Chapter 1

Charge = Coulombs (integral of current, area under the current curve)

Current = Coulombs/Second (derivative of Charge, slope of charge, change in
charge over time, dq/dt)
Voltage = Joules/Coulomb
Power: P=IV, P=(V)^2/R, P=R(I)^2
Amp-hours = Current * time
Watt-hours (Energy) = Power*time
Watt-hours * $$$ = cost due to electricity
Chapter 2
Resistance = ρ(l/A) p = resistivity constant, l=length, A = cross sectional area
Ohm's Law: V=IR, I=V/R, R=V/I
Short Circuit = 0 ohms (Resistance), any current can flow through a short
Open Circuit = ∞ ohms (Resistance), no current can flow through an open circuit
Branches, nodes, loops: B = L + N - 1
Series: Two Elements share a single node. Same Current for all resistors in series, different Voltages (Voltage
Division).
Parallel: Two Elements connected to same two nodes. Same Voltage for all resistors in parallel, different
Currents (Current Division).
Linearity: V/I = R creates a perfectly linear relationship for certain circuits.
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL): Current in=Current out
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL): The sum of Voltages around a loop = 0

Voltage Division (Series Resistors): Current Division (Parallel Resistors):

Two Resistors are considered in series if they have
the same current pass through them. If we have a Vs
and two resistors in series, here is the equations:
 V1 = i(R1)
 V2 = i(R2)
 -V + V1 + V2 = 0
 -V + i(R1) + i(R2) = 0
The current through all resistors in series is the
same, so using Ohm’s law:
 V1 = [(R1)/(R1 + R2)]*V
 V2 = [(R2)/(R1 + R2)]*V
 V = V1 + V2 = i(R1 + R2)
Delta(Δ)-Wye(Y) Transformations:
Chapter 3 Mesh Analysis: Uses KVL to find unknown "Mesh Currents" (only
Nodal Analysis: Focuses on current flowing into and out of each node applies in planar circuits).
using KCL. Because V=I/R, we are actually going to find the node Steps for Mesh Analysis:
voltages in the end (v1, v2, v3, etc.). 1. Assign mesh currents to meshes
Steps for Nodal Analysis: 2. Apply KVL to each of the meshes (loops)
1. Identify nodes in the circuit (use coloring method if necessary) 3. Solve the resulting equations to get the mesh currents
2. Apply KCL at each node (except for the ground node) Tips:
3. Solve the KCL equations using a matrix to find the unknown  The mesh currents use KVL calculated CLOCKWISE around the
node voltages. mesh/loop.
Tips:  If the mesh current goes WITH the Voltage sorce (from --> (- +)
 IF there is a voltage source between two nonreference nodes -->), then the voltage source should be negative in the KVL
(v1 and v2), that becomes a supernode. Treat the supernode as equation.
1 node, and write a constraint equation using KCL (current  If the mesh current goes AGAINST the Voltage source (from -->
coming in = current flowing out, AND voltage amount = v1-v2, (+ -) -->), then the voltage source should be positive in the KVL
using the + on the Vs as the positive node voltage and - on the equation.
Vs as the negative node voltage).  IF there is a resistor bordering two meshes, make the 1st mesh
 If there is a voltage source (Vs) between a nonreference node current you are working on positive and the bordering mesh
(V1) and a reference node (Ground), do [(Vs-V1)/resistance] current negative.
 If there is a Voltage Source (Vs) right next to a nonreference  If there is a current source isolated to a mesh, that mesh
node (v1) and it looks like it is the same voltage, it probably is! current = the current source.
Do Nodal Analysis If the circuit contains:  If there is a current source bordering two meshes, that is
 Many elements in parallel classified as a SUPERMESH. For the constraint equation, use
 Current Sources the mesh currents bordering the current source and their
 Supernodes direction to determine which is positive and which is negative.
 Circuits with fewer Nodes than meshes If a mesh current is going the same direction as the current
 If the Node Voltage is what is being solved for source, then it is positive in the constraint equation. If a mesh
Non-Planar Circuits current is going against the current source, then it is negative in
the constraint equation.
 After the constraint equation is written for the SUPERMESH,
you then REMOVE (create an open circuit) the wire containing
the current source and resistor it is attached to. Then, apply
KVL on the remaining Mesh, using I1 and I2 accordingly
(whatever resistors applied to I1 before the supermesh branch
was removed, still applies to I1, and vice versa for I2).
Do Mesh Analysis if the circuit contains:
 Many elements in series
 Voltage sources
 Supermeshes
 A circuit with fewer meshes than nodes
 If a branch/mesh current is what is being solved for

