Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 58 (2023) 103363

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Review article

Integration of smart grid with renewable energy sources: Opportunities and

challenges – A comprehensive review
Tarun Kataray a, B. Nitesh a, Bharath Yarram a, Sanyukta Sinha b, Erdem Cuce c, d, e, *,
Saboor Shaik a, *, Pethurajan Vigneshwaran a, Abin Roy a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
b
School of Chemical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadua 632014, India
c
Low/Zero Carbon Energy Technologies Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey
e
School of Engineering and the Built Environment, Birmingham City University, B4 7XG Birmingham, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Renewable energy is the most promising solution to the rising problem of greenhouse gas emissions, and it also
Smart grid contributes to environmental protection. A typical electrical grid is a unidirectional system that converts just one-
Renewable energy integration smart grid third of the fuel energy into electricity and does not recover waste heat. Almost 8% of its output is lost via
Communication systems
transmission lines and 20% of its capacity exists primarily to meet peak demand. Smart grids are controlled
DSM
Smart metering
power networks that provide several benefits such as expansion and effective management of renewable energy
sources. The present review provides an elaborative discussion on smart technologies in terms of characteristics,
energy storage systems, demand side management, communication technologies, grid security, and privacy. The
present review also highlights important issues for smart grid integration with renewable energy. It is revealed
that the communication network and appropriate demand side management with suitable algorithms are highly
important for futuristic smart grid integration. Finally, the evolution of Indian energy legislation and regulations,
as well as the main barriers are reviewed. A few policy recommendations are also tallied at the conclusion based
on the assessment.

Introduction retrieving the waste heat. Around 8% of its production is wasted through
its transmission system, and 20% of its producing ability is essential
Renewable energy is the most promising solution to deal with the solely to fulfil peak needs. Furthermore, due to the structure of its assets,
growing problem of greenhouse gas emissions, and it also to protect the the present energy system suffers from domino effect failures. The utility
environment. Renewable energy is used by several countries to produce system operates in the same way it did over a century ago, with energy
new-generation technology [1]. The usage of renewable energy such as flowing from main power plants to households through the utility grid,
solar, biomass, hydro, and wind vary by country [2]. The incorporation and reliability is ensured by storing spare capacity. Such a system is
of renewable energy sources into the current grids poses major issues for environmentally costly and ineffective, as well as a major cause of
the grid which include outages, voltage fluctuations, and energy losses. pollution and emitter of greenhouse gases [4]. The upcoming-generation
The smart grid was created to solve these problems. A significant portion energy grid is often known to be the “smart grid” or “intelligent grid”. It
of the globe’s electrical distribution infrastructure, or “grid network,” is anticipated to solve the existing infrastructure’s fundamental flaws.
was developed when energy was relatively inexpensive. The funda­ Smart grid technology shows us a solution for improved electric
mental grid network has undergone minor enhancements to accommo­ energy generation as well as an efficient means for transmitting and
date the increased demand for electricity [3]. This present conventional distributing this electricity. It is simpler to set up and holds up less space
electrical grid is a unidirectional grid, which turns just one-third of the than traditional grids due to its versatility. The smart grid design idea
fuel converted into electrical power by not being dependent on seeks to increase grid asset controllability, observability, performance,

* Corresponding authors at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Zihni Derin
Campus, 53100 Rize, Turkey.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Cuce), [email protected] (S. Shaik).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103363
Received 24 March 2023; Received in revised form 30 June 2023; Accepted 2 July 2023
Available online 11 July 2023
2213-1388/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Kataray et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 58 (2023) 103363

electrical infrastructure and security, and, in particular, the financial thermal power plants, air pollution is a serious issue. Greenhouse gases
elements of service, planning, and operations [5]. Several smart grid (GHG) in the atmosphere is swiftly rising. In 2016, total greenhouse gas
technologies have been developed for various applications like (GHG) emissions as CO2 equivalent were 496.1 million tonnes, while in
communication and metering architecture. 2018, they rose to 520.9 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. In compari­
However, the lots of challenges that need to be solved and these son to industry and other industries, power, and heat generation areas
challenges have been discussed in detail in this review. A comprehensive contribute to the most CO2 emissions [10].
review has been aimed to elaborate on the technical advancement in The energy sector accounted for the most greenhouse gas emissions
smart grid storage technologies, demand side management, smart grid with the total accounting for 71.6% of total emissions [11]. Industrial
security, and Indian renewable energy regulations also. This article fo­ operations and product consumption account for 12.5% of GHG emis­
cuses on the ways to mitigate the challenges which are prevailing in sions, followed by agricultural activities (12.5%) and landfills and
smart grid storage technologies. Section 2 & 3 discusses the current wastewater (3.4%). In 2018, the carbon dioxide equivalent outflow per
power scenario in India with the major importance of renewable-based capita were 6.4 tonnes, up to 3.77 tonnes in 1990. In 2019, greenhouse
power generation systems. Section 4 portrays the smart grid technology gas emissions skyrocketed. The GHG emissions as CO2 equivalents for
which highlights the works on the prevailing systems followed by the electricity production alone were 132 million tonnes (Mt) in 2019.
comparison studies of smart grid and conventional grid along with the Thermal energy continues to play a main role in energy generation, and
various technologies available to integrate the renewable-based systems it constitutes roughly 60% of implemented capacity.
with smart grid systems. Section 5 discusses the various limitations In the future years, it is expected that the country’s energy demand
which are prevailing in integrated systems and the ways to reduce these will keep on increasing. The installed producing capacity must be
limitations to improve the system’s efficiency. Section 6 discusses the enhanced to satisfy the country’s energy needs. Wind energy and Solar
various evolution of Indian Energy Acts and Policies in India from 2003 PV sectors are seeing rapid and confrontational ways to increase their
to till date. At last, the findings and future directions of the present re­ contribution to India’s total energy contribution. By analysing India’s
view efforts are described in section 7. renewable energy prospective, Solar accounts for 750 GW, Wind power
This article addresses the following concepts which will helpful the accounts for 102 GW, biofuel accounts for 25 GW, and small hydro ac­
researchers to understand information related to integrated smart grid counts for 20 GW. Renewable energy contributes to 15.90% of the
with renewable-based systems. The main outcomes of this work are, (i) overall equipped capacity in India. As of March 2017, the equipped
Impact of the renewable-based power generation for Indian conditions capacity of renewable energy was 57,260 MW. It has increased from
which is having an enormous amount of solar power. (ii) The various 14,400 MW of total renewable power installed capacity at the start of
drawbacks and the limitations faced by the integrated system and the 2009 to 38,822 MW at the end of December 2015 and 57,260 MW by
various techniques to mitigate the same for proper operation of the in­ March 2017. With 29151.29 MW built in March 2017, compared to
tegrated system. (iii) Importance of the smart grid technology as 25,088 MW in December 2015, wind power continues to favour the
compared with the conventional grid technology which is highly renewable power industry. The increased need for electricity during
employed in most parts of the world. (iv) Future directions of the current prime time has spurred the usage of renewable energy in many appli­
system which can be applied to a wider range of renewable-based cations, including air conditioning (HVAC), heating, and ventilation.
systems. The installed capacity of renewable energy has gradually risen over
time. Actually, when it comes to installed capacity for all forms of
Electricity generation in India renewable energy, wind power is now in the lead. India’s capacity
steadily increased from 2002 to 2015, from 9389 MW in 2007 to 34,351
Establishing centralized power facilities and conveying energy to the MW in 2015. When all regions are included, wind and solar power ac­
point of use is the most favoured way of increasing the supply of elec­ count for the bulk of India’s overall renewable energy potential. By the
tricity in India. The costs of distribution in a rural location are typically last of 2022, Jammu and Kashmir aim to have a combined solar output
broken down into three parts: production, transmission, and distribu­ of 20,000 MW [12]. In India, the renewable energy industry with the
tion. In remote locations, wind generation and photovoltaic generation quickest rate of growth is the wind energy sector which is a sustainable
can be employed to provide electricity. In India, coal-fired power plants and environmentally friendly alternative source of energy. Wind map­
are commonly used to generate electricity [6]. The quantity of carbon ping is done for tapping energy [13].
dioxide released is proportional to the amount of coal available. Due to
the huge coal-fuelled power plants for energy production, carbon di­ Smart grid technology
oxide levels are projected to rise in the future. In 2019, 60% of India’s
total energy was generated using coal, and the majority of coal imports Transforming conventional energy networks into Smart grids (SG)
are frequently from countries South Africa, Australia, and Indonesia. It is transforms the energy sector and improves performance and reliability.
noted that India’s production of coal has increased every year from It also provides better management, control, and communication capa­
808.4 TWh in 2009 to 1381.83 TWh by 2020. As per a recent survey, bilities. Smart grids are known to be next-generation conventional grids
nearly the thermal power plants produce 60% of electricity, and due to the information flow capabilities and two-ways power supply. It
renewable energy sources occupy around 38% of energy. integrates the actions of all users and facilitates the bidirectional oper­
ation of the distribution of the system for delivering a sustainable and
Importance of renewable energy sources in India economic electric supply. A conventional grid can be divided into a
distribution grid, transmission grid, electricity generating plants, end
India’s high-power usage, coal consumption for energy production, users, and control centres [14]. The bidirectional power flow and data
and reliance on petroleum fuels are creating many obstacles to renew­ provide an important structure for the users in terms of demand. There is
able energy usage [8]. In India, the renewable energy market is a great demand for automated energy and making it user-friendly [15].
expanding faster than the overall energy market [9]. India presently has Smart grids are seen as the future of the power system. Grids utilize
a variety of renewable energy appliances, as well as the largest biomass advanced communication systems and thus enhance automation also.
gasifier program in the world. Petroleum and coal are examples of fossil An ideal smart grid should be safe, and reliable and be able to enhance
fuels that have negative environmental consequences and they lead to communication abilities, have self-healing resources, fast distribution
the release of greenhouse gases. Renewable energy sources (RES) methods of smart technologies, and integrate micro-generation units
contribute to a cleaner environment, increased energy independence, easily. The grid monitors and automatically detects and analyses prob­
and reliable water supply. When electricity is generated utilizing lems and resolves them to maintain reliability and power quality. The

