = 1.74
kN
18.2 3
m
e = 1.74 − 1 = 0.74

∴ e = 0.74 < 0.8 Yes , the contractor has complied .

22
*Phases of soils–03: Value of the moisture when fully saturated.
(Revision: Oct.-08)

(1) Show that at saturation the moisture (water) content is wsat = ( nγ W ) .

( γ sat − nγ W )
⎛ ⎞
(2) Show that at saturation the moisture (water) content is wsat = γ w ⎜ 1 − 1 ⎟
⎝ γd γS ⎠

Solution:
(1) In a fully saturated soil the relation, Se = wGS becomes simply e = wGs
e n
because S = 1 or GS = =
wsat wsat (1 − n )
but γ sat = γ w ⎡⎣(1 − n ) GS + n ⎤⎦
γ sat ⎡ n ⎤ n
rearranging = ⎡⎣(1 − n ) GS + n ⎤⎦ = ⎢(1 − n ) + n⎥ = +n
γw ⎣ wsat (1 − n) ⎦ wsat
γ sat n nγ w
or −n = therefore wsat =
γw wsat γ sat − nγ w
e VV γ w VV γ w VS γ wVV
(2) Again, in a fully saturated soil, wsat = = = =
GS VS γ S VS 1 WS WS
γ wVV ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ VV + VS − VS ⎞ ⎛ VV + VS VS ⎞
∴ wsat = = γw ⎜ V ⎟ = γw ⎜ ⎟ = γw ⎜ − ⎟
WS ⎝ WS ⎠ ⎝ WS ⎠ ⎝ WS WS ⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞
or wsat = γ w ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ γd γS ⎠

23
*Phases of soils–04: Finding the wrong data.
(Revision: Oct.-08)
A geotechnical laboratory reported these results of five samples taken from a single boring.
Determine which are not correctly reported, if any.
Sample #1: w = 30%, γd = 14.9 kN/m3, γs = 27 kN/m3; clay.
Sample #2: w = 20%, γd = 18 kN/m3, γs = 27 kN/m3; silt.
Sample #3: w = 10%, γd = 16 kN/m3, γs = 26 kN/m3; sand.
Sample #4: w = 22%, γd = 17.3 kN/m3, γs = 28 kN/m3; silt.
Sample #5: w = 22%, γd = 18 kN/m3, γs = 27 kN/m3; silt.

Solution:
e VV γ w VV γ w VS γ wVV ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ V + VS − VS ⎞
wsat = = = = = γw ⎜ V ⎟ = γw ⎜ V ⎟
GS VS γ S VS 1 WS WS ⎝ WS ⎠ ⎝ WS ⎠
⎛ V + VS VS ⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
wsat = γw ⎜ V − ⎟ = γw ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ WS WS ⎠ ⎝ γd γS ⎠
The water content is in error if it is greater than the saturated moisture, that is,
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
∴ w ≤ wSAT = γ w ⎜ − ⎟
⎝γd γS ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
1) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = 30% = w = 30% GOOD
⎝ 14.9 27 ⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞
2) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = 18.5% v < w = 20% WRONG
⎝ 18 27 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
3) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = 24% > w = 10% GOOD
⎝ 16 26 ⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
4) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = 22.1% > w = 22% GOOD
⎝ 17.3 28 ⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞
5) wSAT = ( 9.81 kN / m3 ) ⎜ − ⎟ = 18.5% < w = 22% WRONG
⎝ 18 27 ⎠

24
*Phases of soils–05: Increasing the saturation of a soil.
(Revision: Sept.-08)
A soil sample has a unit weight of 105.7 pcf and a saturation of 50%. When its saturation is
increased to 75%, its unit weight raises to 112.7 pcf.
Determine the voids ratio e and the specific gravity Gs of this soil.

Solution:

γ W ( GS + Se )
γ =
1+ e
62.4(GS + 0.50e)
∴ 105.7 pcf = (1)
1+ e
62.4(GS + 0.75e)
and 112.7 pcf = (2)
1+ e

Solving exp licitely for Gs in equation (1),

Gs =
(105.7 )(1 + e ) − 0.50e
62.4

Replace Gs in equation (2) with the above relation from (1),

∴ (112.7 )(1 + e ) = (105.7 )(1 + e ) + ( 62.4 )( 0.25e )
∴ e = 0.814 and GS = 2.67

25
*Phases of soils–06: Find γd, n, S and Ww.
(Revision: Sept.-08)

The moist unit weight of a soil is 16.5 kN/m3. Given that the w = 15% and Gs = 2.70, find:
(1) Dry unit weight γd,
(2) The porosity n,
(3) The degree of saturation S, and
(4) The mass of water in kgm/m3 that must be added to reach full saturation.

