RESOURCE BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES

TEACHING AND SUPPORTING

LEARNERS WITH AUTISM
SPECTRUM DISORDERS
RESOURCE BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES

TEACHING AND SUPPORTING

LEARNERS WITH AUTISM
SPECTRUM DISORDERS
Copyright © National Curriculum Development Centre, Uganda, 2022

A product of the National Curriculum Development Centre for the

Ministry of Education and Sports with support from the Government
of Uganda

FIRST EDITION

National Curriculum Development Centre

P.O. Box 7002,
Kampala- Uganda
www.ncdc.co.ug

ISBN: 978-9970-494-73-6

All rights reserved: No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright holder
 RESOURCE BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES

Contents
Foreword .......................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vii
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
UNIT 1: Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder ......................................................... 3
1.1. Signs and Symptoms ............................................................................................. 3
1.1.1. Symptoms during Childhood ............................................................................. 3
1.1.2. Symptoms during the Teen Years ...................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Symptoms in Adulthood ...................................................................................... 4
1.2. Characteristics of Learners with ASD .................................................................... 5
1.2.1 Difficulties in Behaviour ....................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Difficult in Social Interaction ............................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Difficulties in Communication ............................................................................. 7
1.3 Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder ......................................................................... 8
UNIT 2: Facts about Learners/People with Autism Spectrum Disorder........................ 10
2.1. Challenges Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder face in their learning ......... 10
2.1.1 Delays in Cognitive Processing. ......................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Sensory Perception Issues ................................................................................. 11
2.1.3 Social Skill Deficits ............................................................................................. 11
2.1.4 Expressive Challenges........................................................................................ 11
2.1.5 Behaviour Issues ................................................................................................ 12
2.1.6 Motor Skill Challenges ....................................................................................... 13
2.2 Challenges Teachers face in Managing Learners with Autism Spectrum
Disorders (ASD) ........................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Challenges of Parents face in upbringing learners with ASD. ............................. 14
2.3.1. Failure to have enough Sleep ......................................................................... 14
2.3.2. Parents being embarrassed.............................................................................. 14
2.3.3 Dealing with violent behaviours ........................................................................ 15
UNIT 3: Managing Challenging Behaviour of Learners with Autism Spectrum
Disorders ......................................................................................................................... 16
3.1. Manage the behaviours ....................................................................................... 16
Unit 4: Teaching Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders ........................................ 17
4.1. Instructional Approaches. ................................................................................... 17
4.1.1 Visual aids Approaches ...................................................................................... 17
4.1.2 Provide Precise, Positive Praise ........................................................................ 18
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4.1.3 Use Age-appropriate Materials .......................................................................... 18

4.1. 4. Break down Instructions into Small Steps, be patient and pay attention ..... 19
4.1.5. Develop Talent and Interest Areas ................................................................... 19
4.2 Classroom Management ....................................................................................... 19
4.2.1 Provide a Structured, Predictable Classroom Environment ............................ 19
4.2.2 Provide a Customized Visual Daily Schedule .................................................... 19
4.2.3 Provide Relaxation Opportunities and Areas.................................................... 20
4.2.4 Provide Opportunities for Meaningful Contact with Peers .............................. 20
4.3. Communication Development ............................................................................ 21
4.3.1 Learning to Listen .............................................................................................. 21
4.3.2 Developing Oral Language Comprehension ..................................................... 22
4.3.3 Developing Oral Language Expression.............................................................. 22
4.3.4 Developing conversation skills .......................................................................... 23
4.3.5 Echolalia ............................................................................................................. 24
4.3.6 Using alternative or augmentative communication systems .......................... 25
4.4 Teaching Social Skills ........................................................................................... 25
4.4.1. Using Social Stories........................................................................................... 26
4.4.2 Teaching Key Social Rules ................................................................................. 27
4.4.3 Using Peer Support ............................................................................................ 28
4.4.4 Using Social Skills Training Groups ................................................................... 29
4.4.5 Integrated Play Groups ...................................................................................... 29
4.4.6 Teaching Self-monitoring/Managing Skills ....................................................... 29
4.4.6 Supporting the Development of Friendships .................................................... 30
4.5 Teaching Functional Skills .................................................................................... 30
4.5.1 Self-care.............................................................................................................. 31
4.5.2 Functional Academics ........................................................................................ 31
4.5.3 Vocational Skills ................................................................................................. 32
4.5.4 Leisure Skills ....................................................................................................... 32
4.5.5 Community Skills ............................................................................................... 33
UNIT 5: Case Studies ....................................................................................................... 34
References....................................................................................................................... 40
Appendixes ...................................................................................................................... 42
APPENDIX II: Other Important Tips to the Teachers .................................................. 45

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List of Acronyms
ASD: Autism Spectrum Disorder

IE: Inclusive Education

IEP: Individualized Education Programme

NCDC: National Curriculum Development Centre

USE: Universal Secondary Education

UPE: Universal Primary Education

SEN: Special Educational Needs

SNE: Special Needs Education

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Foreword
The development of this resource book is a timely fulfilment of the government
policy on Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Universal Secondary
Education (USE) as it is stipulated in the government White Paper on Education
(1992) and Persons with Disability Act (2006) besides, equal access to quality
education is the value that underpin the Sustainable Development Goals
Particularly Goal 4 on education.
This resource book has been designed for Special Needs Education (SNE)
interventions in Uganda’s education system and as a crucial support to the
curriculum for learners with Special Educational Needs (SEN).
The resource book is intended to create awareness and educate teachers and
other key stakeholders on the learning challenges of learners with Autism
Spectrum Disorder so that they are more confident and able to plan for these
individual learners. It will also help teachers in understanding learners with
Autism Spectrum Disorder including; identification, causes, characteristics,
effects on learning and development and the possible measures or
interventions to minimize or overcome such learning challenges. This will
enable learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder to access, participate, and
achieve their full academic potential by providing them with opportunities to
excel in academics and to be resourceful and industrious members of society.
I believe this resource book will be a valuable resource in your efforts to support
learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Hon. Janet Kataaha Museveni

Minister of Education and Sports

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Acknowledgements
National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) would like to express its
gratitude and appreciation to all those who, in one way or another,
contributed and worked tirelessly towards the development of this Teacher’s
Resource Book.
NCDC appreciate colleagues from Special Need Education Department of
MoES, UNEB, DES, and KYU for their professional guidance and technical
assistance.
The centre is indebted to the Quality Assurance Committee and Academic
Steering Board whose decisions and contributions guided this resource book
to meet its pre-set quality.

NCDC recognizes the work of the editors and design team who worked with
the writers through the development of this document.

NCDC takes responsibility for any shortcomings that might be identified in the
publication and welcomes suggestions for effectively addressing the
inadequacies.
Such comments and suggestions may be communicated to NCDC through:
P.O. Box 7002, Kampala or e-mail [email protected] or www.ncdc.og.ug.

Dr. Grace K. Baguma

Director
National Curriculum Development Centre

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Introduction
The introduction of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in 1997 and Universal
Secondary Education (USE) in 2007 in Uganda led to an increase in enrolment of
learners including those with Special Educational Needs (SEN).
There are different categories of learners with different learning needs. Indeed;
learning needs are as many as the numbers of learners because we are
individuals with different needs.

However, it is not easy to identify learning needs because of the wide variations.
There is no symptom of a learning need. Some warning signs are more common
than others at different ages.
If you are aware of what they are, you will be able to identify a learning need early
and take steps to help the learner.
Teachers should observe their learners as they teach and interact with them.
Also, teachers and parents should be sensitive to observe unexpected situations
and events so as to obtain information about individuals and groups.

This will help both teachers and parents to identify learners with various learning
needs and be able to assist them.
It has been observed that many teachers and parents have limited knowledge
and skills in supporting learners with Special Educational Needs (SEN). All
learners those experiencing challenges in learning, development and
participation, including those with disabilities have a right to quality education
that suits their age and ability.
Hence, National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC) has developed this
resource book for all personnel that interface with learners with this unique
Special Educational Need in schools and at home.