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future smart grid is facilitated by the efficient demand response mech­ Table 1
anism (DRM) which is based on the energy consumers capable of Key Differences between Conventional Grid and Smart Grid [26].
providing a flexible schedule for energy consumption and supply [16]. Differentiators Smart Grid Conventional Grid
Since smart grids are under the threat of cyber terrorism, cyber se­
Grid Topology Network Radial
curity measure is being developed. Malicious attacks need to be pre­ Electricity Generation Distributed Central
vented. The attacks depend on three factors; threats, vulnerabilities, and Integrating Distributed Energy Resources Frequently Rare
smart grid assets. Every part of SG needs a different security policy. Flow of Information Two-way One way
There is a need for confidentiality of usage of power, command, soft­ Self-Monitoring Yes No
Overall Efficiency High Low
ware, and the integrity of data. Attacks can yield financial losers for both Testing Remote Manual
producers and consumers and pose a threat to integrity. Losing the Environment friendly Yes No
availability of accessing information can affect power delivery. The Self-Healing Yes No
energy demand is dependent on fossil fuels. There is an increasing need
of utilizing renewable energy systems due to climate change. Renewable
components to safely and reliably communicate information and com­
energy resources are capable of accommodating higher penetration that
mands. It utilizes the possibility of local and distributed energy storage
is cost-effective as it improves the quality of power and reliability [17].
to balance out the efficiency of renewable energy sources. [18].
The forecasting of renewable energy is improved by using an SG [18].
It is important for SGs to address security from the outset and ensures
The core components of smart grids (SG) are Advanced metering
that there is an integrated and balanced concept across the system [19].
infrastructure (AMI), Smart meters (SMs), and Data collection units
SGs have automated processes for changing passwords since it is not
(DCU) [19]. The Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is responsible
possible to change millions of passwords manually. SG uses different
for maintaining a reliable and affordable secure service of bidirectional
network systems such as optical fibre and wireless networks. It includes
communication by making use of the users and service providers. It
smart meters and sensors that are capable of measuring a multitude of
contains the computer system and the network of data of a smart grid.
consumption aspects such as voltage and current.
The electricity consumption data is aggregated and then delivered to the
end users as and when required. As the capacity of the smart grid in­
creases, the data gathered by AMI also increases. This data is managed Conventional grid vs smart grids
by the cloud infrastructure due to the massaging competencies. Utilizing
smart meters in smart grids helps in distributing power utilization and The conventional power supply is designed to just meet basic needs
gathering the personal information of consumers. Smart meters transfer like the production, control, and supply of electricity [20]. Forecasting
the data for further processing to a cloud-based infrastructure. The the power loads is a crucial step in the progress of grids. As Electricity is
infrastructure has to be strong as a huge amount of data is generated an important commodity and it should be properly used to avoid
rapidly. However, storing, processing, and analysing the data can wastage [21]. Non-conventional energy usage has increased drastically
become difficult if only cloud computing (CC) is used. Therefore, fog and it creates various problems for grid management such as grid sta­
computing is used with it which helps by acting like a bridge between bility and power quality [22]. Conventional grids do not have a tech­
the smart grid and cloud computing. Smart grids reduce latency and nique to forecast the demands and thus smart grids were introduced to
increase privacy. Smart grids make sure that there is excellent scal­ solve such challenges [4]. Conventional grids use wired communication
ability, privacy, security, and flexibility [20]. Cloud computing provided for monitoring the grids, because of the expenses and the maintenance of
the located resources and the data to the end user according to the de­ the links they are not commonly preferred [23]. A smart grid has a self-
mand. Accessing data can result in high cost and delay as the data is healing capability which means that the faulty components are inde­
heavy which results in traffic on the cloud. Thus, to enhance the per­ pendent, and do not affect the grid [22]. The present grid technology is
formance, it is necessary that cloud computing and FC are used together unidirectional, and it has limited information sharing and lower effi­
to avoid problems such as delaying performance, latency, the balance ciency compared to smart grids. Traditional system of grid communi­
between cost and delay, and for avoiding transmission delays. Further­ cation is generally used for data gathering from a limited number of
more, the Demand response (DR) is becoming an important component sensors situated at critical distribution and transmission points, the
of smart grid systems which enables consumers to interact directly with transmission of limited control signals, and fault detection.[24,25].
the electricity market. This demand response has been executed in the Table 1 illustrates the main distinctions between a conventional grid
form of a direct-based demand response and an indirect-based demand system and a smart grid system.
response. In direct-based demand response, consumers can directly
adapt the electricity consumption to the prices announced and the utility Renewable energy storage systems
company directly controls their consumption. dynamic price is offered
in indirect-based demand response as an incentive for adapting the Renewable Energy Storage Systems are inexhaustible [27]. Power
electricity consumption on their own [21]. fluctuations can be minimized, enhancing the flexibility of the electric
system and enabling storage capacity. Renewable energy systems are as
Key features of smart grids stable as conventional systems. Grid technologies are the future tech­
nologies including smart grids, smart metering, smart pricing, and more
Smart grids have various key features such as latency requirements, [28]. Smart meters can be directly controlled by the consumers which
communication models layered network architecture, and more. SGs enables them to make an individual consumption pattern which leads to
have low latency. They are reliable, safe, and have a real-time saving energy and reduction in prices and carbon emissions. Chemical,
communication system. It is capable of delivering power efficiently mechanical, thermal, or electrical technologies are used in renewable
and quickly for distribution, consumption, and generation [17]. Latency systems. Renewable energy sources (RES) can be integrated into a sys­
should be handled during communication between two subsystems of tem where energy resources are regenerated naturally in a short time.
SG. SGs are also bulky in size and thus follow a periodic data commu­ Such sources of energy include wind and solar energy. Renewable en­
nication system. It is capable of servicing various loads such as industrial ergy storage systems have monetary benefits since they can lower
and residential. It consists of smart terminations and loads which are electricity costs. An electrolyte separates electrodes in a fuel cell. PV
simplified data connections present that are analogous to today’s com­ systems use batteries such as Nickel-Cadmium and Nickel-Zinc [29].
puter environment. It follows a bidirectional and real-time method. It Different batteries and their drawbacks are mentioned in Table 2 below.
also comprises a communication architecture that allows system Different modes of storing hydrogen include compressed, liquefies,