Solution:

γ 16.5 kN
a) γ d = = = 14.3
(1 + w) (1 + 0.15) m3
b) From the table of useful relationships,

γd =
Gs γ w Gγ
∴ 1+ e = s w =
( 2.70 )( 9.81) = 1.85 ∴ e = 0.85
1+ e γd (14.3)
e 0.85
n= = (100% ) = 46%
1 + e 1 + 0.85

wGs ( 0.15 )( 2.70 )

c ) Since Se = wGs ∴ S = = (100 ) = 48%
e ( 0 .8 5 )
d ) γ sat =
(G S + e) γ w
=
( 2.70 + 0.85 )( 9.81) = 18.8
kN
1+e 1+0.85 m3

The water to be added can be found from the relation γ = ρ g

⎡ (18.8 - 16.5 ) kN / m 3 ⎤ ⎛ 1, 000 N ⎞ ⎛ 9.81kg -m / s 2 ⎞
γ kg m
∴ ρ ( mass of water ) = = ⎢ 2 ⎥⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 2, 340
g ⎣ 9.81 kg - m / s ⎦ ⎝ 1 kN ⎠ ⎝ N ⎠ m3

26
*Phases of soils–07: Use the block diagram to find the degree of saturation.
(Revision: Sept.-08)

A soil has an “in-situ” (in-place) voids ratio eo = 1.87, wN = 60%, and GS = 2.75 . What are the
γmoist and S? (Note: All soils are really “moist” except when dry, that is when w = 0%).

Solution: Set VS = 1 m3 (Note: this problem could also be solved by setting V = 1.0 m3).

VV 1.87
∴ eo = = = 1.87 ∴ V = VS + VV = 1 + 1.87 = 2.87 m 3
VS 1
Ww
The "natural" water content is wN = = 0.60 ∴ Ww = 0.60Ws
Ws
Ws
γs Vs
Gs = = ∴ Ws = Vs ( GS γ w ) = (1 m 3 ) ( 2.75 ) ( 9.81 kN / m 3 ) = 26.98 kN
γw γw
Ww = 0.60 (Ws ) = ( 0.60 )( 26.98 ) = 16.19 kN
W = Ws + Ww = 26.98 + 16.19 = 43.17 kN
W 43.17 kN kN
∴ γ moist == 3
= 15.0 3
V 2.87 m m
Ww ⎛ 16.19 ⎞
V γ ⎜ ⎟
S= w = w =⎝
9.81 ⎠
∴ = 88.2%
VV VV 1.87

27
*Phases of soils–08: Same as Prob-07 but setting the total volume V=1 m3.
(Revision: Oct.-08)

A soil has an “in-situ” (in-place) voids ratio eo = 1.87, wN = 60%, and GS = 2.75 . What are the
γmoist and S? (Note: All soils are really “moist” except when dry, that is when w = 0%).

Solution: Set V = 1 m3 (instead of Vs = 1 m3 used in Phases-07).

VV
but eo = = 1.87 ∴ but V = 1 m 3 = VS + VV = VS + 1.87VS = 2.87VS ∴ VS = 0.348 and VV = 0.652
VS
Ww
The "natural" water content is wN = = 0.60 ∴ Ww = 0.60Ws
Ws
Ws
γs Vs
Gs = = ∴ Ws = Vs ( GS γ w ) = ( 0.348 m 3 ) ( 2.75 ) ( 9.81 kN / m 3 ) = 9.39 kN
γw γw
Ww = 0.60 (Ws ) = ( 0.60 )( 9.39 ) = 5.63 kN
W = Ws + Ww = 9.39 + 5.63 = 15.02 kN
W 15.0 kN kN
∴ γ moist == 3
= 15.0 3
V 1m m
Ww ⎛ 5.63 ⎞
V γ ⎜ ⎟
9.81 ⎠
∴ S= w = w =⎝ = 88.0%
VV VV 0.652

28
*Phases of soils–11: Find the weight of water needed for saturation.
(Revision: Sept.-08)
Determine the weight of water (in kN) that must be added to a cubic meter of soil to attain a 95 %
degree of saturation, if the dry unit weight is 17.5 kN/m3, its moisture is 4%, the specific gravity of
solids is 2.65 and the soil is entirely made up of a clean quartz sand.