This resource book highlights the diverse educational needs of learners with
autism spectrum disorder.
It provides information to enable teachers, parents and other stakeholders to
discover learners with ASD, their potentials and needs thus providing them with
necessary support.

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It also offers strategies for teachers as well as family members who have an
autistic child to offer specific interventions that would benefit the child both
socially and academically
How to Use this Resource Book
This resource book is informative and has been developed to help someone
who has little experience in the area of autism.

In particular, the book is developed to guide all key stakeholders in teaching

and supporting learners with autism spectrum disorder.

It should be used as a resource book by all the teachers working hand in hand
with other resources during teaching and learning preparations. Both the hard
and soft copies will be available to all stakeholders.

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UNIT 1: Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism is derived in the Greek word “auto” which means “self”. Autism is known
as a ‘spectrum disorder’ because symptoms can range from a mild learning and
social disability to more complex needs with multiple difficulties and often very
unusual behaviour (Laura, 2005)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a life-long developmental disability that

prevents people from understanding what they see, hear, and otherwise sense.
This results in severe problems with social relationships, communication, and
behaviour. ASD is defined as a developmental disability significantly affecting
verbal and non-verbal communication and social interaction (Abhiyan, 2007).

1.1. Signs and Symptoms

1.1.1. Symptoms during Childhood

Symptoms of autism are usually noticed first by parents and other caregivers
sometimes during the child's first 3 years. Although autism is present at birth
(congenital), signs of the disorder can be difficult to identify or diagnose during
infancy (Geschwind 2008). Parents often become concerned when
their toddler does not like to be held; does not seem interested in playing certain
games and does not begin to talk. Sometimes, a child with autism will start to talk
at the same time as other children of the same age, and then loses his or her
language skills.
In most cases parents may not easily understand their children’s behaviour.
A child with autism may appear as having hearing problems, yet at times responds
to sounds. However, these children when given early intervention and treatment,
most of them can improve their ability to communicate and to respond to
instructions

1.1.2. Symptoms during the Teen Years

The behaviour patterns of children with autism during teen age sometimes
change depending on the level of intervention and the onset.
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The adolescence stage may be more difficult for these children with autism
than others of the same age. Sometimes teenagers with autism develop
problems related to depression, anxiety and nervousness.

This is Ethan with Autism. He has an infectious smile, gives the best hugs
ever, and struggles every single day to do the things others might take for
granted (by Back up Uganda)

1.1.3 Symptoms in Adulthood

Some adults with autism are able to work and live on their own. The degree to
which an adult with autism can lead an independent life is related to intelligence
and ability to communicate.
Some adults with autism need a lot of assistance, especially those with low
intelligence who are unable to speak.
On the other hand, adults with high-functioning autism are often successful in
their professions live independently, although they may have some difficulties
relating to other people.
Therefore, Individuals with Autism usually have average to above-average
intelligence.

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The British Psychological Society & the Royal College of Psychiatrists (2012),
mentions the two main dimensions in the diagnosis of the autism’s below :(
reproduced with permission, Baron-Cohen, 2008).

1.2. Characteristics of Learners with ASD

The National Institute of Neurological disorders and stroke (NINDS) indicates the
facts on the characteristics of ASD as follows: autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is
characterized by marked difficulties in behaviour, social interaction, and sensory
sensitivities. Some of these characteristics are common among people with ASD;
others are typical of the less able but not necessarily exhibited by people with
ASD. Below are the details:

1.2.1 Difficulties in Behaviour

People with ASD may exhibit unusual behaviour due to the difficulties they have
in responding to the environment. The behaviour is generally an attempt to
communicate their feelings or to cope with a situation.
Behaviour problems may occur because of their sensitivity to sound or
something they may have seen or felt.

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Other behaviours may include but not limited to:

 Rigidity to change such as:
i) sticking to routines and spending their time in repetitive behaviours
ii) travelling to and fro along the same route each day and doing things
in the same order every time
iii) Bedtime routine.
iv) Need for sameness (eating the same foods, wearing the same clothes.
 Use of objects such as repeatedly switching lights on and off or lining up
toys.
 unusual mannerism, such as sniffing objects or staring intently at moving
objects, repetitive body movements such as hand flapping spinning, and
shoulder shaking
 being extremely passive if an activity of interest is not available or initiated
by someone else

1.2.2 Difficult in Social Interaction

People with ASD have difficulty establishing and maintaining relationships. They
are often unable to understand and express their needs just as they are unable
to interpret and understand the needs of others. This deteriorates their ability to
share interests and activities with other people. For this reason, they may appear
unfriendly and reserved. Because they are often delayed in their speech and
struggle to make sense of other non-verbal forms of communication, they may
withdraw into repetitive play, behaviour and avoid interaction with peers.
ASD learners have difficulties with social interaction which may manifest in the
following ways:
 Limited use and understanding of non-verbal communication, such as eye
gaze, facial expression and gestures
 Difficulties forming and sustaining friendships
 Inability to share his/her enjoyments, interests, and activities with other
people for example, s/he may want to interact, but does not know how.
 Have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their
own feelings

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 Avoid eye contact

 Have narrow, sometimes obsessive interests
 Talk only about themselves and their interests
 Seem nervous in large social groups
 Intrusion into others’ personal space (standing too close to someone else,
talking very loudly or touching people inappropriately)
 Difficulties understanding other people’s behaviour, motives and
intentions
 Difficulties taking turns in conversation or tendency towards monologue
 Difficulties anticipating what might offend others (faux pas)
 Difficulties keeping track of what the listener or reader needs to know
 Difficulties judging what might be relevant or irrelevant to others
 Difficulties coping with or interacting in social groups
 Unable to tell white lies
 Reduced empathy

1.2.3 Difficulties in Communication

People with ASD often have communication difficulties in one form or another.
Some speak fluently, others with speech impairment to a varying degree and
others still, who are unable to speak at all. Of those who can speak, they will
often use language in a very limited or unusual way. Their line of conversation
may involve repeating your phrases or words back to you or asking the same
questions repeatedly. Some people with ASD will usually only talk about topics
that are of interest to them which makes ‘give’ and ‘take’ in communication
difficult. They have difficulty interpreting non-verbal forms of communication
like facial expressions, hand gestures and other body languages.
Impaired communication is characterized by:
 Delayed language development
 Difficulties initiating and sustaining conversations
 Stereotyped and repetitive use of language, such as repeating phrases from
teacher, radio, peers, television, etc
 Speak in unusual ways or with an odd tone of voice.

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 Atypical eye contact (staring at people for very long or not maintaining eye
contact) Bryson et al (2008), (www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.)

1.3 Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder

According to Geschwind 2008, the cause of ASD in learners is unknown, but
generally, suspected causes include:
 A malfunction of the central nervous system
 Environmental factors such as emotional deprivation or the way a person is
brought up
 It is inherited and associated with molecular genetics. Although it is opined
that it is not 100% genetic, its heritability is estimated at 40 to 90% leaving
room for a gene-environment interaction.
Other suspected risk factors
 Deficiency in the mother in defensible weeks 8–12 of pregnancy that can
lead to thyroid problems hence ASD. For example, inadequate iodine in the
diet when the mother is pregnant or some interference with iodine in take
can act against thyroid hormones.
 Possible environmental factors such as food, tobacco smoke, and
most herbicides.
 When a mother has been diagnosed with diabetes during pregnancy can
one of the risk factors for Autism Spectrum Disorder.
 When an expecting mother gets exposed to stress related factors that
distress her can contribute to Autism Spectrum Disorder, possibly as part of
a gene-environment interaction (HallGmayer et al., 2011; Lancet, 2010;
Taylor et al., 1999).

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(Source: Autism Speaks, 2015)

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UNIT 2: Facts about Learners/People with Autism

Spectrum Disorder
Learners and young people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) face many
issues and challenges on a day-to-day basis. However, it is important to note
that each learner with ASD is a unique individual, with unique needs and abilities.
Because of this, he or she will experience those issues in a unique way or may not
experience them at all.
While every learner with ASD presents unique needs and behaviours, it is
important for teachers to understand the types of concerns they are likely to
encounter.