Chapter 4 Superposition: If there are two or more independent sources there are Three ways to
Linearity: As Voltage goes up, Current goes up solve for the circuit parameters: Nodal Analysis, Mesh Analysis, Superposition
proportionally. The response of a circuit to a sum of  Superposition Principle states that the voltage/Current through an element in a
sources will be the sum of the individual responses linear circuit is the total sum of the voltages/currents through that element
from each source separately. due to each independent source acting alone.
Linearity: Steps for Superposition:
 V=iR 1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or
 k(iR) = k(V) current) due to that active source using techniques in Chapter 2/3
 V= (i1 + i2)R = (i1)R + (i2)R = V1 + V2 2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources
3. Find the total contribution (voltage or current) by adding all the contributions
(voltages or currents) due to each independent source.
Tips for Superposition:
 To remove a current source, replace it with an open circuit (i=0).
 To remove a voltage source, replace it with a short circuit (v=0).
Source Transformation: Replacing a Voltage source (Vs) in series Thevenin's Theorem (Thevenin Equivalents): When you have one
with a resistor R by a current source (Is) in parallel with a resistor R, variable element that you are trying to analyze, called the load.
or vice versa.  Thevenin Voltage (Vth/Voc)= Open Circuit Voltage (R=infinite)
 Vs = Is*R  Thevenin Resistance (Rth)= Resistance looking into terminals a
 Is = Vs/R and b with all independent sources turned off.
 The current source is directed towards the positive terminal  Thevenin Current (Ith/In/Isc) = Vth/Rth = Ith
of the voltage source  Use a voltage source in series with a resistance to replace
 Source Transformation is not possible when R=0 or R=∞ complicated linear circuits
It is possible for the result of this analysis to end up with a negative
resistance. This implies the circuit is supplying power. This is reasonable
with dependent sources
Norton's Theorem (Norton Equivalents): Similar to Thevenin’s Norton vs. Thevenin
theorem, Norton’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit
may be replaced with an equivalent circuit containing a resistor and
a current source.
 Norton Current (In)= Short Circuit Current (Isc)
 Norton Resistance (Rn) = Thevenin Resistance (Rth)
 Norton Voltage (Vn) = [Vn = In * Rn]
 The Norton Current (In) is found by short circuiting the
circuit's terminals and measuring the resulting current.
 Norton current is related to Thevenin voltage and resistance
by source transformation: In = Vth/Rth

Maximum Power Transfer:

2
V Th
P=
4 RTh
Chapter 5 Concepts
Non-inverting Op-Amp (Ideal)
 5 Terminals found on all Op-amps:
a. Inverting input
 Ideal Op-Amp Rules apply
b. Non-inverting input
 Vo = Vi * [1 + (Rf/R1)]
c. Output
d. Positive and negative power supplies
 Output voltage of an op-amp can be found using the following equation: Vo = A*Vd = A*(V+-V-)
o A is the Open Loop Gain, which is different from the closed loop gain.
 Feedback: The output of the op-amp is fed back to the inverting terminal, giving the op-amp
"Negative Feedback".
 Voltage Saturation: The output voltage of the op-amp cannot exceed the input voltages. Therefore,
when an output voltage should exceed the possible voltage range, the output remains at either the
minimum or maximum supply voltage.
 Ideal Op-Amps:
o Infinite Open Loop Gain (A)
o Infinite Input Resistance (Ri) Voltage Follower (Ideal, non-inverting op-amp)
o Zero output Resistance (Ro) Vi = Vo
o Zero input current to the inverting/noninverting terminals (Io)
o Output current is NOT zero
Input voltages on the inverting/noninverting terminals are equal
Inverting Op-amp (ideal) Equivalent circuit:
 Ideal Op-Amp Rules apply
 Vo = (-Rf/R1)*Vi

Instrumentation Amplifier
Summing Op-Amp
-Places 2 non-inverting amplifiers before the
Uses the inverting amplifier and several inputs (each with their
difference amplifier to increase the impedance
own resistor), the summing amplifier can be used to create a
of the difference amplifier
simple digital to analog converter (DAC).

I1 = [(V1-Va)/R1]
I2 = [(V2-Va)/R2]
I3 = [(V3-Va)/R3]

Ia = I1 + I2 + I3
Ia = [(Va-Vo)/Rf]

Vo = - [(Rf/R1)*V1 + (Rf/R2)*V2 + (Rf/R3)*V3]

Difference Amplifier
-Vo is proportional to the difference between the two inputs.
-Va = Vb due to negative feedback.