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Table 2
Batteries used in electrochemical energy storage systems for Smart Grids.
Battery Electrodes Electrolyte Key points Remarks Ref

Nickel-cadmium Positive electrode- Nickle KOH Affordable and robust Because of the detrimental environmental [29]
(NiCd) hydroxide impact of cadmium and the high initial
batteries Negative electrode- cadmium cost, it is not recommended.
hydroxide
Nickel-hydrogen Nickel hydroxide electrode KOH Has a long cycle life and resistance to Drawbacks include high cell pressure and [29]
batteries over-charging. Used in spacecraft and low energy density.
satellites. However, the cost is high.

Nickel-metal Anode- MHCathode- Ni KOH Used in the medical sector, automobiles Not preferred due to high self-discharge [30]
hydride (OH)2 and portable devices. and less cycle life.
batteries (Ni-
MH)
Nickle-zinc Positive electrode: nickel oxide KOH Has a high energy density Can be used in renewable energy systems [29]
batteries Negative electrode: zinc metal successfully due to the high energy-to-mass
ratio.
Lead-acid Comprises two electrodes in a H2SO4 Easy to transport, Low cost Not preferred as it has a low-depth [27]
batteries sulfuric acid electrolyte. Can be used in household applications discharge and slow charging. However, the
positive electrode has a long-life cycle.
Sodium-sulfur Cathode: sodium Solid ceramic sodium Sulfur is in a liquid dorm High efficiency [31]
batteries Anode: sulfur alumina and High energy density. Requires a high
operating temperature
Sodium-nickel Cathode: NiCl2/FeCl2 Na ion conductor The chemical reaction converts NaCl Suitable for bulk storage [32]
chloride Anode: Na metal and Ni to NaCl and Na.
batteries
Lithium-ion The negative electrode is made Ethylene carbonate During charging and discharging, it is Preferred due to the low cost per cycle. [33]
batteries of carbon and the positive is (EC), dimethyl used to move Li ions from the positive
made of a metal oxide. carbonate (DMC) electrode to the negative electrode.
Lithium salts dissolved in organic
carbonates make up the electrolyte.

and metal hydride. A flywheel electric energy storage system is a kind of

Table 3
mechanical energy storage that comprises a shaft connecting a cylinder
Commonly used demand side management techniques.
to an electrical generator. Electric energy is transformed into kinetic
energy by a generator, which can then be stored by increasing the fly­ Techniques Description Reference

wheel’s rotational speed. The quantity of energy stored is proportional Load shifting In this case, some of the load during the peak [41]
to the moment of inertia of the rotor. The stored energy is transferred to duration is shifted to the off-peak periods. The
total energy consumed is not changed.
electrical energy, causing the spinning speed to decrease. Because of its
Valley filling It encourages people to use more energy during [42]
high power, high density, and quick recharge time, it may be used in off-peak hours. When the cost of production is
wind applications. lower than it is during peak hours. As a result, it
Energy storage systems (ESSs) are used since photovoltaic energy reduces peak demand indirectly.
systems are unreliable and need an energy source that is capable of Flexible It involves actions carried out in accordance with [43]
modelling a coordinated strategy between the consumer and
providing constant energy. ESSs hold importance for fossil fuels-based the concessionaire and in response to the current
electricity production sectors. Electricity is supplied in two ways requirement. By installing load-limiting devices, it
namely base load power plants that supply electricity and peak power is possible to limit a consumer’s energy
plants that supply the electricity to overcome peaks. They are integrated consumption at specific times while maintaining
genuine security conditions.
with solar and wind systems which results in a high level of renewable
Strategic load It regulates the seasonal increase in energy usage. [44]
energy fraction [27]. ESSs store electrical power in a prime time and growth To achieve this goal, the dealership uses energy-
give in the same quantity of energy to the grid in an off-peak time [34]. efficient devices, intelligent systems, and other
sources.
Peak clipping It reduces the demand during heavy load periods. [39]
Demand side management
The amount of peak time is reduced by using
methods such as distributed generation and
Demand side management (DSM) includes operations that influence shutting down the equipment at customer ends.
consumer behaviour to alter the load curve form. Customers’ load Strategic It reduces energy waste by lowering seasonal [45]
curves are influenced and shifted by demand response programs, which Conservation energy usage and increasing efficiency.

are based on power costs and other incentives [35]. Demand response
(DR) and DSM are two important economic factors of a smart distribu­ shifting. With DSM, we can try to reduce the peak load to a point where
tion grid. The DSM is utilized to control the customer’s power re­ renewable energy sources can meet the peak energy demands. The
quirements. It uses techniques and policies to decrease demand during bidirectional flow of energy and information opens various possibilities
the top load and throughout the day. It gives us control over the load for the DSM [39]. Smart grids can employ variable price schemes like
demands and allows us to create a more efficient power network [36]. time of use pricing and critical peak pricing to have more control options
From an economic standpoint, shifting peak demand is less expensive during power scheduling [40]. Various traditional methods have been
than increasing the transmission network; moreover, the way we in­ used to alter the load shape and also to decrease the need for building
fluence the demand side may not only cost saving but also match the new power plants for the peak power duration. These methods are
quality standards of energy services [37,38]. shown in Table 3.
DSM has a strong influence on load shifting and reduction. The The basic types of DSM are DR, spinning reserve, Energy efficiency
technique of transferring loads between peak and off-peak hours to in­ (EE), and Time of usage (TOU) [46]. EE involves changing the system
crease operational dependability and efficiency is known as load

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Fig. 1. (a) The block diagram of the smart grid with its key features; (b) Block diagram of smart grid communication model.