2.1. Challenges Learners with Autism Spectrum

Disorder face in their learning
2.1.1 Delays in Cognitive Processing.
In a classroom, learners are expected to put up their hands in response to
questions. If a learner with ASD does not raise his/her hand to respond to
questions, the teacher may call on him/her rather than wait. This may elevate
his/her stress. When a teacher repeats the question or expresses impatience,
the pressure on the learner becomes much and he/she may simply withdraw or
respond with inappropriate behaviour.

What to do.
 Give the learner the time needed to process a fact or a question before
expecting a response. Some learners can be taught various methods to buy
the needed time, including restating of the question, asking for a few
seconds, or simply putting up a finger to signify they are thinking.
 For oral information, learners can be permitted to use a recording device or
given summary notes before.

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2.1.2 Sensory Perception Issues

Some learners with ASD may be sensitive to certain sounds, have a poor sense of
balance and lack depth of perception, and / or be unable to tolerate certain
tastes and textures of foods. For example, the scratching of a pencil on a piece of
paper or taste of a mango can irritate their nerves.
What to do
 The teacher needs to speak with the learner and encourage him or her to
tell the teacher without shame about any environmental distractions. By
doing this, the teacher and administrators may learn to appreciate and
alleviate many problems that can interfere with the learner’s ability to
learn.

2.1.3 Social Skill Deficits

Social skill deficits such as isolation and withdrawal from activities can make a
learner with ASD an odd learner. Without sufficient knowledge on ASD and
mindfulness, teachers might slip into intimidating and sometimes even bullying
behaviour the learner who is always lagging and odd.
Some learners with ASD may prefer solitary activities, have problems with group
work and interactive lessons, have trouble making friends and may be easy
targets for bullying and teasing.
What to do
The teacher should be careful to interpret the meaning and feelings implied in
the learner’s emotions, expressions, words and other actions. This will guide and
encourage other learners to be tolerant when interacting with him/her.

2.1.4 Expressive Challenges

Learners with ASD may be very direct individuals, have trouble following
directions, and have trouble with jokes, sarcasm and use of figurative language.
Written and oral responses may not reflect true knowledge; they may not know
how to ask for help, and may take long to process verbal instructions (getting
started).

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For those learners with ASD who possess the intellectual capacity to function in
the general class, speech and language skills can still present a number of
obstacles.
They may have problems expressing their own emotions and feelings as well as
perceiving and knowing how to respond to those of others. This can be as
extreme as lacking the ability to recognize faces and differentiate people, or as
subtle as lacking the ability to appreciate and make use of nuance and tone of
voice when communicating.
What to do
 Teachers/parents/guardians should provide learners with ASD with the
right and consistent encouragement; train them to use moderate speech
and to speak in ways that don’t make them different from their peers.
Rather than abandon certain pedantic speech (annoys other people by
attending to small errors and minor details), they can be placed in
situations where it may prove an asset such as in those field of learning like
science, math, and engineering where precision of language is critical.

2.1.5 Behaviour Issues

 Learners with ASD have a challenge of adhering to rules, rituals and may
tend to be preoccupied with preferred topics/objects. They can also be
easily overwhelmed by minimal changes, and unstructured times are the
worst because they are unpredictable transitions such as recess, lunch, PE,
changing classes, etc.

What to do
 Teachers should maintain written routine with pictures and ensure the
routine is known by all. For example, learners should have a well laid
timetable of every lesson and activity of the day.

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2.1.6 Motor Skill Challenges

 Motor difficulties including major motor skills (such as standing upright) or
fine motor skills (such as holding a pencil between their fingers and
thumb).
 Motor skill challenges can be presented as an inability to master
handwriting. Forcing a learner to do endless handwriting practice is never
a good solution, yet this is the most common approach for learners with
poor handwriting. What typically occurs with forced solo practice is that
the learner’s bad habits are reinforced.
What to do
 Teachers need to encourage learners with ASD to participate in physical
activities where motor coordination is required e.g., play, games, sports,
etc. In this situation, it is important to positively reinforce the learner to
participate.

2.2 Challenges Teachers face in Managing Learners with Autism

Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
Some learners on spectrum demonstrate challenging and disruptive behavior
such as anger/aggression, irritability, self-injurious behavior and tantrums. The
teacher may not easily identify that learners with such disruptive behaviors have
ASD. For example, James will hit the table when is removed from the window.
Peter will become hyperactive and disruptive if he is told to leave the activity of
his interest. However, even learners whose behaviors are not aggressive may not
be easily noted especially the passive learners. In a big class, it is hard for
teachers to be aware that, for example: Jane nods her head 10 times per minute
when she disrupted.
In a study that was carried out by Sally, Meghann, Nicole &Helen (2013), the
major challenge teachers face in managing learners with ASD is the class size.
The vast majority of teachers try to do their very best for every learner in their
care, but when you are teaching a class of 140 or more, it is not always possible
to notice every issue with every learner.

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By the time the teacher notices unique behaviour in a learner, the school year
will be over, the learner will be moving into a new class with a new teacher, and
the whole cycle starts again. Sometimes, the teacher is transferred to another
school where learners have different challenges.
In another development, Sally, et al (2013) conducted an interview asking
teachers who teach ASD learners regarding creating an inclusive classroom. He
states that teachers face challenges in managing social emotional behaviors as
well as inadequate skills to accommodates learners with ASD.

What to do
Teachers should work hand in hand with learner’s parent. Parents of a learner
with ASD play a vital role in working with teacher to share effective strategies that
can be adapted beyond the classroom walls. Both parents and need to work
together to meet the needs of the learner and to ensure strategies and practices
are in unison between the home and school environment.

2.3 Challenges of Parents face in upbringing learners with ASD.

Mary Orpwood(2017) in her article “We Have Kids-Family” highlights the five
major challenges parents of autistic children face as follows:

2.3.1. Failure to have enough Sleep

A learner with autism spectrum disorder does not take long asleep due to less
produced melatonin (the hormone responsible for regulating sleep patterns in
animals and people) which results in making him/her having less sleep than the
peers. This has been acknowledged that people with autism spectrum disorders
may only need to sleep for three or four hours. This means that their parents will
have to get half of the recommended amount of sleep on a daily basis .as they
have to wake up with their learner to ensure that they are safe. This has long-
term impact on their overall physical and mental health.

2.3.2. Parents being embarrassed

Going out with an autistic learner is a horrible scene especially dealing with an
abrupt outburst behaviour the in public.
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One of the characteristics of ASD learner is being aggressive and making loud
noise that can attract the attention from the public. parents can be
embarrassed when moving with such child to unfamiliar situation people. They
may think that the child is being spoilt and can make comments like: "I would
never let my child act like that in public," they do nothing but judge and
embarrass the parent.

The more judgmental comments a parent hears, the less they feel comfortable
moving out with their child. Finally, the parent will opt leaving the child behind
when going for regular activities such as shopping or going to church/mosque
etc. the child ends up being in near-complete isolation, which is never a good
thing.

2.3.3 Dealing with violent behaviours

Most parents of children with autism spectrum disorders have been
experienced violent behaviours such as cuts and bruises because of trying to
restrain and calming down their children’s behaviours. This is the most painful
situation that parents go through every day. The emotional impact of such
children is huge, and it can be impossible to predict when aggressive behaviour
will occur.

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UNIT 3: Managing Challenging Behaviour of

Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Harrower, Dent &Weber (2016) identify practical approaches for special
education teachers and service providers who face the challenge of providing
effective support to students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as follows:

3.1. Manage the behaviours

Learners with ASD may exhibit unusual behaviours which are in most cases
challenging and need to always be responded to in the usual disciplining
manner.
a) Identifying the behaviour: The most important is to first identify
behaviour and then focus on managing such behaviour. Identifying the
behaviour is often done by the teachers, as learners start disrupting the
learning of both the learner with autism and other learners in the class;
and parents as they see their children start to show behaviours that
disrupt harmony in the family.
b) Understanding the situation: A good starting point is to understand
the situation as a problem to be solved and to analyse the deficits in
learning that may be causing the problem behaviour.
c) Developing a successful and a systematic intervention or plan. For
any intervention plan/ measures to take place, it is necessary to first
understand the characteristics of the learner with ASD as well as the
needs of the individual learner.
When teachers and other educational workers are equipped with appropriate
information and the training, they are better to manage behavioural
challenges.

