TEMA 42: LA CONQUISTA NORMANDA. INFLUENCIA DEL FRANCÉS EN LA LENGUA INGLESA.

PRÉSTAMOS Y CALCOS

1) INTRODUCTION

Towards the end of the Old English period an event occurred that had a greater effect on the
English language than any other in the course of its history. This event was the Norman
Conquest in 1066, which had the following consequences_

 Loss of inflections

 Loss of Germanic vocabulary

 Real beginning of the characteristic methods of word-formation and the free

 The introduction of an enormous number of French words which today make English
vocabulary seem almost as much as Romance as a Germanic language

That is, the Norman Conquest changed the whole course of the English language.

2) THE NORMAN CONQUEST

2.1. The Origin of Normandy

On the northern coast of France directly across from England there is a district known as
Normandy. It derives its name from the bands of Northmen (Scandinavian) who settled there in
the 9th and 10th centuries. The Seine offered a convenient channel for penetration into this
country, and the settlement of Danes in this region furnished a close parallel to those around
the Humber. In 912 the right of Northmen to occupy this part of France was recognized. Rollo
(the leader of the Danes in Normandy) acknowledged the French king (Charles the Simple) as
his overlord and became the first duke of the Normans. A succession of masterful dukes raised
the dukedom to a position of great influence, overshadowing at times the power of the king in
France.

They absorbed rapidly the most important elements of French civilization (military tactics, law,
Christianity, and language), becoming one of the most advanced people in Europe. The
relations between England and Normandy had been fairly close. Aethereld had married a
Norman wife and, when driven into exile by the Danes, took refuge with his brother-in-law, the
duke of Normandy. His son Edward, who had thus been brought up in France, was almost more
French than English. When in 1042 the Danish line died out and Edward the Confessor was
restored to the throne, he gave his Norman friends important places in the Government. A
strong French atmosphere pervaded the English court during the 24 years of his reign.

2.2. The Conquest (The Year 1066)

When in January 1066 Edward the Confessor died childless, England was again faced with the
choice of a successor. At his succession Edward had found England divided into a few large
districts, each of them under the control of a powerful earl. The most influential of these
nobles was Godwin, earl of the West Saxon earldom. He was a shrew, capable man and was
soon Edward's principal adviser. Except for one brief interval, he was the virtual ruler of
England until the time of his death. His eldest son Harold succeeded to his title and influence,
and during the last twelve years of Edward's reign exercises a firm and capable influence over
national affairs. The day after Edward's death, Harold was elected king.

However, William, king of Normandy (who was a second cousin of Edward) had expected to
become the successor. Only by force could William hope to obtain the crown to which he
believed himself entitled. Edward had assured him that he would succeed him. But the English
had had enough of French favourites.

Perhaps the difficulty involved in an armed invasion of England would have discouraged a less
determined claimant, but William was an exceptionally able man. He landed in England in
September, while Harold was in the north of England meeting an invasion by the king of
Norway, another claimant to the throne. William pretended to retreat and the English fell into
the trap. Harold was killed in the battle of Hastings (he was pierced in the eye by a Norman
arrow). The English became disorganized and fled, and William was crowned king of England
on the 25th of December.

2.3. The Norman Settlement

William's victory at Hastings and his subsequent coronation in London involved more than a
mere substitution of one monarch for another: his possession of the throne had been a matter
of conquest and was attended by all the consequences of the conquest of one people by
another:

 First of all, political consequences were felt in the allegiance William still owed to
France since he spent most of his time there, instead of in the country he ruled. This
began the tradition of one of the king's servants, usually a bishop, representing the
king while he was away. Another political change in England was the formation of
Anglo-Norman feudalism, whose main features are: vassalage, military groupings, and
the fragmentation of authority

 These political changes led immediately to social ones, since the fragmentation of
authority was realized in a feudal pyramid, where the classes were very defined, and
everyone, in the end, was led by the king. Therefore, it introduced a new nobility: the
Old English nobility was wiped out and the important positions and the great estates
were almost always held by Normans, who occupied the important positions of church,
too.