Solution:
kN γ γ kN
γ d = 1 7 .5= = ∴ γ = 1 8 .2
m 3
1+ w 1 + 0 .0 4 m3
W = 1 8 .2 = W S + W w = W S + w W S = (1 .0 4 ) W S
∴ W S = 1 7 .5 k N , and W w = 0 .7 0 k N
WS 1 7 .5 k N 1 7 .5 k N
VS = = = = 0 .6 7 3 m 3

γ S G Sγ w (2 .6 5 ) (9 .8 1 k N / m 3 )
Ww 0 .7 0 k N
Vw = = = 0 .0 7 m 3
∴ V a = V − V s − V w = 0 .2 5 7 m 3

γ w ( 9 .8 1 k N / m 3 )
VV 0 .0 7 + 0 . 2 5 7
e = = = 0 .4 9
VS 0 .6 7 3
wGS ( 0 .0 4 ) ( 2 .6 5 )
T h e e x is tin g S = = (1 0 0 ) = 2 1 .6 %
e 0 .4 9
W e re q u ire a S = 9 5 % , th e re fo re ,

w =
Se
=
( 0 .9 5 ) ( 0 .4 9 ) = 0 .1 7
GS 2 .6 5
W w = w W S = ( 0 .1 7 ) (1 7 .5 k N ) = 2 .9 8 k N
a lr e a d y h a v e W w = 0 .7 0 k N
∴ m u s t a d d w a te r = 2 .2 8 k N

Answer: Add 2.28 kN of water per m3.

31
*Phases of soils–12: Identify the wrong piece of data.
(Revision: Sept.-08)
A project engineer receives a laboratory report with tests performed on marine marl calcareous
silt). The engineer suspects that one of the measurements is in error. Are the engineer’s suspicions
correct? If so, which one of these values is wrong, and what should be its correct value?
kN
G iven γ = unit w eight of sam ple = 18.4
m3
kN
γ S = unit w eight of solids = 26.1
m3
w = w ater content = 40%
e = voids ratio = 1.12
S = degree of saturation = 95%

Solution:

Check the accuracy of 4 out of 5 of the variables using,

Se = wGS ∴ Se = ( 0.95 )(1.12 ) = 1.06
γS 26.1
wGS = ( w ) = ( 0.4 ) = 1.06 ∴ Therefore, these four are correct.
γw 9.81
The only possibly incorrect value is γ . Assume that V = 1 m3 .
V = 1 m3 = Va + Vw + VS (1)
VV
but e = = 1.12 ∴ 0 = − Va − Vw + 1.12VS ( 2 )
VS
∴ VS = 0.472 m3 , VV = 0.528 m3 but Vw = 0.95VV = 0.502 m3
∴ Va = 0.026 m3
⎛ kN ⎞
∴WS = γ SVS = ⎜ 26.1 3 ⎟ ( 0.472 m3 ) = 12.3 kN
⎝ m ⎠
⎛ kN ⎞
Ww = wWS = ( 0.40 ) ⎜12.3 3 ⎟ = 4.9 kN
⎝ m ⎠
W = 12.3 kN + 4.9 kN = 17.2 kN
Therefore, the actual unit weight of the soil is,
W 17.2 kN kN kN
∴γ = = 3
= 17.2 3 ≠ 18.4 3
V 1m m m

32
9. Soil Density and Unit Weight
9.1. DENSITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT
9.1.1. Heavy Is the Soil
Soil density and unit weight are basic to many soil and foundation problems, as the weight of soil involved can eclipse that of
other materials used to build structures. For example, the weight of soil removed for a basement usually exceeds the weight of
the house that will stand in its place. This does not ensure that the house will be safe from settlement because its weight is not
evenly distributed, but is mainly carried by the foundations.