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UNIT 4: Teaching Learners with Autism Spectrum

Disorders
Most children with autism require teachers to apply approaches, strategies and
procedures in the educational contexts. (Harrower et al 2001). This unit contains
information about important areas of instruction and instructional approaches
that have proved successful for teachers working with learners with autism.
These include:

4.1. Instructional Approaches.

No single method for teaching learners with ASD is successful for all learners. In
addition, learners’ needs change over time, making it necessary for teachers to
try other instructional approaches such as:

4.1.1 Visual aids Approaches

The most strongly recommended approach for teaching learners with ASD is to
use visual aids. However, there is need to choose visual aids on the basis of an
understanding of the learner and her or his abilities and responses. One of the
advantages of using visual aids is that they attract learner’s attention and
teachers can use them to motivate learners to learn. For example, pictographic
and written work can help the learner to learn through observation,
communication and to develop self-control.
Visual aids support can be employed to:
 organize the learner’s activity—daily schedules, mini-schedules, activity
checklists, calendars, choice boards.
 provide directions or instructions for the learner—visual display of
classroom assignments, file cards with directions for specific tasks and
activities, pictographs and written instructions for learning new
information.
 assist the learner to understand the organization of the environment—
labelling of objects, containers, signs, lists, charts and messages

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 teach social skills—pictorial representations of social stories depicting a

social situation with the social cues and appropriate responses developed
for a specific situation for the individual learner.
 teach self-control—pictographs, which provide a cue for behaviour
expectations (Harrower et al 2001).

4.1.2 Provide Precise, Positive Praise

While teaching, give learners precise information about what they do right or
well. Learners with ASD may learn on one trial, so directing the praise to the
very specific behaviour is important: for example, “Yakobo, you are doing very
well at multiplying these numbers.” “This is a good colouring you are doing.”

Learners with autism may not be motivated by the usual common praises that
work with other learners. They might prefer some time spent alone, time to talk
to a preferred teacher, a trip to the canteen, a daily routine, time to play with a
desired object, music, playing in water, performing a favourite routine, items
that provide specific sensory stimulation, or sitting at the window. So, it is
important for the teacher to know what motivation that works for each learner.
Furthermore, life skills, social skills, and academic skills should be reinforced
during teaching and learning.

4.1.3 Use Age-appropriate Materials

It is important to honour the dignity of learners with SD through the choice of
instructional materials. Even if the instruction must be modified significantly,
the learning materials should be appropriate to the age of the learner.
Sometimes learners may continue to choose one activity or object because they
do not know how to choose another. So, provide opportunities of choices to help
learners who have limited ability to communicate or to choose different activities
or objects to use.

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4.1. 4. Break down Instructions into Small Steps, be patient and

pay attention
When providing instruction for learners with ASD, teachers should avoid long
verbal information. In addition, support oral instruction with visual cues and
representations to help learners understand. In the same way, learners with
autism may need to process each discrete piece of the message or request; and
therefore, need extra time to respond. Therefore, providing extra time and
allowing for ample time between giving instructions and learner responses are
both important tactics for supporting learners with ASD.

4.1.5. Develop Talent and Interest Areas

If the learner demonstrates a particular interest and strength in a specific area
(e.g., music, drama, art, graphics, computer), provide opportunities to develop
further expertise in that area. This may not only provide enjoyment and success,
but may also lead to the development of skills for future employment.

4.2 Classroom Management

4.2.1 Provide a Structured, Predictable Classroom Environment

The classroom environment should be structured in order to provide consistency
and clarity so that learners know where things belong and what is expected of
them in a specific situation, and can anticipate what comes next. Learners with
ASD often find changes in activity, setting, or planned routine very stressful.
Visual schedules can be used to help them understand and co-operate with
necessary changes. Social stories with illustrations can also be used to prepare
the learner for new situations.

4.2.2 Provide a Customized Visual Daily Schedule

All planned activities can be plotted in a visual form and posted at or near the
desks of learners with autism so that they can understand changes in activities
and know what to expect.

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The learners can be helped to learn to use the schedule independently and the
teachers can direct the learner to the schedule when it is time to change activities
to smooth transition times. If possible, decrease environmental distracters and
reduce activities that confuse, disorient, or upset the learner and interfere with
learning.
Vary tasks to prevent boredom, and alternate activities to reduce anxiety and
possibly prevent some inappropriate behaviours. For example, alternate
familiar, successful experiences with less preferred activities. In addition,
incorporating physical activity and exercise at points throughout the day is
helpful.

4.2.3 Provide Relaxation Opportunities and Areas

It may be necessary to have a calm, quiet, designated area where the learner can
go to relax. Relaxing for some learners with ASD may mean engaging in repetitive
behaviours that have a calming effect on them. In some cases, learners who
crave certain repetitive movement, such as rocking or other self-stimulating
movements, can be provided with a time and space where this movement is
permitted.

4.2.4 Provide Opportunities for Meaningful Contact with Peers

Create opportunities for a learner with ASD can interact with peers. This may
include:
 Pairing the learner with friends for walking down the hall, on the
playground, and during other unstructured times
 Varying peer friends across time and activities to prevent dependence on
one child
 Arranging cross-age peer supports/friends by assigning an older learner to
assist the learner with ASD
 Pairing learners while attending special school events such as assemblies
and clubs
 Facilitating involvement in after-school or extracurricular activities

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NB: If your school has an arrangement in which a class of older learners is paired
with a younger class, ensure that the older learner with ASD is also paired; and
provide the necessary supports for success.

4.3. Communication Development

Expanding the communication skills of learners with ASD is one of the greatest
challenges for teachers and parents. Most people are unaware of the complexity
of normal communication, because children develop these skills automatically,
usually by the age of three or four. Many learners with ASD have not developed
the skills they need for spontaneous communication, and must therefore be
taught.
Some general suggestions for assisting with communication
 Focus on developing interaction and communication in the environments
in which the learner participates (e.g., classroom, playground).
 Use sentences to talk to the learner. Keep in mind that you are modelling
speech and trying to communicate with the learner.
 Use vocabulary appropriate to the learner’s comprehension capability. For
learners with more severe communication disability, choose familiar,
specific, and concrete words, and repeat as necessary.
 Use language that is clear, simple, and concise. Figures of speech and irony
or sarcasm will only confuse learners with communication difficulties.
 Allow time for the learner to process the information. It may be necessary
to talk more slowly or to pause between words. The pace of speech
depends on the ability of the individual learner.

4.3.1 Learning to Listen

Learners with ASD often need structured lessons on how to listen. Reinforcing
listening efforts rather than assuming that listening is an expected and
automatic behaviour may be necessary.

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Breaking listening down into components for the learner and reinforcing each
component may be helpful; for example, teaching the learner to face the
speaker, look at one spot (which does not mean they must make eye contact),
and place hands in a planned position, and praising or otherwise rewarding each
step.

4.3.2 Developing Oral Language Comprehension

Use visual input to aid comprehension of oral speech. Visual aids may help
obtain and maintain the learner’s attention. Accompanying spoken language
with relevant objects, pictures, and other visual supports can help with
comprehension. Experienced teachers of learners with ASD suggest the use of
photographs to support understanding of the content of oral language
communication. Interestingly, many learners with autism use reading to support
oral comprehension rather than the expected reverse of using oral language to
support reading. This makes reading instruction even more significant for these
learners.
When working with learners who are higher functioning, it is easy to assume that
they understand information, particularly if they are able to repeat it. However,
even though there may be good recall, the learner may not grasp the intended
meaning. It is important to check for comprehension.