 Regarding economic consequences, the imposed Norman feudal system implied the
elaboration of Domesday Book so as to control the possessions of each nobleman in
the country and to facilitate cashing the territorial taxes.

 These previous changes brought about cultural changes, too. Prior to the invasion of
French culture, England had been a land mostly influenced by Celtic, Roman, Anglo-
Saxon and Scandinavian culture. With the invasion of the Normans, England received a
new ruling class, culture, and language. Cultural changes, in turn, led to linguistic ones
since French became the language of law, estates, song, verse, chanson, and romance.
 It was considered the "language of the civilized", and all of the noble people all over
Europe knew, in addition to their own language, French.

3) THE INTRODUCTION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE (1066-1200)

The members of the new ruling class were sufficiently predominant to continue to use their
own language. This was natural enough at first, since they knew no English; but they continued
to do so for a long time to come, picking up some knowledge of English gradually, but making
no effort to do so as a matter of policy. French remained the language of ordinary intercourse
among the upper classes in England for two hundred years. Many English people associated to
the ruling class learnt French (intermarriage and association; there were no ethnic but social
distinctions), while the language of the masses remained English. The continued use of French
by the Anglo-Norman upper classes was due to:

 The close connection that existed through all these years between England and the
continent
 The fact that the literature produced in England was in French as it was for royal and
noble patronage

English was now an uncultivated tongue, the language of a socially inferior class. Up to the year
1200, the upper classes ignored it because their activities didn't need it and their continental
concerns made French for them more useful. However, the Normans and the English fused
rapidly, and there was contact between the different social classes. Therefore, many people,
both English and Norman, started to be bilingual.

4) THE RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH (1200-1500)

4.1. The use of English in the 13th century

Since 1180 the Dukes of Normandy had been at war with France. This fact was partly
responsible for the separation of England and Normandy in the year 1204, when Normandy
was confiscated to King John by King Phillip II of France. This event had far reaching social and
linguistic consequences, among which the most outstanding is that the properties in French
soil of the barons living in England would be confiscated. So, those having properties on both
sides of the Channel had to decide which one to choose. As a result, the loss of Normandy gave
the English nobility a new collective feeling of their insular identity, and soon considered
themselves as English. This event established a community of interests with the English
speaking lower classes which later may result in a reaction against the continental Norman-
French.

Linguistically speaking, the loss of prestige of Norman French and Anglo-Norman reinforced the
functional use of English. Both Norman French and Anglo-Norman predominated in the upper-
classes, but gradually the influence of English developed into something different from the
known continental French dialects. These conditions contrasted with the prestige associated to
Central French (Paris' dialect). Also, other factors contributed to the loss of prestige of Anglo-
Norman: the use of Latin as the official language for records and the adoption of Norman
French by native English speakers who tended to tinge it with native phonological and
grammatical features.

4.2. General adoption of English in the 14th century

During the 14th and 15th century new historical events, such as the Hundred Years' War, the
Black Death and the Peasants' Revolt, reinforced the national feeling which had ensued the loss
of Normandy and led the inhabitants of the island to a general adoption of English.

On the one hand, the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) came up due to the question of
succession to the French crown (claimed by King Edward III of England) against the house of
Valois (Philip VI, who was appointed King of France). This war turned people's attention to the
continent and made people realize that French was the language of the enemy court and that
it was one of the causes contributing to the disuse of French. The outcomes of this war were
the development of national consciousness among the English and a general feeling of hatred
against France, French customs and the French language.

On the other hand, the bubonic and pneumonic plague which ravaged Europe in the mid 14 th
century reached England in 1348. As a result, about one-third of Europe's population and
almost half of the inhabitants of Britain died. The effects of the Black Death were felt at all
levels, particularly the social and economic ones since the drastic reduction of the amount of
land under cultivation became the ruin of many landowners. Therefore, the shortage of labour
implied a general rise in wages for peasants and, consequently, provided new fluidity to the
stratification of society and afforded a new status to the middle and lower social classes, whose
native language was English.