equipment permanently resulting in the immediate and permanent a rate that produces electricity at the same frequency as the grid power
benefits of improved efficiency of the system. TOU imposes time-based frequency. As a result, a spinning reserve can be activated in minutes to
tariffs and increases the cost of power during certain times to influence meet increased load demand or to account for the unplanned loss of a
the power consumption of the customers. Demand Response (DR) on the running generator.
other hand allows the consumers to play a huge role in grid management There are three levels of automation in DR measures, the most
by reducing the consumption of electricity during peak load periods to notable of which is manual DR, in which human intervention is neces­
flatten the curve [47]. SR is described as an unloaded generation that sary to reduce, transfer, or push loads, or to change the demand pattern
rotates in sync with the utility grid, i.e., the spinning generator rotates at [48,49]. This type of human intervention is possible at the central level

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Table 4
Soft computing and Optimization based DSM techniques used in Smart Grids.
Soft Computing Key Objectives Contributions Outcomes Ref
Method

Evolutionary Load Planning Dijkstra algorithm was related to GA, Optimal End-user power costs are lowered by 52%. Grid constancy is improved [59]
Computation arrangement recognition algorithm, and by lowering the PAR to 10.22% when compared to ZSM.
BPSO algorithms.
Evolutionary Load Scheduling Bi-level deep reinforcement learning Some numerical instances under various weather scenarios, daily [61]
Computation Algorithm. driving patterns, and EV driving model indicate the efficiency of a bi-
level deep reinforcement learning algorithm in terms of the overall
tariff of electricity, and customer choice.
Evolutionary Electricity Tariff and Crow Search Algorithm, GA, Cuckoo search Simulation findings indicated that cost savings are realised in the form [62]
Computation Prime Load Drop algorithm and BPSO based home energy of reduced customer power bills. The suggested model considerably
management scheme. lowered the invoice and peaks by utilising BPSO, GA, and Cuckoo
algorithms. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the Cuckoo
search algorithm outperforms GA and BPSO (6.93 % vs. 43.10 %).
Evolutionary Energy Consumption The Binary backtracking search algorithm is The BBSA scheduling controller saved 4.87 kWh per day during week [63]
Computation used to schedule appliances in real-time. and 6.6 kWh per day over weekend. The BPSO scheduling controller
saves 4.52 kWh per day throughout week and 6.3 kWh/day during DR
times.
Evolutionary Energy Cost Reduction Hybrid GA-PSO, Bacterial Foraging Planned strategy shortened electricity cost and PAR by 22.5 percent [64]
Computation Optimization and Wind-Driven Optimization and 49.2 percent and 35.4 percent when energy diminution is from
techniques were compared. utility with RESs and ESS amalgamation, respectively when compared
to unscheduled electricity consumption.
Evolutionary Load Scheduling PSO-based Optimal energy scheduler for load PSO method is utilized to resolve ideal energy forecast problem, and [65]
Computation reliability load dependability indices, capacity ratios and classification numbers
are compared across different load scheduling schemes,
Evolutionary Economic Dispatch An ACO-based Energy management setup for Suggested EMS was created by Ant Colony approach and evaluated on [66]
Computation microgrids two separate case scenarios. In the first scenario, the cost savings reach
up to 18.5 percent when compared to Lagrange’s method findings for
joint economic and emission dispatch problem.
Fuzzy Logic Thermal Comfort Building Control Virtual Test Bed platform In every outdoor condition investigated, the fuzzy controller beat [67]
was used to develop a fuzzy-based controller on–off controller in terms of thermal comfort. Use of fuzzy control, for
instance, reduced the yearly mean value of PPD by 33%.
Fuzzy Logic Visual Comfort A smart LED lighting system The experimental findings suggest that utilising the designed controller [68]
may save a substantial amount of lighting energy. The workplace where
the smart LED lighting system is placed may automatically control
lighting output depending on user motions and allow users to select
their lighting preferences.
Fuzzy Logic Air Quality Comfort Adaptive Fuzzy controllers Proposed adaptive controller outperforms the current fuzzy controller [69]
in terms of steady-state error, rising time, and settling time.
ANN Thermal and Air Quality For an HVAC system, a discrete model To govern existing building HVAC systems, a model-based predictive [70]
Comfort predictive technique is devised. control strategy based on the branch and bound method was designed
and used. The formulation assures that, to the extent that the model’s
accuracy permits, an optimal control trajectory is computed to
maintain a defined level of thermal comfort while spending the least
amount of energy.
ANN Visual Convenience Amalgam lightning search algorithm-based Suggested technique performs better while switching the status in [71]
HEMS HEMSC. As a result, hybrid LSA-ANN saves 9.7138 percent of total
power per 7 h, whereas amalgam PSO-ANN saves 2.38 % per 7 h.
Findings demonstrate recommended HEMSC algorithm’s capacity to
keep overall electrical power expenditure underneath the DL range
midst a DR occurrence
Game Theory Minimizing power tariff DSM based on Autonomous game theory The suggested method imposes a penalty on consumers who fail to [58]
and peak-to-average create a flat load profile and keep to it during real consumption. By
ratio using ESSs and EVs, RDCDSM facilitates the integration of RESs with
the grid.
Stochastic Robust Price reduction RTP based DSM The results demonstrate that by utilizing the recommended speculative [72]
optimization-based real-time DR management strategy, the family may
save 26.63 percent on their power bill by engaging in real-period tariff-
based demand response. In robust optimization strategy, a savings of
24.33 percent may be shown.
Simulated Energy optimization White tariff-based DSM When customers choose to adopt the White Tariff and do not regulate [73]
Annealing their use, the data reflect a negative impact on their bills.
Interval Number Load Planning BPSO in conjunction with integer continuous To solve the problem of uncertain home load scheduling, an interval [74]
Optimization programming number optimization based on acceptance degree for restraint violation
is devised in this work, where both the hot water demand and the
ambient temperature are given as interval numbers. The proposed
approach may result in a cost scheme that strictly complies to the
comfort constraints.

or user level. Semi-automated DR, to start the demand response plan for using a pre-programmed algorithm. Although accountable subjects can
a group of buildings, a person uses a centralized system. The DR program override the occurrence at any moment, no human contact is necessary.
is then optimized using control algorithms for a single or group of There are essentially two forms of DR: price-based DR (PBDR) and
designated buildings and Fully automated DR in which External incentive-based DR (IBDR) [50]. PBDR changes the consumption pattern
communication signals initiate, optimize, and control the DR action of power by the customers in response to the varying price of electricity