The most critical component of a foundation is not concrete, which obviously is much stronger than the soil on which it rests.
Nor does the weight of the building simply derive support from the soil underneath the foundation, as foundations often are
extended to a width that enables the soil alongside to keep the soil underneath from squeezing out. Fig. 9.1 illustrates what can
happen if the soil alongside is removed. Support for foundations therefore is not simply a matter of soil strength but also
involves a calculated balance that takes into account both the weight and strength of the soil. In Fig. 9.1 a basement was
excavated next to the foundation for a municipal fire station with predictable consequences.

Soil weight also contributes the “body forces” that are the driving forces for landslides, and exert pressures on buried pipes and
tunnels. Lateral bulging of soil under its own weight is opposed by support from retaining walls.

Soil weight also can have a positive influence because it contributes to friction that helps torestrain a landslide and support a
building foundation. Soil weight therefore can appear on both sides of the equation.

Figure 9.1 Collapse of a wall of a municipal fire station was triggered by removing the restraining
effect of weight of the soil from alongside the foundation. Photo is courtesy of Prof. J. M. Hoover.

9.1.2. Variations in Weight Depending on Moisture Content

In some ways a soil resembles a sponge—light in weight when dry and heavy when wet. As the dry weight is constant, it is the
reference for density and unit weight calculations. For example, if a sample of soil weighs 100 g wet and 75 g dry, the percent

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moisture is based on 75 g, not on the total weight of 100 g. The moisture content, instead of being 25 percent, is 100 × (100 −
75)/75 = 33 percent.

This convention can yield some rather curious results: For example, if a soil sample weighs 100 g wet and 50 g dry, its moisture
content is 100 × (100 − 50)/ 50 = 100 percent. Some natural soils contain more water than solids, in which case the moisture
content is over 100 percent! For this one needs a college education.

The relation between moisture content and degree of saturation can be critical, because a load applied to and acting to
compress a saturated soil will be partly carried by the pore water, which has zero strength. The soil that is firm enough to
support a heavy truck when dry can turn into a mudhole when the soil becomes saturated with water.

9.1.3. Influence of Density on Strength

Generally the more dense the soil, the stronger it is, although there are important exceptions. Compaction specifications define
the kind of soil, its moisture content, and a target density. Other criteria such as “walk-out” of a sheepsfoot roller are not reliable
because a roller can “walk-out” if the soil is dry but contains sufficient voids that it will turn to mush after rain, and a lightweight
roller will walk out more readily than a heavy one.

Figure 9.2 The largest man-made structures are not earth dams or the Pyramids, but highways built
on engineered and compacted soil. U.S. Interstate Highway system. Adapted from the U.S. Federal
Highway Administration.

Density and moisture content measurements are routinely conducted in all but the smallest compaction projects in order to
ensure adherence to specifications. Modern instruments allow this to be done indirectly and quickly using non-destructive
gamma-ray transmission and neutron tests that are discussed in Chapter 13. This chapter discusses the procedures used to
calculate density relationships in a soil.

9.2. SOLID + LIQUID AND GAS

9.2.1. Three Phases
A block diagram such as shown in Fig. 9.3 is useful for dealing with many definitions related to soils. The total volume is 1.0,
and portions of the volume made up by solids, water, and air are designated with subscripts s, w, and a.

9.2.2. Density and Unit Weight

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9.2.2. Density and Unit Weight
Density is a mass property per unit volume that is the same regardless of the influence of gravity, whereas unit weight is the tug
that is measured per unit volume in response to gravity. Nuclear instruments measure density that is converted to unit weight
based on gravitational pull at the Earth’s surface through

Figure 9.3 A block diagram simplifies calculations of moisture content and density relationships by
filling in the blanks according to the formula shown at the top. The dashed line indicates variability
of water and air contents as the total volume of voids, V v, remains constant.

Newton’s formula f = ma. On Earth the acceleration usually is denoted by g and nominally is 9.81 m/s 2 or 32.2 ft/s 2 .
Gravitational acceleration varies with altitude and location relative to mountain ranges and ocean basins, but the amount of the
variation on Earth does not significantly influence the determination of unit weights. In dealing with weights on Earth, unit
weight is the term preferred in engineering.

9.2.3. A Benchmark for Unit Weight

The solid portion of soil shown in Fig. 9.3 is the base for calculating the dry unit weight. The moisture content may change but
the dry unit weight remains the same (unless it is expansive clay). Including water gives a wet unit weight, which varies between
limits that are fixed by the dry unit weight and by the unit weight when the soil is saturated with water.