4.3.3 Developing Oral Language Expression

Learners with ASD may not develop traditional oral language, but most do
develop some form of communication. It is important that teachers and parents
have a thorough knowledge of the learner’s form of expression and that they
adjust their expectations for communication accordingly. For learners with
limited oral expression, teachers and families should accept limited verbal
attempts and nonverbal behaviour as communicative. A customized
communication dictionary is a very useful tool in which teachers and parents can
document what the learner says and what is meant, along with planned teacher
responses to language attempts.

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Even those learners with ASD who do have oral language may not add to their
working oral vocabularies easily. Teachers and parents will need to teach new
vocabulary in a variety of contexts and using a visually-based approach.
Learners need to be taught that:
 Everything in our world has a name
 There are different ways of saying the same thing
 Words can be meaningful in a variety of contexts, and
 Learning to use words will help them communicate their needs and desires.
Learners who rely on pictorial representations to communicate will need to learn
that a drawing or representation has a name and that it can give direction, or tell
us what to do.
Understanding this is essential if visual systems are going to provide meaningful
communication.
The learner’s education program should include situations that encourage
different types of expression, such as:
 Requests (e.g., for food, books, or help)
 Negation (e.g., refusing food or a book, protesting when asked to do
something, or indicating when the learner wants to stop)
 Commenting (e.g., labelling pictures in books, or objects from a box,
greetings or play activities).

4.3.4 Developing conversation skills

Virtually all people with ASD have difficulty with the pragmatics of
communication—the interpretation and use of language in social situations.
Even those individuals who have a good vocabulary and appear to have a
command of the language may have restricted understanding of social and
conversational interactions. Therefore, to develop conversation skills, the
following can be done:
 For some learners, it may be necessary to provide structured teaching to
develop the oral language needed for social and communicative play. This
can be done by:

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o Providing structured play opportunities that incorporate the learner’s

interests.
o Modelling, physical prompts, visual cues, and reinforcement can be
used to facilitate attention, imitation, communication, and
interaction.
 To facilitate social communication:
o Structure interactions around the learner’s activity references and
routine.
o Encourage informal and formal communicative social exchanges
during the day.
o Simple drawings are an effective strategy for teaching conversation
skills. These drawings illustrate what people say and do and
emphasize what they may be thinking. A set of symbolic drawings can
be used to represent basic conversational concepts, such as listening,
interrupting, loud and quiet words, talk, and thoughts.
o Colours may be incorporated to represent the emotional context.
o Pictures with scripts can also be used to develop conversation skills
and communication appropriate to specific social contexts and
situations.
 People with ASD have difficulty understanding subtle social messages and
rules, and have problems interpreting the non-verbal communication of
others. It may be helpful to provide the learner with a concrete rule when
one does exist, and to present it in a visual format, by writing it down or
incorporating it into a social story or comic strip conversation.
 Learners also need opportunities for social interactions and community-
based experiences in order to practise the skills.

4.3.5 Echolalia
Some learners with ASD demonstrate echolalia. Echolalia is the literal repetition
of words or phrases from language of other people. Young children use echolalia
as part of normal language development. However, in ASD, some learners seem
to stop developing at this level of language growth.

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Echolalia can be both immediate and delayed, that is, the learner can repeat
what they just heard or can repeat it later, sometimes many months or years
later. Immediate echolalia can be used as a teaching tool. The echolalic speech
phrase can be shaped by using speech rules and by using the echolalic skill to
model more appropriate language. For example, when a learner echoes back
questions, the teacher can shape the response by modelling the appropriate
response and reinforcing the use of the appropriate response.
Delayed echolalic utterances may have no obvious meaning for the listener.
Learners with ASD frequently repeat television commercials word for word. To
understand the function of the language behaviour, it is helpful to think of it as a
chunk of language that has been stored without regard for meaning. It is
important not to assume that the learner understands the content of the
echolalic speech being used. When possible, try to determine the situation that
has elicited the speech and prompt the appropriate language to use for that
situation.

4.3.6 Using alternative or augmentative communication systems

Many learners can benefit from the use of an augmentative communication
system. An augmentative communication system is any approach that supports,
enhances, or adds to the way a person tells you something. It may be used with
non-verbal learners and for learners who have verbal expression, but appear
unable to use speech in a functional way to express wants and needs.
Parents are key players in such decisions as the communication system should
be used both at school and at home to be effective. The teacher’s role is often
implementing the decision and supporting the learner in learning to use it to
supplement oral speech or as a substitute for speaking.

4.4 Teaching Social Skills

Most learners with ASD would like to be part of the social world around them.
They have a need to interact socially and be involved with others. However, it is
a mistake to assume that learners with ASD understand any situation or a social
expectation.

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Learners with ASD have not automatically learned the rules of interaction with
others, and they are unable to follow these unwritten rules of social behaviour.
They may be using an ineffective method of interacting because they do not
know another more appropriate one, or they may be unable to distinguish
between situations in order to select an appropriate behaviour. Therefore, social
skill development is a crucial component of any intervention plan for changing
problem behaviours.
This can be done through the following practices:

4.4.1. Using Social Stories

One of the most helpful methods for teaching social skills is the use of social
stories. A social story is a description of a social situation that includes the social
cues and appropriate responses, and that is written for a specific situation for the
individual learner.
Social stories can be created by parents, teachers, and other service providers.
They are useful with learners who have a level of cognitive functioning that
allows them to understand the story. To be effective, a social story should
describe a situation from the perspective of the learner, direct the learner to do
the appropriate behaviour, and be in the voice of the learner (i.e., from the “I”
perspective).
The process begins with identifying learner needs through observation and
assessment. Once a difficult situation is identified, the teacher observes the
situation and tries to understand the perspective of the learner in terms of what
will be seen, heard, and felt. The teacher then writes the story at an appropriate
comprehension level and from the perspective of the learner, and includes
descriptive, directive, and perspective statements.
The most effective format for a story is a booklet with one or two sentences on
each page, and a single page containing one main concept.

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There are three basic approaches for implementing a social story:

 For a learner who reads independently, the story is read twice by a teacher
or parent, followed by the learner reading it back. Then the learner reads it
daily.
 If the learner does not read, the story may be recorded on a cassette tape
with a signal (i.e., bell) to turn the pages. The learner is taught to “read” the
story, and reads it daily. Symbols, drawings, or photographs can be included
in the story to support meaning for the learner.
 To incorporate modelling, the story can be videotaped. The story is read
aloud on a videotape, with one page on the screen at a time.

4.4.2 Teaching Key Social Rules

Developing an understanding of the basic rules associated with a given situation
will help the learner to adapt to the social context, and may prevent increased
anxiety and reduce the reliance on inappropriate coping behaviours.
Critical social skills for which learners with ASD will likely need some type of
direct instruction include:
 Waiting—Visual cues such as an object, pictures, and written words can
provide concrete information to make waiting less abstract and more
specific to the situation.
 Taking turns—This can be taught through the use of social stories as well as
a picture or pictograph to cue the child. It may also be necessary to provide
some instruction and rehearsal in turn-taking activities.
 Transitions—using social stories and providing warnings with visual cues,
such as symbols that are understood by the learner, can help the learner
make the transition from one activity to another. Transitions can be
particularly difficult if the learner has not completed the activity; the learner
may need to be prepared for the possibility of having to finish later.
 Changing the topic in conversation—Some learners may stay on one topic
and appear unable or unwilling to talk about anything else. Staying with one
behaviour or topic in this way is referred to as perseveration.

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 Visual rules, established time limits and setting a time and place to engage
in a favourite topic may help in teaching learners when they need to end or
change the topic.
 Finishing—It may help to teach learners to use environmental cues, such as
observing and following the behaviour other learners. It may also be
necessary to use a timer, and a method for checking their own work.
 Initiating—Social stories combined with photographs or pictures can be
particularly useful for teaching a learner how to approach others, ask for
something, get into a game, say hello, and leave a situation if upset.
 Being flexible—Visual systems can be used to explain changes in a concrete
way. If sequenced schedules or picture routines are used, a specific picture
or symbol can be removed or crossed out and another put in its place.
 Being quiet—Visual supports may be helpful in teaching the specific
behaviours for being quiet, and teaching rules for specific situations.