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the objectives of using these electricity-pricing signals are to minimize networks, and core networks. For example, information and communi­
total energy usage while also shifting some peak load into the off times. cation technology network for control and administration of conven­
PBDR is viewed as a necessary and promising technique for cost- tional power plants is comprised of digital subscriber lines and fibre
effectively exploiting the adaptability potential of demand-side sour­ optic wireline connections. In network design, all subnetworks are
ces [51]. Users in IBDR programs lower their energy use while overload employed for management, from power generation through consump­
periods in exchange for financial incentives. Demand bidding, Direct tion stages [3,5]. At the generating stage, renewable energy resources
Load Control (DLC), and interruptible applications are examples of are combined with traditional power plants. Wide area networks serve
incentive-based DR programs [52]. Soft computing-based Demand side as interfaces between the generating and transmission layers of infor­
management techniques are the ones that use algorithms such as fuzzy mation and communication technologies. Substations, Industrial, and
logic or neural networks to find the solution for power management. Residential loads are the three types of loads in the consumption level. In
Optimization of the DSM is necessary due to various benefits such as residential regions, home area networks are utilized as a communication
reduction of cost, and power scheduling considering renewable sources, interface, whereas building area networks and industrial area networks
it also affects user experience, performance, and price uncertainties, and are employed for industrial and substation loads. Wide area networks
reduces the peak-to-average ratio (PAR) [53]. The importance of game have outstanding long-distance communication latency capabilities. As
theory in DSM i.e., Game Theory is an analysis of situations in which a result, they are employed as a link between substations, transformers,
many forces (Players) compete for various goals. Although all in­ and energy storage systems, among other things. At the consumption
dividuals are selfish, by focusing on their personal goals, they end up stage, an autonomous AMI network is built, where data transfers from
achieving a larger goal. Optimization-based techniques rely on mathe­ customers’ SMs and HEMS, EVs, and microgrids are gathered by
matical models and solve the models using an iterative approach hence leveraging home area networks. Table 4 lists the various reported works
they are also time-consuming. Other optimization approaches include on DSM techniques used in smart grids.
mixed integer linear programming (MILP), dynamic programming, Quality of Service (QoS) standards are another critical feature of
linear programming, and so forth. smart grid networks. Because smart grid is made up of numerous sub­
systems, every failure in any substation will result in a large number of
Communication technology problems. Power system reliability is crucial since many contemporary
systems rely on energy grids to function effectively. As a result, power
Modern smart grids rely heavily on communication infrastructure to outages can cause a chain reaction of failures in systems that require
work in an effective way. The choice of communication expertise pro­ steady power [64].
vides energy consumption reduction, optimum smart grid application,
and synchronization of smart grid parts from origination to users. Powerline communication technologies for smart grid
Powerline Communication systems have spurred substantial interest
Smart grid network architecture in the disciplines of smart-grid and communication systems, as well as a
Understanding smart grid design helps to identify important re­ range of application areas including demand response, home automa­
quirements for smart grid communications systems. IEEE 2030–2011 tion, automatic meter reading, and in-vehicle communication during the
standard is commonly accredited as one of utmost desirable standards previous two decades [65]. Although the majority of Powerline
for meeting the architectural and configurational needs of Smart Grids Communication applications use AC power sources, there are a few that
[58]. This standard later proposed the Smart Grid Interoperability use DC power sources, such as vehicles. In-vehicle PLC systems, which
Reference Model to solve interoperability difficulties in many domains use vehicle power lines as a communication medium, may also operate
of communication, information, and energy storage systems. This car controls and other applications. This method has been studied for a
model’s primary purpose is to lead communication technologies and variety of vehicle classifications [66,67]. The most essential application
other components of Smart Grid Systems [59]. End-to-end (E2E) areas of Smart Grids are remote metering, monitoring, and control ac­
communication capabilities with no latency are critical characteristics of tivities. [68] Smart Grid communication is the most important appli­
smart grid systems. When creating communication architectures, this cation area for Powerline Communication systems right now. Powerline
characteristic must be incorporated into the system. This section de­ Communication technologies are broadly categorized into three types:
scribes a layered structure proposed by IEEE 2030–2011 as shown in
Fig. 1(a). The first layer is security concerned, which safeguards • PLC technologies using an ultra-narrow band: This technology
communication data as it travels across the network. Network man­ works in the ULF (0.3–3 kHz) and higher SLF (30–300 Hz) frequency
agement is responsible for maintaining communication connections in ranges. In other words, Ultra Narrow Band PLC technologies work at
the next layer to ensure that quality standards are met. Finally, the frequencies lower than 3 kHz and data rates of around 100 bps. The
standard calls for a chain of area networks to be superimposed on the PLC technology used by UNB in metering applications is proprietary.
power zones. This chain of area networks connects all of the gadgets in • NB - Narrowband PLC techniques: This technology works at fre­
the smart grid network. Fig. 1(b) depicts the entire end-to-end quencies ranging from 3 to 500 kHz, and Narrow Band Power Line
communication model [60]. Communication systems can be “low data rate (LDR)” or “high data
The underlying difficulty is simply achieving harmony among rate (HDR).”
various technologies and adapting them to limited information and • BB - Broadband PLC techniques: These technologies work over a
communication resources. Three subnetworks comprise the smart grid wide range of frequencies, ranging from 1.8 to 250 MHz. They use
communications system. Industrial Area Networks, Home Area Net­ multicarrier modulation methods. This technology can also achieve
works, and Building Area Networks are the first three types of sub­ data speeds of up to Mbps due to its design for indoor applications.
networks (BAN). Local area networks are second type of subnetwork.
These local area networks are further classified as Neighbourhood Area Wireless communication technologies for smart grids
Networks and Field Area Networks. Last subnetwork is known as Wide Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have piqued the curiosity of many
Area Network (WAN). It has broadest range of three subnetworks in the recent decade due to the cost reductions in practical imple­
[61,62]. The main components of smart grid perform best when entire mentations. A wireless node, which might be a set of distinct devices, is
communication system used in smart grid is fragmented to wide-area the foundation of a WSN architecture. The wireless nodes can be joined
networks, core networks, and private networks. For example, main together to send data packets, and each node can be attached to sensors
components of smart grid perform best when whole communication to monitor environmental conditions and physical parameters like
system used in smart grid is split into wide-area networks, private Infrared, temperature, movement, sound, magnetic, pressure, light and

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Fig. 2. (a) Conventional Energy Meter Vs. Smart Meter [75] (b) Evolution of major renewable energy policies implemented by the Indian Government. [126]

vibration are just a few of the things that sensors can detect. WSN nodes Smart metering
can alert the power system control and management centre by sensing
essential properties of power units such as pressure, vibration, temper­ Conventional grids feature a one-way flow of information as well as
ature, sound, and light. electricity, which severely restricts the system and leaves no way to
respond to cases of intermittent breakdowns. Smart grids can utilize
smart metering to enable a bidirectional flow of information, allowing
consumers to communicate with producers and respond accordingly as

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Table 5
Commercial smart meters for smart grids.
Smart Meter Type of Use Company Function Communication Product Technical Details Ref
Model Name Type