The wet unit weight and moisture content are measured and then converted to dry unit weight, which reflects only the degree of
packing of a soil.

Example 9.1

A cylindrical sample of undisturbed soil 3 in. (76.2 mm) in diameter and 6 in. (152.4 mm) long weighs 3.04 lb (1.38 kg mass)
and 2.57 lb (1.166 kg mass) after oven-drying. What are (a) its wet and dry unit weights and (b) its densities?

Answer: (a) The volume of the cylindrical sample is 42.4 in.3 , or 0.0245 ft 3 . The wet unit weight is 3.04 ÷ 0.0245 = 124 lb/ft 3 .
The dry unit weight is 2.57 ÷ 0.0245 = 105 lb/ft 3 .

(b) The volume is 695 cm 3 . The wet density is 1.99 g/cm 3 and the dry density is 1.68 g/cm 3 . In SI these values are expressed
as Mg/m 3 , also called “bulk densities,” the bulk density of water being 1.00.

Example 9.2

Calculate wet and dry unit weights using SI.

Answer: The wet and dry weights are 13.52 N and 11.43 N respectively. The sample volume is 695(10)−6 m 3 . The respective
unit weights are 19.5 and 16.4 kN/m 3 .

9.2.4. The Void Ratio, e

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9.2.4. The Void Ratio, e
A convenient measure of a soil dry density that is not affected by specific gravity of the soil particles or by the moisture content
is the void ratio, e, which is defined as the volume of voids divided by the volume of solids. The volume of voids is the combined
volume of water and air. Then by definition,

(9.1)

where e is the void ratio, V v the volume of voids, and V s the volume of voids. This is one of only a few formulas in geotechnical
engineering that should be committed to memory.

9.2.5. Formula for Moisture Content, w

As previously noted, moisture content is defined as the weight (or mass) percent water referenced to the dry weight (or mass)
of the soil. By definition,

(9.2)

where w is the moisture content in percent, W w is the weight of water, and W s is the weight of the solids.

Example 9.3

Determine the moisture content in Example 9.1.

Answer: First subtract the dry weight from the wet weight to obtain the weight of water: 3.04 − 2.57 = 0.47 lb. Thenw = 100 ×
(0.47/2.57) = 18.3%. A similar calculation can be made using grams weight or Newtons.

9.3. DRY UNIT WEIGHT

One of the most frequently used formulas in geotechnical engineering converts a measured wet unit weight to a dry unit weight.
With reference to Fig. 9.3, the definition for wet unit weight is

(9.3)

where in the block diagram V = 1. Then

(9.4)

Solving eq. (9.2) for W w gives

(9.5)

where w is the moisture content in percent. Substituting ineq. (9.4) gives

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 (9.6)

(9.7)

In other words, the dry unit weight of a soil is equal to its wet unit weight divided by 1 plus the moisture content expressed as a
decimal fraction. This formula is used so often that it should be practiced and committed to memory.

Example 9.4

Use eq. (9.7) to convert the wet unit weight in Example 9.1 to a dry unit weight.

Answer:

The same formula, which is so astounding for its simplicity, also may be used to convert wet to dry density: 1.99/(1 + 0.183) =
1.68 Mg/m 3 , or unit weights in SI: 19.5/1.183 = 16.5 kN/m 3 .

9.4. SATURATED AND SUBMERGED UNIT WEIGHT

9.4.1. Saturated Unit Weight
The soil unit weight as measured gives only part of the story because it is the unit weight after the soil becomes saturated with
water that may be most critical. This can be calculated by use of the block diagram since at saturation the voids are completely
filled with water. The saturated unit weight is frequently encountered in landslides.

Example 9.5

Calculate the saturated unit weight for Example 9.1 assuming that the specific gravity of the mineral portion equals 2.70.

Answer: The simplest procedure is to write known quantities into a block diagram and go from there. The known quantities are
written as shown in Fig. 9.4. The wet unit weight or weight per unit volume, 124 lb, was measured, and the dry unit weight, or
weight of the solids per unit volume, 105 lb, was calculated. The difference is the weight of the water, 19 lb. The respective unit
weights for the solids and for the water are entered into the appropriate boxes. From the formula at the top, V s = 105/(3.70)
(62.4) = 0.62, which may be written on the diagram. As the total volume is 1.0, the volume of voids is V v = 1.0 − 0.62 = 0.38. If
that volume is filled with water, its weight will be W w = 0.38 × 62.4 = 23.5 lb, and the saturated unit weight will beW sat = 105 +
23.5 = 128 lb/ft 3 .