Common Mode Rejection: A difference amplifier rejects any signal

that is common to the two inputs, following this equation:

If this condition is true for a difference op-amp, the output is then:

Chapter 6 Concepts Inductors
Capacitors o Inductor formulas:
o Capacitor Formulas:  For a solenoid, the inductance formula is: L=(N^2*u*A)/l
 Capacitance Formula: C=(E*A)/d  U = permeability of the core material
 E = permittivity of dialectric  N = number of turns of the wire
 A = cross sectional area of plates  A = cross sectional area
 D = distance between plates  L = length
 Charge stored in a capacitor is equal to the capacitance * Voltage: q =  If current is passed through an inductor, the voltage across it is directly
C*V proportional to the rate of change of current flowing through it: V =
 Take the derivative of this equation to find current in a capacitor: I = L*(di/dt)
C*(dv/dt)  This is the "ELI" part of the "ELI THE ICE MAN" acronym
 This is also the "ICE" part of the "ELI THE ICE MAN" acronym  The current stored in an inductor due to voltage:
 To find voltage in a capacitor due to current:



 

o Capacitor Properties:
o Inductor Properties:
 When the voltage is NOT changing (constant), the current through the  If the current across an inductor is NOT changing (constant), the voltage
capacitor is zero (open circuit at DC conditions).
across an inductor is zero (short circuit at DC conditions).
 Voltage on the capacitor plates CAN NOT change instantaneously.  The current through an inductor CAN NOT change instantaneously.
 If the voltage on the capacitor does not equal the applied voltage, charge  Series Inductors: Just like series resistors. L1 + L2 + L3 = Leq
will flow until the cap reaches the applied voltage.
 Parallel Inductors: Just like parallel resistors. [(1/L1) + (1/L2) + (1/L3)]^-
 Parallel Capacitors: Act like series resistors, or like conductance values. 1 = Leq
C1 + C2 + C3 = Ceq
 Series Capacitors: Act like Parallel Resistors, or like conductance values.
[(1/C1) + (1/C2) + (1/C3)]^-1 = Ceq
Combining Op-amps, Capacitors, and inductors: Differentiator
Integrator
Equation to find Vo:
Chapter 7 Concepts: Step response of RC Circuits
First-Order Circuits (RC and RL Circuits)  When a DC source is suddenly applied to a RC circuit, the source can be
 Circuit Excitation modeled as a step function.
 No Independent Source (Natural Response)  The complete response:
o a DC source is suddenly disconnected
o Stored energy in the Capacitor/Inductor is then 
released to the system over a period of time
 With independent Source (Forced Response)  The first part is the natural response of the capacitor/inductor due
o DC, exponential, sinusoidal. Energy provided by to the energy stored in it.
sources  The second part is the forced response due to the connected
 Natural Response + Forced Response = Complete Response voltage source. Vs = V(∞) and Vo = V(0)
Source Free RC Circuits
 Since we can assume the capacitor was initially charged, at t=0 the initial
voltage through the capacitor is:
 V(0) = 0
 As the capacitor begins to discharge, the natural response starts to occur
and voltage starts to dissipate:

 Time constant (the speed at which the voltage drops to 1/e of the
initial voltage):
 Once V(t) is found, current can be found:
 i(t) =

RL Circuits
o Source Free RL Circuits
 Current cannot change instantaneously
 We are looking for the current through the inductor
 The key to working with this type of situation is:  Therefore, we must determine its value as a function of time
 Start with the initial voltage across the capacitor and the time  Initial current passing through the inductor at t=0:
constant RC.  I(0) = 0
 With these two items, the voltage as a function of time can be  As the inductor begins to release energy into the system, the natural
known. response starts to occur:
 From the voltage, the current can be known by using the
resistance and Ohm’s law.
 The resistance of the circuit is often the Thevenin equivalent  Time constant:
resistance.
Singularity Functions:

o Step Response of RL Circuits

 Steady-state current through an inductor:
Unit Step Function  Current cannot change instantaneously through an inductor:
 i(0+) = I(0-) = Io
 Complete response of current through an inductor:


The switching time can be shifted to
t=to by:


Unit Impulse Function
The derivative of the unit step
function

Unit Ramp Function

Integration of the Unit Step Function

Chapter 8 Concepts Parallel RLC Circuits:

Second-order Circuits (RLC circuits)  All the same equations as series RLC, except:
o Start by getting initial conditions I(0) and dI(0)/dt (for parallel RLC  Change I(t) --> V(t)
circuits, V(0) and dV(0)/dt):
 Capacitor: Open Circuit at long-term conditions. Voltage
cannot change abruptly
 V(0-) = V(0+) = Vo
 Inductor: Short Circuit at long-term conditions. Current
cannot change abruptly.
 Vs = V(∞)
 i(0-) = I(0+) = Io  Change:
o Figure out which damping case the circuit will require, solve
characteristic eqn. for roots, apply them in correct formula, solve for I
or V:
 Series RLC Circuits: Damping Responses:
Overdamped
 Overdamp
ed (the
roots are
real and
negative)