I-210 + c, Residential General A plethora of software-configurable features AMR Rating voltage: 120 V to 240 V [75]
I-210-c, I- Meter Electric With the addition of a supercapacitor or a RF Mesh Rating Frequency: 50–60 Hz
210 battery, accurate timekeeping is achievable PLC Operating Temperature range: − 40 ◦ C to +
Improved billing metrics for energy, demand, Cellular 85 ◦ C
and time of usage
Capture profile during load.
The ability to self-read Demand resetting is
supported.
Testing mode.
Functionality for real-time pricing.
Rolling billing period and rolling status features
KV2c, Commercial General A wide variety of S-base and A-base AMR/AMIRF KV2c [75]
KV2c+ Meter Electric formsIndustrial or substation measurements Mesh Rating voltage: 120 V to 480 V
with four PLCCellular KV2c+
quadrants.AC (GPRS/ Rating voltage: 57 V to 120 V, 600 V
instrumentation on a per-phase basis. CDMA) Frequency: 50–60 Hz
Power supply with auto-ranging. Ethernet Operating Temperature range: − 40 ◦ C to +
85 ◦ C
SGM 3000 Commercial and General Improved energy efficiency from utilities to the RF Mesh Single Phase Meters: [75]
Series: Residential Electric home. Cellular SGM3011, 3013, 3022,3023
SGM 3011, Meter Advanced co-generation applications that make WiMAX Three Phase Meters: SGM3030, 3031, 3033,
3013, use of fully customizable quadrant ZigBee 30C2.
3022, measurements. Rating voltage: 220 V,230 V
3023, A communications system that is modular and ,240 V Rating Frequency: 50–60 Hz
3030, has field-replaceable components. Operating Temperature range: − 40 ◦ C to +
3031, More dependable and multi-element 70 ◦ C
3033, configurations for more versatile use.
30C2.
SGM1100 Residential General A dual pole relay for existing residential PLC Rating voltage: 230 V Rating Frequency: 50 [75]
Meter Electric infrastructure, resulting in a more secure and Hz Operating Temperature range: − 25 ◦ C to
safe service termination. + 70 ◦ C
Remote firmware and meter setup through PLC
communications for less maintenance
Intended for rapid and easy installation in tough
settings.
Integrated PRIME PLC modem for reliable and
interoperable connection with PRIME
compatible data concentrators.
Local communications through an optical
connection, allow for on-the-fly configuration,
firmware upgrades, and diagnostics.
Centron Open Residential Itron Data on time of usage and key peak price. RF Mesh ZigBee Rating voltage: 120 V, 240 V Rating [75]
way Bridge Meter A two-way unlicensed RF and LAN architecture Frequency: 60 Hz Operating Temperature
Meter and an adaptive-tree radio frequency local area range: − 40 ◦ C to + 85 ◦ C
network module.
Interfacing ZigBee radio with HAN and load
control devices.
A remote service switch with load-limiting
features that can enable a wide range of new
services, including prepayment metering.
Detection of tampering, including metre
inversion, metre removal, and reverse energy
flow.
Icona, Icon Residential and Sensus Senses all voltages and currents for all phases RF Mesh iConA (Residential meter) Rating voltage: [75]
APX Commercial going through the metre -Provides DC power for ZigBee 120 V, 208 V, 240 V Rating Frequency: 60 Hz
Meter the remainder of the metre -Contains all sampled Operating Temperature range: − 40 ◦ C to +
energy and voltage dataAssists the Register 85 ◦ C iConAPX (Commercial meter) Rating
Display Board in reading the sampled data. voltage: 120 V − 480 V Frequency: 50,60 Hz
-Holds the calibration information in electrically Operating Temperature range: − 40 ◦ C to +
erasable programmable read-only memory 85
(EEPROM)

needed. In smart grids, smart meters enable this feature. [69]. Some consumed from distributed generating sources or storage devices
benefits of smart metering are they provide the consumers with infor­ possessed by users. Smart meters may set a limit on the maximum
mation on energy consumed so that they can change their power con­ amount of electricity utilized and remotely stop or reconnect power to
sumption pattern if needed or reduce the energy consumed for financial any client. [72]. The smart metering system’s capabilities enable
purposes or save energy. The user can access meters remotely and this transmission and distribution system operators (TSOs and DSOs) to
eliminates the chances of human error and also decreases operational obtain real-time demand data, manage outages and flaws in restriction,
costs, this enables overall system to diminish the wastage of energy as run service restoration and methods for self-healing, conduct examina­
whole system can be computerized and it can automatically react to tion of the distribution network, billing operations, and demand fore­
power shortages or failures [70,71]. Smart meters can be set to bill casting. A smart metering system monitors and records the amount of
electricity expended from utility grid by leaving unaccounted-for power power consumed at installed site. At regular intervals, the measured

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Table 6 Table 6 (continued )

Threats and possible solutions for smart grid security systems. Threats Description Solution Reference
Threats Description Solution Reference
transaction blocks in
DDoS Many attackers work Because of the [79,80] chronological order
(Distributed together to assault a distributed nature of prohibits data change
denial of single site at the same the system design, and the addition of
service) time, employing launching a DDoS illegitimate entries.
malicious software assault on a Phishing Meter spoofing is a The use of asymmetric [80]
and techniques. blockchain-based method of gaining cryptography in
platform would be access to private data blockchain design
extremely resource- assures that a
demanding. contributing node’s
Crypt analysis Using cipher text to PKI guarantees that a [79,81] private key cannot be
disclose the keys that user’s private key inferred from a shared
are being used to cannot be derived from key or public key,
secure sensitive his or her public or reducing the danger of
information that is shared key. spoofing.
sent and received. FDI Human or malicious Using a cryptographic [85]
Hardware Hackers could meddle The nodes that have [81] software alteration of hash address prohibits
exploiting with the smart metres been tampered with control signals sent data manipulation and
and sensor nodes to can be discovered and out, or purposeful the addition of faulty
obtain crucial blacklisted errors information.
information. Scripts/ Extracts of scripts or The reliability of the [77,83]
Traffic Analysis Attackers can examine Attackers acting as an [80,81] malicious programmes that data being exchanged
the information intermediary would be software could be used to steal would be protected by
stream and detect unable to render data, tamper with digital signatures and
energy usage patterns, information utilising nodes, or cause a cryptographic hash
as well as render cryptographic hashing denial-of-service functions.
private information. and digital signing attack.
procedures using the
private–public key
combination. consumption data is recorded and forwarded to the monitoring centre.
Fraudulent data False data injection or For data obtained, [82] Internal data storage, two-way communication, and report production
set alteration/ blockchain
are all elements of a smart meter [73]. Fig. 2(a) shows key differences
manipulation of the technologies could
dataset consisting provide unchangeable between conventional meter and energy meter. Recent improvements in
used to generate the storage. smart metering technology have allowed the transformation of classic
algorithm automated meter reading devices to AMIs, which enables TSOs and
DoS and Node Interruption of In instances when the [79,81,83] DSOs to manage the aforementioned processes and services. [74].
jamming connectivity between network’s
smart meters and communication is
Table 5 shows commercial smart meters available for smart grid
sensor nodes on disrupted, off-chains applications in the market. Based on their intended usage, there are two
purpose. can be to store and types of smart meters: residential smart meters and commercial & in­
forward transaction dustrial smart meters. Residential smart meters have a lower capability
information.
for power device loading than commercial and industrial smart meters.
Unauthorized Attackers can access, By authenticating the [84]
access alter, and corrupt individuals involved in Pace at which two meters are charged is another differentiator between
information due to a the transaction, the them. The adoption of smart meters enables the usage of a new tech­
lack of appropriate Public Key nology known as the IoE. When communication and the Internet are
authentication. Infrastructure (PKI) combined in a smart grid, an IoE environment is generated. By allowing
prohibits unapproved
access.
renewables to be incorporated into the smart grid, IoE should be able to
Flawed Invalid algorithms are Blockchains and [85] tackle fundamental problem of carbon emissions as well as the energy
algorithms constructed using contracts could be used crisis [75].
inaccurate methods, to pre-program
leading to inaccurate functions associated
outcomes. with power system Smart grid security
operations.
Node injection As a mediator, Blockchains can utilise [81]
intermediary digital signatures to Smart grids should be equipped to protect themselves during certain
hardware was placed verify the data’s origin threats. Threats can be natural or artificial causes that can cause the
with the goal of and reliability. failure of the system [76]. Some examples of these threats include cyber-
modifying and attacks, natural disasters, theft, terrorism, etc. the possible consequences
stealing information.
False Data Manual/malicious The use of [78,79]
of failures caused by these threats include infrastructure failure, energy
Injection software manipulation unchangeable market problems, power blackouts, Cascade system failures, etc. Secu­
of smart metre cryptographic hash rity systems of a smart grid can therefore be assessed based on authen­
readings and sensor addresses to connect tication, reliability, acceptability, robustness, resiliency, and flexibility.
measurements, as well transactional blocks in
Attacks on smart grid can be classified as:
as deliberate chronological order
inaccuracies precludes data change
and the insertion of • Network attacks in which Traffic analysis-based attacks that allow
incorrect entries. unapproved access to sensitive information, unauthorized access to
Data An intermediary can The use of [79] materials, which endangers the authenticity and secrecy of partici­
modification intercept data, alter it, unchangeable
and deliver it to the cryptographic hash
pating entities,
receiver. addresses to link • Denial of Service (DoS) attacks, and information reconfiguration
through shifting communication channels are all common examples
[77].