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 Figure 9.4 A block diagram makes calculations easy and most density formulas superfluous: fill in
the known values and calculate the unknowns.

Question: What is the void ratio in the previous example?

Answer: The calculated values for V s = 0.62 and V v = 0.38 should be written at the left on the block diagram. Then e = 0.38/0.62 = 0.61.

9.4.2. Submerged Unit Weight

Unit weight is greatly influenced by the position of the groundwater table, which submerges and buoys up the soil. To illustrate
this concept, imagine weighing a bucket of sand and then re-weighing it after it is suspended by a rope in water. It was
Archimedes who argued that the reduction in weight equals the weight of the water displaced. Once a submerged unit weight
has been calculated, determining a submerged unit weight is simplest of all. Simply subtract the unit weight of water:

(9.8)

Example 9.6

What is the submerged unit weight from the preceding example?

Answer: γ sub = 128 − 62.4 = 65.5 lb/ft 3 .

Note that in order to calculate a submerged unit weight the saturated unit weight must be calculated first, unless for some
indefensible reason a soil that is submerged is assumed to be unsaturated.

“Sudden drawdown” is when a submerged soil is left high and wet, as during receding flood levels. This converts a submerged
unit weight to a saturated unit weight, which approximately doubles the effective weight of the soil. Collapse of river banks
therefore occurs during waning stages of a flood and not during the flood. The same situation can occur in a lake if the level is
rapidly lowered, which is an important consideration in reservoir management as a sudden drawdown can create sudden
landslides.

9.4.3. Summary of Use of the Block Diagram

A general procedure is as follows:

The wet unit weight and moisture content of a soil are measured.

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 Dry unit weight is calculated using eq. (9.7).

The two unit weights are written on a block diagram.

A mineral specific gravity is assumed or measured and its unit weight calculated.

The volume of solids is calculated from the dry unit weight and mineral unit weight.

The volume of solids is subtracted from 1.0 to obtain a volume of voids.

The void ratio is calculated from eq. (9.1).

To predict the saturated unit weight, assume that all voids are filled with water and calculate its weight from the volume and
unit weight of water, then add this weight to the dry unit weight to obtain a saturated unit weight.

The submerged unit weight is calculated from eq. (9.8).

A block diagram can be used equally effectively with the cgs or SI systems of measurement with the unit weight of water equal
to 1.0 g/cm 3 or 1 Mg/m 3 , or 9.807 kN/m 3 , respectively. Specific gravity values are dimensionless and the same in any
system.

9.4.4. Other Measures Related to Density and Moisture Content

Porosity is defined as the volume of pores divided by the volume of voids, in percent:

(9.9)

Porosity is related to the void ratio by the following formula:

(9.10)

Degree of saturation is defined as the volume of water divided by the volume of voids, in percent:

(9.11)

A formula that may be used to determine saturated unit weight from the void ratio, specific gravity, and wet unit weight is as
follows:

(9.12)

9.5. VALUES FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of the solid particles of a soil, represented by G s in Fig. 9.3, is the ratio of the average density of the solids
to that of water. Specific gravities of different minerals vary widely. That of borax is only about 1.7, whereas that of the iron
oxide mineral hematite is 5.3, and some less common minerals have much higher values. The usual preponderance of quartz,
with a specific gravity of 2.65, and feldspars, with values of 2.55 to 2.75, narrows the range in most soils to between 2.6 and
2.7.

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Some values of specific gravities are shown inTable 9.1. The specific gravity of volcanic ash, which is mostly glass, is low
because glass has no regular crystal structure with requisite packing of atoms. That of the Oxisol is high because of its iron
content.

9.6. FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL UNIT WEIGHT

The theoretical upper limit for unit weight can be calculated assuming a zero void ratio. With quartz as the soil mineral the
upper limit is:

Table 9.1 Specific gravities of solids in selected soils.