4.4.3 Using Peer Support

Peers can assist learners with ASD in developing social skills. It may be helpful to
educate the peers first, so that they better understand the behaviour of the
autistic learner. Learners can be provided with information on autism and tips
for interacting with the learner with ASD, but it is important that parents be
involved in the decision to discuss ASD with their child’s peers.
Peers can be helped to develop strategies to enhance the social competence of
the learner with ASD. Pivotal Response Training (PRT) is one technique that has
been used to encourage interactions, initiation, vary plays, and language use.
PRT involves teaching typical peers to use strategies to:
 gain attention  reinforce attempts
 give choices to maintain  encourage conversation
motivation  extend conversation
 vary games  take turns
 model social behaviour  narrate play

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4.4.4 Using Social Skills Training Groups

Learners with ASD may also benefit from social skill instruction within a small
group-structured format. There are a variety of social skills training programmes
and resources available. Although these programmes are not developed
specifically for learners with ASD, they can be used in combination with
appropriate adaptations and supports. Lessons follow a similar format in each of
the social skills curricula:
 identifying the skill and skill components, and when it is used
 modelling the skill
 role-play
 opportunities to practice, and
 strategies for generalization
These programmes include an assessment that is used to identify skills for
instructions acquired.

4.4.5 Integrated Play Groups

Integrated play groups can provide opportunities for learners with ASD to
interact with their age peers, and create a natural environment for incidental
teaching of social skills. Play groups provide natural situations in which children
with autism use language to express wants, practise being near other children,
and imitate social interactions among non-disabled peers.

4.4.6 Teaching Self-monitoring/Managing Skills

The ultimate goal for all learners, including those with ASD, is to increase
independent participation in a variety of environments with effective social
skills. One way to increase independence in higher-functioning learners with ASD
is to teach self-management procedures, in which learners monitor their own
behaviour in order to earn positive reinforcement. The accuracy of the self-
monitoring may not be as important as the process and awareness it builds in
the learner. The process for teaching self-management is as follows:
 Define the target behaviour that the learner will self-monitor.

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 Identify reinforcers that function successfully for the individual.

 Create a self-monitoring method for the learner to collect data (e.g., a chart,
stickers, or some kind of low-tech counter device).
 Teach the learner the target behaviour and how to use the self-monitoring
method to record the performance of the behaviour.
 Increase the learner’s independence by gradually reducing teacher or parent
intervention and having the learner self-manage behaviour.

4.4.6 Supporting the Development of Friendships

Learners who demonstrate basic social skills may still have difficulty establishing
connections with other children and maintaining interactions with peers.
Teachers and parents may facilitate further social interaction through:
 encouraging a friend to play with the child at home.
 helping the learner join school clubs with support as needed to participate.
 teaching the child to observe other children to follow what to do.
 encouraging co-operative games.
 modelling how to relate to the learner, and educating other learners in the
class.
 encouraging prospective friendships.
 providing enjoyment at break times.
 doing projects and activities that illustrate the qualities of a good friend.
 helping the learner to understand emotions through direct teaching of how
to read people’s faces and body language and respond to cues that indicate
different emotions.

4.5 Teaching Functional Skills

One of the fundamental goals of schooling is that learners acquire the skills they
need to function as independently as possible in the world.
In the field of special education, educators have developed a variety of models
for the domains of functional skills. Although these models differ in some ways,
they include five domains:
 domestic, or self-care
 functional academics
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 vocational, or job skills

 social, including leisure skills
 community, including travel and using services
Schools and families should co-ordinate the functional skills development, so
that instruction at both home and school is consistent and efficient. Some of
these skills involve the most personal areas of a person’s life, so sensitivity, and
care need to be used in planning with parents or other caregivers.

4.5.1 Self-care
The same kinds of instructional strategies can be applied to instruction in the
areas of self-care as with communication or social skills.
 Learners with ASD, particularly those who also have intellectual disabilities,
often need direct instruction in personal hygiene, grooming, and dressing.
 Toileting can be an area requiring significant planning and instruction.
 Planning meals, food preparation, and even eating may be an appropriate
part of a learner’s program.
 Household skills required for living independently (e.g., doing laundry,
caring for clothing, and cleaning) may be taught or reinforced in the school
program.
 Handling money and budgeting are essential skills for older learners.

4.5.2 Functional Academics

Being able to apply the basic academic skills of reading, writing, and
mathematics to real life situations is another important area of functional skill
development for many learners with autism. Learners need to learn how to
communicate personal information such as their name, birth date, address, and
telephone number. They need to recognize important signs and instructions in
writing, such as labels and street signs. Using measurement for weight, volume,
distance, and size; counting; using calendars; and telling time are all
mathematical literacy skills that are of critical importance to independent
functioning.

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4.5.3 Vocational Skills

Learners with ASD usually require instruction in basic skills needed for the world
of work. These skills are broad and overlap with all the other areas. Independent
learners need to have skills such as:
 being punctual and reliable in attendance at the work site;
 following a job routine, and completing duties as assigned;
 understanding task completion;
 following safety procedures;
 accepting direction and correction;
 responding appropriately to persons in authority;
 completing a clean-up routine;
 dressing in appropriate work attire and using appropriate grooming; and
 using job site leisure time appropriately (lunch, breaks).

4.5.4 Leisure Skills

Education programmes for learners with ASD often include are creational
component, in recognition of the fact that they need help in developing a positive
use of their spare time. For some individuals whose disabilities prevent
employment in the future, leisure activities make up an even more significant
part of their daily routines as adults.
Participation in leisure activities can vary from full to partial participation,
depending on the needs of the individual. Leisure activities include:
 team sports (e.g., soccer)
 individual sports (e.g., bowling)
 arts activities (e.g., music)
 attending performances (e.g., theatre, movies)
 nature activities (e.g., camping, hiking)
 participating in organized groups (e.g., Scouts)
 attending social events (e.g., dances)

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Developing activities that can be enjoyed at home is also important. Learners

may need support in finding and learning activities such as:
 using a television
 caring for pets
 playing games such as cards
 sewing, knitting, or doing other crafts

4.5.5 Community Skills

Safety in the community is a major concern for many learners with autism. It is
important to consider safety issues in planning for them as they developing
dependence in the community. Social skills are of course closely connected to
community skills. Possible areas for consideration in planning community skills
instruction include:
 using public transportation
 finding community services such as pools, recreation centres and banks
 managing pedestrian rules and understanding traffic
 using public facilities such as washrooms
 Restaurant skills such as choosing and ordering food

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UNIT 5: Case Studies

The following four case studies have been developed to show three very different
learners with autism disorder. The features of the learners in these case studies
were derived from several real students in some schools. The information has
been significantly altered to preserve confidentiality. The studies still show the
very real needs of learners with autism, and how teachers can plan to meet those
needs.

SAM’S CASE:

source: From Gestures to Symbols by Emily Rubin

(www.ash.org/Publications/leader/2010/100119/AutismCaseStudies.)
Sam was born six weeks premature following his mother’s hospitalization for
pre-term labour. His birth history was significant for low birth weight (2.1kg),
respiratory distress, intraventricular haemorrhage, and a neonatal hospital stay
of six weeks. He began receiving intervention services at 12 months of age to
address speech, language, social-emotional, and cognitive delays. To date,
evaluations yield developmental age equivalents up to the 24-month level. Since
birth, Sam’s history is unremarkable for significant medical concerns and he is in
good health. He has passed hearing screenings and wears corrective glasses

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At 5 years, 8 months of age, Sam obviously shared his intentions through

nonverbal means, which included facial expressions (e.g., looking toward
mother to request food), physical gestures (e.g., pulling his teacher’s hands to his
head to report his friend), and more conventional gestures (e.g., pointing to
request for his car toy and a head shake to reject). Sam occasionally uses a few
verbal word approximations (e.g., “no,” “yes,” “more,” and “balloon”), Sam uses
nonverbal means at baseline (e.g., expressing emotion by biting his hand and
looking toward staff).
During language art centres, Sam engaged in activities designed to elicit, more
sophisticated requests for preferred actions. Rather than identifying pictures, he
could choose a preferred sensory activity, such as a head massage, a back rub,
or tickling. Colour-coded symbols paired with sentence templates allowed Sam
to create his own sentences for functions already exhibited spontaneously using
nonverbal means at baseline (e.g., requesting comfort by pulling his teacher’s
hands toward his head
Sam’s first quarterly review occurred around his 15th birthday. Observations
and videos revealed a higher rate of spontaneous bids for communication and
the emergence of symbols to express emotion (e.g., “happy” and “mad”), request
coping strategies (e.g., “head squeezes” and “high fives”), and form simple
sentence structures (e.g., “Jim squeeze head” and “Karen rub back”). By six
months post-intervention, Sam began to take turns, requesting interaction using
subject + verb sentences and then responding to interaction. His teacher might
request that “Sam rub back” and Sam would oblige. At 12 months post-
intervention, Sam continues to expand his symbolic language skills and recently
began to generalize his sentences to include names of his peers.