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• Physical attacks contain tampering with sensor nodes, smart meters electricity evacuation from renewable sources is a major concern. Along
to acquire sensitive material, node jamming in wireless sensor net­ with rural electrification, high-capacity transmission infrastructure
works by trying to do False Data Injection (FDI) that influences the should be prioritized [103]. Initiatives such as the green corridor for RES
precise state estimation of the power network’s operating point, evacuation are critical for both transporting energy and attracting new
malicious node injection, and injection of a malicious code/algo­ investment to potential sites.
rithm for data interception and deny communication [78].
• Attacks involving encryption are one of the major challenges for Power quality
cryptography is the cryptanalysis method that is used to achieve the
keys required to access confidential information It can become a Power quality is a major concern in India’s present electricity situ­
problem for the smart grids as well. ation. The proper wiring and grounding of a piece of equipment so that it
• Software-related attacks, Phishing attacks also damage the involved is compatible with other pieces of equipment attached to the premise
node’s authenticity. Viruses or malicious software led to conse­ wiring network is characterized as power quality [104].
quences such as DoS attacks, tampering and data theft, and Distrib­
uted Denial of Service (DDoS), in which the controller and the
participating nodes are prevented from communicating with each Privacy and security
other [79].
Concerns about privacy and security exist in Smart Grid architecture.
Attacks on a controller, DoS assaults, FDI, injection of hostile control Consumers’ personal information, energy use trends, financial repute,
algorithms, scripts that disrupt network stability, unapproved access to and other data are regularly encroached upon without their consent. In
EMS to undermine control operations, and data duplicating are all ex­ the peddle competition paradigm, information gathered by delivery
amples of controller-related attacks [77]. Table 6 shows threats and network might be supplied to license. The data would be utilized by the
possible solutions for smart grid security systems. supplier license to create a strategy to increase sales of the product
[105]. The major source of significant security problems is the inade­
Smart grid privacy quate advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) interface.

Although privacy can be merely stated as a person’s right not to be Anti-Islanding

watched or bothered, this concept has become outdated as new and
advanced technology becomes available [86]. Except in a physical way, As per IEEE 2000, Islanding can be defined as a component of a
there are a variety of ways to watch someone. [87] defines seven privacy power system in which the power is supplied by one or multiple sources
types that are communication privacy, location and space privacy, of power when the system is disconnected temporarily from a syn­
image, and data privacy, person’s privacy, image and thoughts privacy, chronized grid. Islanding may be dangerous, especially during mainte­
and habits and behaviour privacy, when using privacy-enhancing nance work when renewable energy is pushed into the system even
technology in Smart Cities, there are two main purposes. The primary while the network is detached from power grid. As a result, a robust anti-
goal is to keep each person’s identity hidden in the data so that no one islanding strategy for all renewable sources should be provided. Also, it
understands they are a part of it. [88,89]. The second goal is protecting will upsurge capital cost of integrated system. IEEE Std. 1547–2003
each person’s sensitive unique properties. Safeguarding sensitive infor­ 4.4.1 postulates a time limit of two seconds for unintended islanding
mation is important so that no more information is disclosed in the detection and network de-energization [106].
situation of re-identification. Before going into detail on information
privacy, it is important to classify the numerous attributes that are Storage
gathered from users and catalogued. It is crucial to distinguish between
two types of privacy-protection measures which are Security techniques With respect to user’s choices, stuffing devices can be incorporated
and Anonymization techniques. into household power station. If the starting cost grows significantly, the
Anonymization strategies alter the content of an information source yield will be reasonable. The stuffing device is an elementary resolution
such that no true origin can be identified as a provider; this would often to intermittent nature of renewable sources of energy. A simpler way is
mean total de-identification and perhaps some sort of protection for to transfer electricity straight into the grid without utilizing any storage
quasi-identifiers. Masking and disruption of sensitive information are devices.
examples of anonymization approaches. Security techniques comprise
the well-known trio of characteristics that ensure that the system is
properly protected. Secrecy, authenticity, and accessibility are three of Communication infrastructure
these traits. As each of these traits can be used to break privacy, it could
be stated that improving these characteristics is a privacy-protecting The most challenging challenge in the SG communication network is
activity [89,90]. selecting the best cost-effective communication channel for smart meter
communication. In India, remote locations lack network connectivity,
Challenges for integration of smart grid with renewable sources while metropolitan areas are heavily congested. Both of these possibil­
ities are undesirable. In the case of GSM-based transmission path, so­
Renewable energy procurement: Under Section 86 of the Electricity lution is to allot more spectrum.
Act, distribution licensees must purchase energy from renewable sour­
ces. It does not, however, address the trader who sells green energy Voltage inconstancy
directly to the end user. Consumers will have a terrific opportunity to
select the more advantageous purchase if the retail competition is Voltage inconstancy is a serious controversy since solar and wind
fostered in this manner. However, the difficulty comes once more: in a energy are both intermittent. Voltage fluctuation caused by a single
competitive market, if a provider possesses renewable energy at a higher equipment fluctuates inversely with degree of failure at point of grid
cost from the end user, the provider will find themselves in a financially connection, making it major hazard in the presence of a faulty grid.
unfavourable position [102]. REC laws can be expanded to rooftop PV Voltage fluctuation damages sensitive electric equipment, resulting in a
systems that are connected to the power grid as a solution to this chal­ considerable reduction in the lifespan of the majority of devices/
lenge. Leading to a shortage of transmission grid infrastructure, equipment [104,107].