Finally, these classes (middle and low) rebelled against the imposition of a poll tax and,
particularly, against the Statute of Labourers, which tried to fix maximum wages during the
labour shortage following the plague. The Peasants' Revolt, as this rebellion is known, also
contributed to increase the social relevance of the labouring classes and indirectly conferred
importance on their native tongue, that is, English.

Linguistically speaking, the consequences of these events were to be felt in a general adoption
of English in the late fourteenth century. In the late 13 th century, the English language was
virtually understood and actively used by everyone, but it was not recognized in official, legal,
governmental or administrative affairs.

In the 14th century, English was generally adopted, although French had not gone out of use
completely: it was still the language of the church and the government, but those who used
French were bilingual. Moreover, at the end of this century the use of English in the schools
was generalized and French was taken over by English even in legal proceedings, which
constituted the official recognition of English.

4.3. Increasing ignorance of French in the 15th century

5) FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE VOCABULARY

5.1. Character of the French influence

The Middle English Period (1150-1500) was a period of great changes in the English language
(decay of inflectional endings). The grammatical changes were only indirectly due to the use of
French in England, as English became the language of uneducated people and this made it
easier for English to change. There were far more French words introduced into English than
English words into French, because English were an inferior culture.

5.2. Extent of the French influence on the vocabulary

The adoption of French words in every province of life and thought was more than we may
think. The French contribution to English is shown by the large quantities of nouns, adjectives
(with which English was not very well provided), verbs and phrases and turns of expressions. As
far as the vocabulary is concerned, the Norman Conquest brought about a merging of the
resources and words of the two languages. English retained a controlling interest, but French
supplemented and rounded out the major organization of the language in almost every
department. The adoption of French words, which were quickly assimilated, was the greatest
influence which English has ever suffered.

5.3. French borrowing periods

5.3.1. The first period (1066-1250)

It is the period with less numerous borrowings (around 900). They show more peculiarities of
Anglo-Norman phonology. They were introduced through the following circumstances:

*the contact between the lower classes and the French-speaking nobility: baron, noble, dame,
servant, messenger…

*the literary channel: story, rime…

The character of most of these borrowings was associated with the church, due to the need for
the quick transference of doctrine and belief from the clergy to the people.

5.3.2. The second period

After 1250, the conditions for borrowing French words changed: those who were used to
speaking French were starting to use English. The upper classes carried over into English a
great deal of common French words. The French words introduced in this period can be
classified into the following semantic groups:

1) Governmental and administrative words: it is quite natural that English should owe
many of its words dealing with government and administration to the language of
those who made public affairs their main concern for over two hundred years. They
can be divided into:
 General terms: government, crown, state, parliament, sovereign, royal, treaty…
 Words related to the idea of government: subject, traitor, exile, liberty, rebel…
 Official titles: office, chancellor, chamberlain, governor, minister, mayor…
 Designations of rank: noble, peer, prince, princess, duke, baron, court…
 Titles of respect: sir, madam, mistress…
 Words related to the economic organization of society: slave, servant, vassal, peasant,
homage…
2) Ecclesiastical words: due to the importance of church as the main subject of Norman
interest and ambition, next to politics, French was the usual language in monasteries
and religious houses for a long time:
 General terms: religion, theology, baptism, confession, prayer, sermon…
 Indications of rank or class: clerk, parson, vicar, pastor, novice…
 Names of objects associated with the service or with the religious life: crucifix, incense,
image, abbey, sanctuary…
 Fundamental religious or theological concepts: creator, trinity, virgin, mystery, miracle…
 General virtues: pity, virtue, charity…
 Adjectives: solemn, devout, divine, reverend…
 Verbs: preach, confess, repent, pray, adore…
3) Legal terms: French was the language of the law courts for so long that the greater part
of the English legal vocabulary comes from French:
 General terms: justice, crime, jury, evidence, verdict, sentence, prison, punishment…
 Verbs associated with legal processes: accuse, arrest, judge, banish, condemn…
 Names of many crimes: fraud, assault, adultery…
 Words related to property: heritage, dower, state, patrimony, legacy
 Adjectives: just, culpable, innocent…
4) Military terms: the introduction of these terms was due to three circumstances: war
played a large part in English affairs in the Middle Ages; those who spoke French
controlled the army and the navy; the English often fought in France
 General terms: army, peace, battle, defence, navy, soldier…
 Names of officers: captain, sergeant, lieutenant…
 Verbs: arm, defend, vanquish…
5) Familiar words: Fashion, Meals and Social Life : fashion words were borrowed because
the upper classes set the standard in fashion and dress. They show the luxuries of the
wealth:
 General terms and garments: fashion, coat, button, embroidery, jewel, veil, lace…
 Colours: blue, scarlet, vermillion…
 Precious stones: amethyst, emerald, pearl, coral, ruby, sapphire…
The refined French-speaking classes also adorned considerable the English table:
 General terms: dinner, feast, taste, biscuit, sugar, salad, toast, cream…
 Fish: sardine, salmon, oyster…
 Meats: beef, bacon, venison, pork, sausage…
 Fowl: poultry, pullet, pigeon…
 Fruits and desserts: grape, lemon, tart, cherry, orange…
 Seasoning and condiments: spice, herb, cinnamon, mustard, nutmeg…
 Verbs: roast, stew, grate, boil…
 The French also innovated and improved domestic economy and social life:
 Articles of comfort: curtain, blanket, chair, lamp…
 Domestic arrangements: wardrobe, pantry, closet…
 Entertainment: conversation, dance, fool, music, leisure, juggler, melody…
 Hunting and riding: stable, terrier, falcon, squirrel…
6) Vocabulary of Art, Learning and Medicine : they reflect the cultural and intellectual
interests of the ruling class, which cultivated or patronized the arts and the sciences:
 Arts: art, sculpture, figure, painting…
 Architecture and building: cathedral, palace, mansion, porch, chimney…
 Literature: rime, tragedy, literature, poet, chapter…
 Learning: logic, grammar, study, geometry…
 Medicine: surgeon, leper, arsenic, pain, anatomy, stomach…

5.3.2. The period of greatest influence

The total number of words adopted during the Middle English period was over ten thousand,
of which about 75% are still in current use. The introduction of French words into English
follows the adoption of English by the upper classes. 1250-1400 mark the period when English
was replacing French.

For a hundred years after the Norman Conquest there was no increase in the number of French
words being adopted. In the last half of the 12 th century, the number increased slightly, but it
did not become really great until after 1200.

By 1400 the movement had spent its force. There was a sharp drop in the 15 th century which
has been followed by a gradual decrease ever since.

6) DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ENGLISH WORDS AND THEIR FRENCH COUNTERPARTS

The French words introduced into English as the result of the Norman Conquest often present
an appearance quite different from that which they have in modern French. The reasons for
this are:

 The subsequent development which had taken place in the two languages

 The Anglo-Norman dialect spoken in England differed from the language in Paris
(central French) in several aspects

The difference is not always fully revealed by the spelling but is apparent in the pronunciation.
In spite of the differences most French loan-words can be recognized as such.

7) CONCLUSION

Historically speaking, although Britain was methodically brought into the French world
between 1066 and c. 1200 the process was not always peaceful and saw sustained military
conflicts. French culture gradually supplanted indigenous ways of life and flourished in new
military and urban centres as well as in the wider countryside.
Both the English language and the French culture have gone through many evolutions, all as a
result of the introduction of new ethnic groups into Britain. From the first invasions of the
Angles and Saxons in 450 A.D. through the ongoing influx of immigrants from all over the
world, England has been a country influenced by its ever-changing population. The most
influential of these developments was the Norman Conquest in the year 1066, whose results
have shaped the history of England, and are still apparent in today's English traditions,
government, and language. By looking at modern England, we can still see the threads that
stemmed from the influence of that event, so many years ago.

8) BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Algeo, J. and T. Pyles. 1982. The origins and development of the English language.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
 Conde, J.C. and A. Sánchez. 1996. An Introduction to the History of the English
language-I: Old English.
 Baugh, A. & Cable, T. 1993. A History of the English Language. Prentice-Hall Editions.