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TOTO’S CASE:

Source: Communication Emotions by Jane Wegner available at

(www.ash.org/Publications/leader/2010/100119/AutismCaseStudies.)

Toto is a 12-year-old boy who was diagnosed with ASD at age 2. Toto is generally
healthy although he has recently been diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis and
is sensitive to pain. He has difficulty with small spaces and “bottlenecks” where
many people are congregated.
Toto participates in special education at a nearby school. His strengths include
being curious, social, and visually smart. His challenges include communication,
impulsivity, and behaviour that may include tantrums, aggression, and property
destruction. These challenges have made it difficult for Toto to participate in
activities with peers.
Toto is a multimodal communicator whose verbal communication is not
understood by most people. He uses a Palm 3 (Dynavox Technologies), pictures,
personal signs, gestures, and some words to communicate.

Toto’s strengths in the area of social communication included engaging in

shared interactions, sharing attention to regulate the behaviour of others, and
using several modes of communication.
Toto’s emotional regulation strengths included responding to assistance from a
familiar partner that he trusted and using a behaviour strategy (holding a block
of wood) to remain focused and calm in some familiar environments. His needs
in the area of emotional regulation were seeking assistance with emotional
regulation from others, responding to assistance across contexts, and
responding to the use of language strategies across environments.
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Transactional support was strong in some areas. For example, all of Toto’s
partners wanted him to learn and communicate more conventionally and he had
consistent, responsive communication partners at home. Toto needed the same
responsive style across all partners and the consistent use of visual and
organizational supports as well as his AAC system to enhance learning and
comprehension of language and behaviour.

ROBERT’S CASE:

From Gestures to Symbols by Emily Rubin

Source:
http://www.asha.org/Publications/leader/2010/100119/AutismCaseStudies.htm
Robert is a 16-year-old learner diagnosed with autism disorder after many years
of being mislabelled as “emotionally disturbed with acting out behaviour”. He
has developed oral language, but his very rapid speech without much inflection
is difficult to understand. He may use oral language without ensuring that
anyone is listening, so communication is not received. Robert is in a mainstream
school setting. He is achieving averagely in math and science, but he has
significant difficulty with reading comprehension, which affects his success in
English and other academic subjects.
His receptive and expressive vocabulary is significantly below age-level, but he
can master concepts that are represented visually. He is particularly good at
using formulas in math but has difficulty knowing which formulas to use for
solving a mathematical problem.

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Robert often has difficulty completing assignments, even in Math and Science,
because he is rigid about how they should look, insisting on starting his work over
if he makes errors. He is interested in computers and is pursuing this area in “his
learner Learning Plan for possible future training and employment”. Robert has
some strengths as well as difficulties in social relationships and his poor
judgment and inflexibility have had a disruptive effect on the lives of his teachers
and peers. He has poor eye contact when he talks to people outside his family
and does not follow social rules for personal space and touching. Robert has
developed self-care skills but doesn’t follow them regularly, so that his hygiene
and appearance are a contributing factor in poor peer acceptance. He often tries
to start conversations in the middle of a story plot and does not understand when
other people do not know the stories. His parents have started to lock the door
to his bedroom at night so Robert does not wander the house, because he has
been known to staying awake all night.

ALAN’S CASE:

Source: ASSISTING STUDENT DEVELOPMENT - myessaydoc.com

(www.myessaydoc.com/assisting-student-development...)
Alan is currently integrated full-time into a regular P.5 classroom. He was late in
achieving some of the developmental milestones of early childhood. He started
to walk at 18 months and was slow to talk. His early language was almost
exclusively repetitive echolalic speech with limited communicative message.
As a young child, Alan’s play was repetitive with seeming unawareness of others.
He did not like to be touched by or to be close to other children, but he was
agitated when separated from his mother.

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He often used his sense of smell to investigate objects. He had an unusual

interest in small objects such as keys or switches. When Alan was three years old
his mother, who is a single parent, consulted with a clinical psychologist. The
family has seen the psychologist regularly, and his mother has participated in
parent training in behaviour management. Alan was evaluated by a speech and
language therapist at age three and has had ongoing speech therapy.
At age 10, Alan still has behaviours that require significant support. He functions
in the classroom with adapted assignments and an individualized visual
schedule. The classroom routines include a token economy managed by the
teacher assistant assigned to the class, with reinforcers to maintain appropriate
behaviour. Alan is highly inflexible about the schedule and becomes aggressive
about transitions if unexpected changes are made. Problematic behaviours have
escalated since the beginning of P.5.
The behaviours of concern to the teacher, teacher assistant, and Alan’s mother
include banging on the desk or table, head-banging, agitated response if other
people around fail to use specific cues, ignoring adult direction, yelling, and
throwing objects. These behaviours pose a threat for physical harm to himself
and disrupt the orderly functioning of the classroom. Alan has had interrupted
sleep patterns and is showing the same behaviours of concern at home. His
mother is having difficulty managing him.
Alan’s academic skills are below grade level. His reading decoding is estimated
at the P.3 level and his math computations skills at the P.4 level. Math problem-
solving and reading comprehension appear to be at the P.2 level. Most academic
tasks can be adapted for Alan. It is difficult to evaluate his knowledge using
exams or any format measures because he may refuse to do unfamiliar tasks.
Alan likes to make detailed drawings, but tends to repeat the same subjects,
usually cars, and trucks. He enjoys music, especially listening to quiet music on
his Walkman, but will not participate in music activities that require interacting
with other learners. He has difficulty in gym period and follows a modified
physical education curriculum with low order games assisted by the teacher
assistant. After this year, Alan expects to be promoted to another class.

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References
Abhiyan, S.S. (2007). Training module on Autism Spectrum DisorderAssisting
student development - MyEssayDoc.com. https://myessaydoc.com/assisting-
stud...
Autism Speaks. (2015). What is autism? Retrieved
fromwww.autismspeaks.org/what-autism spectrum. accessed on 26/11/2018.

Barry, K. M. (2008). A better future for learners with ASD, Asperger’s syndrome, and
related disorders. Retrieved fromwww.ASD-help.org

Bryson, Stephanie A.; Corrigan, Susan K.; McDonald, Thomas P.; Holmes,
Cheryl(2008) Characteristics of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders Who
Received Services through Community Mental Health Centers. Autism: The
International Journal of Research and Practice, v12 n1 p65-82
Christian, J. and Autism Program Staff (2006). Autism Spectrum Disorder.
University of South Dakota: South Dakota

Communication Emotions by Jane Wegner available at

http://www.ash.org/Publications/leader/2010/100119/AutismCaseStudies.htm

Elliott, S. N., & Gresham, M. (1991). Social skills intervention guide. Practical
strategies for social skills training. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service,
Inc.

Geschwind (2008). Autism Spectrum Disorder in the classroom: Overcoming

challenges. Retrieved fromhttp://butterflyeffects.com/advice-column/Autism
Spectrum Disorder-in-the-classroom-overcoming-challenges/

Harrower J., Denti L. & Weber M.O (2016) Educating Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A model for High Quality coaching. Publisher: plural
publishing. ISBN: 978-1-59756-786-2

Hoffman, J. (2013, June). Autism Now. Retrieved from

(www.professionallyspeaking.oct.ca/june_2013/features/autism.html. ).