Volcanic ash, Kansas 2.32

Kaolinite 2.61

Alluvial smectite clay 2.65

Platte River sand 2.65

Loess from central U.S. 2.70

Micaceous silt, Alaska 2.76

Oxisol (latosol), Hawaii 3.00

For comparison, the unit weight of Portland cement concrete, which contains water, is approximately 2.4 Mg/m3 , 150 lb/ft 3 , or
23.6 kN/m 3 . Heavier concretes used for radiological containment vessels or to contain gas pressures in deep oil wells require
denser aggregates.

A theoretical lower bound with all particles touching can be obtained by assuming uniform spheres packed in a cubic
arrangement (Fig. 9.5).

The void ratio of the cubic arrangement can be obtained from the volume of a sphere and the volume of the enclosed cube. IfV
= 1, V s = 0.5236, and

Multiplying V s times the mineral unit weight gives the dry unit weight, which with quartz spheres is

Coincidentally silt soils that have a lower unit weight than about 90 lb/ft 3 (1.44 Mg/m 3 ; 14.1 kN/m 3 ) generally are collapsible.

A rhombic arrangement is obtained by sliding one layer of spheres over interstices between the next lower layer of spheres, and

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is the densest packing arrangement for uniform spheres. This also is the pattern of a tetrahedral arrangement around the void,
as each sphere is supported by and in contact with three spheres in the next lower layer. This arrangement gives a volume of
solids V s = 0.75, and a void ratio of

The corresponding dry density is

This is a high unit weight for a soil and will be decreased if there are voids where particles are not in contact. The density will be
even higher as spaces are filled with progressively smaller particles, approaching that of Portland cement concrete.

Figure 9.5 Packing arrangements for uniform spheres. Similar arrangements occur in crystals.

The average density from the cubic and rhombic packing arrangements is

which is within the usual range of densities obtained after compaction.

Example 9.7

Calculate the saturated and submerged unit weights for the cubic packing arrangement.

Answer: Subtracting the volume of solids from 1.0 givesV v = 0.4764. The weight of water to fill all voids is 0.476 Mg/m3 , or
0.476 × 62.4 = 29.7 lb/ft 3 , or 0.476 × 9.807 = 4.67 kN/m 3 . This is added to the dry density to give γ sat = 29.7 + 86.6 = 116.3
lb/ft 3 (8.3 kN/m 3 ). Then

9.7. MEASURING SOIL MOISTURE CONTENTS

Most but not all water in moist soil is “free water” that is liquid and occupies the open void spaces. Other water is adsorbed on
mineral surfaces, particularly the clay mineral surfaces because of the fineness of clay and its surface activity, and in expansive
clays part of the water is loosely held between the layers in coordination with exchangeable cations. In addition, OH ions that
are part of the clay mineral crystal structure are released as water if the clay is heated to a high temperature.

These several categories of water, therefore, do not all boil off at 100°C, so a standardized drying temperature is used to
determine moisture content. That temperature is 110 ± 5°C (ASTM Designation D-2216). To determine moisture contents,
samples of soils are weighed, dried overnight in an oven held at 105°C, removed, and allowed to cool in a desiccator, which is a
sealed vessel containing calcium chloride, CaCl 3 , as a desiccant. After cooling, the samples are removed and re-weighed.
Controlled cooling is required or the soil clay can re-adsorb water from the atmosphere.

Nuclear instruments used to measure moisture contents in the field actually measure hydrogen atoms regardless of whether
they are in water or are part of the clay mineral structure or the content of organic matter, and require calibrations to oven

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determinations for each soil type. The use of nuclear instruments and other means for measuring soil densities in the field is
discussed in Chapter 13 on soil compaction.

Example 9.8

A soil sample plus an aluminum dish weighs 195 g before oven-drying and 136 g afterwards. The dish weighs 15 g. (Most small
laboratory balances weigh in grams.) What is the moisture content?

Answer: The difference in weight is the weight of the water: 196 − 136 = 59 g. The weight of the dish, or tare weight, must be
subtracted to obtain the dry weight of the soil: 136 − 15 = 121 g. The moisture content is w = 100 × 59/121 = 49%.

Example 9.9

A cylindrical soil sample 75 mm in diameter by 100 mm long weighs 690 g. After oven-drying it weighs 580 g. The specific
gravity of the solid particles is G = 2.70. What are the (a) moisture content, (b) wet unit weight, (c) dry unit weight, (d) void ratio,
(e) porosity, (f) saturated unit weight, (g) submerged unit weight?