 Critically
Damped
(roots are
real and
equal)

 Underdam
ped (roots
are
complex)
 Critically
Damped
o Damping factor, Undampened Natural Frequency, damped
natural Frequency (shown below in order)

o Solutions to characteristic equation:

o Also can be found using quadratic formula:

Underdamp
ed

o Underdamped case roots:

Chapter 9 Chapter 10
 Sinusoidal Voltage: V(t) = Vm sin (ωt ± ɸ)  Steps to analyze AC Circuits:
o The function repeats every period, or every T seconds o Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
o T = 2π/ω domain
o Frequency (Hertz): f = 1/T o Solve the problem using circuit techniques
o Angular frequency: ω = 2πf o Transform back to time domain.
 Complex numbers:  Perform the following as in DC:
o Rectangular form: z = x + jy o Nodal Analysis
o Polar form: Z = r<ɸ o Mesh Analysis
o Exponential form: Z = rejɸ o Superposition
 Rectangular to polar: o Source Transformation
 r = sqrt(x2+y2) o Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
 ɸ = tan-1(y/x) o Op Amp Analysis
 Polar to rectangular:
 X = rcosɸ
 Y = rsinɸ
 Phasors
o Converting from time domain to phasor:
 V(t) = Vm cos (ωt ± ɸ) --> Vm<ɸ
 V(t) = Vm sin (ωt ± ɸ) --> Vm<ɸ - 90°
 Currents work the same way, just replace Vm with Im.
o Phasor Relationships (ELI THE ICE MAN)
 Resistors: V=IR
 Voltage and Current are in phase with each
other (0° difference)
 Inductors: R = V/I = jωL
  ELI --> Voltage Leads Current by 90°, or current
lags voltage by 90°
 Capacitors: R = -j/ωC
 ICE --> Current leads voltage by 90°
o Impedance --> phasor version of resistance
o Admittance --> inverse of impedance, phasor version of
conductance
o In the rectangular form of Impedance (z = x + jy), the real
part (x) is the resistance, and the imaginary part is the
reactance (jy)
 When the impedance is positive, it's inductive (jwl),
when it's negative it's capacitive (-j/ωC)
o In the rectangular form of admittance (z = x + jy), the real
part (x) is the conductance, and the imaginary part is the
susceptance (jy)

Chapter 11
 Instantaneous Power: (1/2)VmIm[cos(ɸv - ɸi)+cos(2ωt + ɸv + ɸi)]
o The rate at which an element absorbs power, or the power at any instant in time
o 1st cosine is constant power, 2nd cosine is sinusoidal power
 Average Power:
o (1/2)VmImcos(ɸv - ɸi)
o ***Average power absorbed by an inductor and capacitor is zero watts.***

o Average power is also:

For periodic current:

For DC Current:

 Resistive vs. Reactive Power

o Resistive: When ɸv - ɸi = 0°, the voltage and current are in phase and the circuit is purely resistive
 P = (1/2)VmIm = (1/2)Im2R = (1/2)|I|2R
o Reactive: When ɸv - ɸi = ±90°, the circuit absorbs no power and is purely reactive
 P = (1/2)VmImCos(±90°) = 0
 Maximum Average Power
o Pmax = (|VTh|2)/(8RTh)
 RMS
o for a sinusoidal waveform, the RMS value is related to the amplitude as follows:

o RMS Power can be determines from either RMS current or voltage:

 P = (IRMS)2R = (VRMS)2/R
 Complex Power
o S = (1/2)VI*
  I* = complex conjugate of current
o S = P + jQ
 P = Real power --> S cos ( θ v −θi )
 jQ = Reactive power --> S sin ( θ v −θi )
o S = VRMSIRMS*
o S = |VRMS||IRMS|<(ɸv - ɸi)

 Apparent power
o The product of RMS voltage and current will be called apparent power.
 |S| = |VRMS||IRMS| = P2+ Q 2 √
 Power Factor
o P/S = cos(ɸv - ɸi) --> cos-1(P/S) = Power Factor Ratio (between 0 and 1)
 P = Real Power
 S = Apparent power
 Real Power (P) = Apparent Power (S) * Power Factor (PF)
 Power Factor = cos(ɸv - ɸi)

 Adding a capacitor
o To mitigate the inductive aspect of the load, a capacitor is added in parallel with the load.
o With the same supplied voltage, the current draw is less by adding the capacitor.
Qc P ( tan θ1−tanθ 2 )
o C= 2
= 2
ωV rms ωV rms