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Humphrey, N. (2008). Including pupils with autistic spectrum disorders in

mainstream schools. Support for Learning, 23(1), 41-47.

Jandhyala, D. (2018). Teaching& Assessment Strategies for learners with ASD

Spectrum Disorder. Retrieved from: http://blog.stageslearning.com/blog/10-tips-
for-teaching-young-learners-with-ASD-spectrum-disorder

Jane Wegner (2010), Communication Emotions

http://www.ash.org/Publications/leader/2010/100119/AutismCaseStudies.htm

National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for

Disease Control and Prevention. www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.

National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health, (2012).ASD: Recognition, referral,

diagnosis, and management of adults on the ASD spectrum. The British
Psychological Society and the Royal College of Psychiatrists: Leicesterand
London.

Orpwood. M. JUL 7, 2017. Five Challenges for Parents of Autistic Children –

Articles: WeHaveKids - Family). Articles by Mary Orpwood - WeHaveKids - Family.

Ontario Ministry of Education. (2007). Effective educational practices for students

with autism spectrum disorders. Retrieved from
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/asdfirst.pdf

Sally Lindsay, Meghann Proulx, Nicole Thomson & Helen Scott (2013) Educators’
Challenges of Including Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Mainstream
Classrooms, International Journal of Disability, Development and
Education, 60:4, 347-362, DOI: 10.1080/1034912X.2013.846470

Websites:
www.AutismSpectrumDisorderspectrum.org.au/content/characteristics.
accessed on 26/11/2018.

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Appendixes
Appendix i: Evaluation Tool/Checklist for Leaner’s with ASD in Secondary
Schools
Levels
SN Skills to be assessed Remarks
(tick appropriately)
1 2 3 4

1. Playing different games

Keeping track of homework
2.
and returning it on time
3. Bringing everything that is
needed in classes

4. Asking teachers for help

during class time

5. Figuring out solution when

confronted with a problem in
class

6. Looking clean while at

school

7. Talking with other learners

about things they like

8. Listening to what other

people say while conversing
with them

9. Asking teachers for extra

help with work

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Levels
SN Skills to be assessed Remarks
(tick appropriately)
1 2 3 4

10. Appreciating others (“Thank

you”; “Good job”; “Nice
work”; “Welldone”)

11. Figuring out what other

people are feeling

12. Offering to help other

learners if they need help

13. Working well with others in a

group

14. Knowing how to find places

they need to go (i.e.
classroom, market, taxi stop,
bodboda stage) on th

15. Knowing how to stay calm

when they are mad about
something

16. Always trying even when

something is hard

17. Behaving normally if

schedule or routine changes

18. Knowing how to ask for a

break when needed

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Levels
SN Skills to be assessed Remarks
(tick appropriately)
1 2 3 4

19. Following the rules in class

20. Having ideas about what

they want to do after
secondary school

21. Understanding what is read

in my classes (e.g., science,
history, English)

22. Participating in school

activities outside class (e.g.,
clubs, sports, band)

23. Getting together with friends

outside of school

24. Getting calls and texts from

friends

25. Calling or texting friends

26. Interacting with other people

using the internet (e.g., chat
room, gaming, e-mail, Face
book).

Teachers are reminded that these scores are not for selection of the best
learner but to guide in encouraging the learners maintain the best and work on
the areas.

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APPENDIX II: Other Important Tips to the Teachers

Give fewer and clear choices. If a learner is asked to pick a colour, say red, only
give him two to three choices to pick from. The more choices provided, the more
confused an autistic learner will become. Try not to leave choices open ended.
You are bound to get a better result by asking, for instance: “Do you want to read
or draw?” than “What do you want to do now?”

If a question you asked or an instruction you gave is greeted with a blank stare,
reword your sentence. Asking the learner what you have just said helps to clarify
that he/she has been understood.

Avoid using irony. If a learner accidentally knocks all your papers on the floor
and you say “well done they clap for you” you will be taken literally and this
action might be repeated on a regular basis.

Avoid using idioms. “Put your thinking caps on”, “Open your ears” and “Zip your
lips” will leave a learner completely mystified and wondering how to do that.

Repeat instructions and check understanding using short sentences to ensure

clarity of instructions.

Provide a very clear structure and set daily routine including time for play

Teach what “finished” means, and help the learner to identify when something
is finished and something different has started. Take a photo of what you want
the finished product to look like and show the learner. If you want the room
cleaned up, take a picture of how you want it to look like when it is clean. The
learner can use this for a reference.

Provide warning of any impending change of routine, or switch of activity.

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Address the learner by name at all times; for example, the learner may not
realize that an instruction given to the whole class also includes him/her. Calling
the learner’s name and saying “I need you to listen to this as this is something for
you to do” can sometimes work

Use various means of presentation – visual, physical guidance, peer modelling,

etc.

Recognize that some change in manner or behaviour may reflect anxiety which
may be triggered by a minor change of routine.

Not taking apparently rude or aggressive behaviour personally, and

recognizing that the target for the learner’s anger may be unrelated to the source
of that anger.

Avoid overstimulation. Minimize / remove distracters, or provide access to a

learner’s work area or booth when a task involving concentration is set. Colourful
wall displays can be distracting for some learners; others may find noise very
difficult to cope with.

Seek to link work to the learner’s particular interests.

Explore word-processing, and computer-based learning for literacy.

Protect the learner from teasing at free times, and provide peers with
awareness of his/her particular needs.

Allow the learner to avoid certain activities (such as sports and games) which
she/he may not understand or like; and support her/him in open-ended and
group tasks.

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Allow some access to obsessive behaviour as a reward for positive efforts.

Tips to help the average classroom teacher benefit learners with ASD
 Create a classroom routine
 Learners with ASD appreciate routine
 Use preparatory commands and commands of execution to cue transitions
 Give fewer choices (at least not more than 3 choices)
 Use appropriate technology
 Treat them like any other learner as much as possible
 Try to break instructions with pauses between them
 Speak slowly to give the learner time to process what is said or
communicated
 Mind your use of vocabulary e.g., ‘Go and stand on the far side’ may be
meaningless to the learner at that material time
 Alternative augmentative communication is another crucial approach which
is very effective especially when it comes to teaching of non-verbal autistic
learners. It involves intensive use of visual cues (hand signing, pictures, and
symbols) is necessary.

Other Tips for Supporting Learners with ASD

 Use simple language (vocabulary and structure) that is familiar to the learner
 Use and teach conventional gestures and/or functional communication for
the learner; for example, teach ways for the learner to communicate “I need
help,” “No, thanks,” “I don’t know”
 Do not always require eye contact
 Always ask, “What could she be saying with this behaviour?”
 Provide definite visual structure and a visual schedule throughout the day
and during each activity
 Be sure activities have clear beginnings and endings
 Identify activities that give the learner opportunities to use her/his interests
and highest-level skills
 Avoid “changing the rules” whenever possible

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 Make rules as clear, specific and concrete as possible

 Establish routines to assist in making daily activities predictable
 Only use prompts that can be easily faded
 To facilitate social play, identify simple, age-appropriate activities that are
of high interest to peers.
 Choose activities that require simple social interactions
 Be creative
 Be flexible
 Have a constant one-person contact
 Clear communication
 Asking lots of questions to find out what works and what doesn’t
 Develop trusting relationships
 Help learners identify skills and talents
 Listen to the learner who usually knows what works best for them
 Listen and observe
 Take each learner on a learner basis
 One-on-one support
 Individualized planning
 Maintain a sense of compassion and a sense of humour
 Inclusion of the learners, parents, caregivers from the beginning
 Involvement of parents and/or previous support workers initially
 Working together with learners and parents
 Provide support based on the support provided through high school
 Liaising with treating clinicians for specific recommendations

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National Curriculum
Development Centre ,
P.O. Box 7002,
Kampala.
www.ncdc.go.ug