Answer: The first step is to write known or given quantities in a block diagram as shown at the top inFig. 9.6. The next step is to
calculate and fill in the empty spaces as shown sequentially by the arrows starting at the lower right in the lower part of the
figure. That is:

The weight of water equals the difference between the wet and oven-dry weights, 690 − 580 = 110 g.

The volume of solids equals the weight of solids divided byG s = 580 ÷ 2.70 = 215 cm 3 .

The volume of water equals the weight of water divided byG w = 110 ÷ 1.0 = 110 cm 3 .

Figure 9.6 Block diagram for Example 9.9.

The volume of air equals the total volume minus the volumes of water and solids: 442 − 215 − 110 = 117 cm3 .

The volume of voids equals the volume of water plus the volume of air: 110 + 117 = 227 cm3 .

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After the block diagram is completed it is a simple matter to calculate the required quantities:

(a) w = 100 × 110/580 = 19.0%.

(b) γw = 690/442 = 1.56 g/cm 3 ; or × 62.4 = 97.4 lb/ft 3 .

(c) γd = 580/442 = 1.31 g/cm 3 ; or × 62.4 = 81.9 lb/ft 3 .

(d) e = 227/215 = 1.06.

(e) n = 100 × (227/442) = 51.3%.

(f) For saturated unit weight the air voids are replaced by water that has a weight of 117 × 1.0 = 117. Then γsat = (690 +
117)/442 = 1.83 g/cm 3 or 113.9 lb/ft 3 .

(g) γsub = 1.83 − 1.0 = 0.83 g/m 3 , or 113.9 − 62.4 = 51.5 lb/ft 3 .

9.7.1.1. Problems

9.1. Convert the following wet densities and moisture contents to dry densities:

(a) 18.85 kN/m 3, 15%.

(b) 117 1b/ft 3, 17%.

(c) 21.21 kN/m 3, 21%.

(d) 15.87 kN/m 3, 5%.

(e) 120 lb/ft 3, 12%.

(f) 14.14 kN/m 3, 102%.

9.2. If 2.70, find the void ratio for each of the above.

9.3. Calculate the saturated and the submerged unit weights of each of the above.

9.4. An undisturbed sample of soil weighing 49.95 N (11.23 lb) is coated with paraffin and suspended by a string in water to give a submerged
weight of 24.42 N (5.49 lb). If the sample contains 13.4% moisture and has a true specific gravity of 2.65, calculate the following
properties: (a) wet density, (b) dry density, (c) void ratio, (d) porosity, (e) saturation, (f) percent water voids, (g) percent air voids, (h) percent
solids.

9.5. If 171,900 m 3 (224,800 yd 3) of soil are removed from a highway cut in which the void ratio is 1.22, how many cubic meters (yards) of fill
having a void ratio of 0.78 could be constructed?

9.6. If the true specific gravity of the soil in Problem 9.5 is 2.70 and it contains 10% moisture, how many meganewtons (tons) of soil will have
to be moved? How many meganewtons (tons) of dry soil will there be? How many meganewtons (tons) of water will there be in the soil?

9.7. (a) Explain how a moisture content can exceed 100%. (b) What soil minerals are indicated by moisture contents in excess of 100%? (c)
Why is it advantageous to define moisture content on the basis of dry weight rather than total weight?

9.8. A proposed earth dam will contain 4,098,000 m 3 (5,360,000 yd 3) of soil. It will be compacted to a void ratio of 0.80. There are three
available borrow pits, which are designated as A, B, and C. The void ratio of the soil in each pit and the estimated cost of moving the soil to
the dam is as shown in the tabulation.

What will be the least earth-moving cost, and which pit will it be most economical to use?

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 Cost of moving

Pit Void ratio per m 3 per yd 3

A 0.9 $1.67 $1.28

B 2.0 1.19 0.91

C 1.6 1.56 1.19

9.9. Prepare a bar graph with vertical bar heights representing dry and submerged unit weights of (a) uniform quartz spheres in rhombic
packing, (b) uniform quartz spheres in cubic packing, (c) solid quartz, (d) Portland cement concrete.

9.7.1.2. Further Reading

1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 4.08: Soil and Rock.
2. Mitchell, J. K. (1993) Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, 2nd ed.John Wiley & Sons, New York.

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