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Harmonics distortion Business models

Power electronics equipment, when used in combination with de­ Business models explain how a company, or an organization gener­
vices that are not linear, injects harmonics into the grid, potentially ates and seizes value from the customer by giving out a product in the
producing voltage distortion problems. To maintain overall harmonic market or providing a service. These business models serve as the
distortion below acceptable limits, operating harmonics must be backbone of the company to know about the customer needs and
reduced to a minimum [108,109] various filters are used to eliminate thereby provide a product that increases the revenue. Business models
harmonic falsification. can also be said as an architectural framework of a company that collects
data about customer needs and the way they spend money for the same
Reactive power compensation along with the financial aspects of the company. PV-based solar business
models are mostly from developed countries like Germany, the USA,
Induction generators’ use of reactive power is a prevalent problem Japan, and Sweden where Germany is the forerunner in the PV industry
that degrades grid power quality. Because the quantity of reactive power followed by USA and Japan. Solar-based PV business models are vastly
required rises in direct proportion to the amount of power supplied by an dependent on the individual government’s policies and their directions
induction generator, it is critical to distribute reactive power as near to [119,120]. Most of the articles published concerning solar-based busi­
demand levels as feasible. Because of variations in active and reactive ness models mainly refer to distribution modelling, which provides the
power, the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) fluctuates. A various roles, activities, and applications that are required before
typical power compensator is made up of a static compensator, a installing a solar PV. Some of the benefits of the integration of a solar-
switching capacitor, or a fixed capacitor. [104,107,110]. based system with microgrids are listed below,

• Reduced Operating Costs: Installing solar-based power systems

Synchronisation
will lower or fully eradicate the electricity charges alongside the
installation charges being calculated for roughly 40 years of power
Grid frequency, voltage, and phase synchronization are attractive
production.
research subjects in power quality control. The phase-locked loop (PLL)
• Return on Investment: Investment in renewable-based systems
is the most common grid synchronization technique. Other ways to
leads to the utilization of solar power alongside a fine financial de­
synchronization include sensing the zero crossing of grid voltages or
cision for the public agencies and businesses. These investments will
using filter combinations connected with a nonlinear transformation.
tend to have long-term savings and a faster payback.
There are a few requirements to integrate wind energy into the grid, the
• Maintenance-Free & Reliable: Solar-based systems require no
power frequency and terminal voltage magnitude must be as close to the
maintenance unless we use a battery to store the power. Every solar-
grid, the phase sequence of the two three-phase voltages must be the
based PV system is likely to generate renewable-based power for a
same, the phase angle between the two voltages must very less [110].
minimum of 25 years.
• The Green Label: Producing power from solar radiation will lead to
Load demand management system reduced consumption of natural fuels leading to a reduction in
greenhouse gas exhaustion and reducing pollution. In these aspects,
As renewable energy sources are intermittent, efficient load-demand many of the solar-based firms can beat the global warming phe­
management is required to ensure appropriate power quality and nomenon which will get them a positive response from the
consistent supply to power networks; otherwise, considerable energy customers.
waste may occur. A wind-diesel hybrid power system, for example, is a
self-contained power-producing setup that utilises more than one diesel Some of the disadvantages of these integrated systems are listed
engines and a wind turbine to distribute electricity to a local grid. Wind below,
turbine power, on the other hand, varies with wind speed over time. As a
result, more power may have to be discharged at high wind speeds. As a • Expensive switch: The initial cost of switching from fossil fuels to
result, a load-demand management system is required to provide solar-based systems will be more which leads to a certain drawback
enough power supply and therefore increase efficiency [111,112]. in the installation of these systems on a larger scale. The savings by
going greener will not be enough to make up the initial cost which
Forecasting and scheduling leads to having a dig in the payback period.
• Price of Products: Increase in the production of an individual product
Because renewable energy sources differ, it is critical to determine will lead to an increase in the overall pricing of the system. These
the right long-term weather trends, which may be utilized to design cost changes will be either passes to the customer or will be taken by
improved processes and capacities to assist integration into a smart the company in their profit margin which leads to a huge risk
national power grid. Accurate forecasting and scheduling systems are financially.
essential for the appropriate and fulfilling utilization of renewable en­
ergy sources, as well as the construction of sustainable load- Evolution of Indian energy Acts and policies in India
management systems for the smart power grid [113,114].
The Government of India was unable to sell electricity from 1903 to
Overloads 1909 because the authorities of the Local Government and the Gov­
ernment of India were not established. With some changes in the IEA
Smart grids should be able to identify system overloads and divert 1903, it was re-enacted in 1910 as the Indian Electricity Act 1910 (IEA
power to reduce outages [115]. Transmission system technologies help 1910), which aided in the establishment of electricity generation plants
in network controllability and maximizing power transmission capacity in cities such as Bombay (now Mumbai) and Calcutta (now Kolkata) with
[116]. Overload occurs when there is a significant imbalance between the help of a few private suppliers by granting them permits to supply
output and demand. Before the frequency divergence in 2003, a similar electricity on behalf of the Indian Government. India gaining Indepen­
incidence occurred in Italy [117]. Acute overloading can also result in dence in 1947, gave Government the flexibility to plan and supply
technical losses and rapid voltage changes, which can degrade the ma­ electricity to the entire country. The Indian Electricity Supply Act 1948
terial structure and shorten its lifetime. [118]. (IEA 1948), which was modelled after the United Kingdom Electricity

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Table 7 Table 8
Renewable energy policies/acts/programmes by the Indian Government. Indian renewable energy schemes/incentives.
Policy/Act/Programme Aim Year Policy/Scheme Descriptions Reference

Electricity Act This Act laid the groundwork for the current 2003 Accelerated Depreciation The Indian government allowed [116,117]
situation of the Indian energy industry, (AD) (the mid-1990 s) renewable energy such as wind and
directing the state commission to encourage solar projects to depreciate at a rate of
renewable energy generation, as well as to 80% in the first year. It was terminated in
revise the National Tariff Policy and Tariff 2012 as GBI was introduced.
Policy for efficient use of resources Generation Based Under this policy, Indian Government
National Electricity Policy Development of the power sector and 2005 Incentive (GBI) (2008) provides support to small on-grid solar
supply chain of electricity to all areas was a power projects.
major objective of this policy. Special focus Feed-In Tariff (FIT) Feed-in tariffs (FITs) are set electricity
was laid on utilization of Hydropower in the (2009) rates paid to renewable energy providers
country. for each unit of energy generated
Tariff Policy The State Electricity Regulatory 2006 and sent back into the grid.
Commission (SERC) is in charge of Viability Gap Funding The Indian government offers overall [116,117]
regulating tariffs in their states based on (VGF) viability gap funding up to 20% of the
energy utilization. (2005) total project cost, usually in the form of a
Integrated Energy Policy The policy prioritized smart planning and 2006 capital grant during the
modelling the electricity transmission to construction phase of the project.
make the most use of India’s current energy Income Tax Exemption During the first ten years of a business’s
resources, also an emphasis on nuclear and (2002–2013) operations, the Indian government offers
non-conventional energy sources to add up a 100 percent tax exemption on earnings.
to the energy generation sector. Power Purchase PPA is a contract between Government
Rural electrification Policy The aim is to provide an infrastructure to 2006 Agreement (PPA) and a private electricity supplier, where
supply sufficient and quality power to all the Government purchases electricity
households at an affordable price. It also generated from renewable sources at a
recognized the value of other, low-cost pre-determined price per unit.
energy sources in both off and on-grid Renewable Energy It is a mechanism for addressing
applications. Certification (REC) demand–supply imbalances. The
National Action Plan on The NAPCC established eight plans to 2008 (2011) developers can select between FIT and
Climate Change (NAPCC) mitigate the impact of pollution on the REC.
climate. Also, to increase the share of power Other – Excise, Wheeling For various renewable energy sources
generated by solar energy in total energy Charges such as wind, solar, and biomass, the
generation. (2002) Indian government offers reduced tax and
National Biofuel Policy This policy aims to develop and promote 2009 customs duty rates. In India, several
biofuel production and use it as a substitute states have lower wheeling or
for gasoline and diesel in transportation and transmission charges for renewable
various other applications. A blending of energy.
bio-fuel with conventional fuels was also a Clean Development Companies/investors/project developers
target. Mechanism (CDM) do not need to register their projects with
Jawaharlal Nehru National The goal is to add 20 GW of grid-connected 2010 (2005) the Government to contribute to Certified
Solar Mission solar energy to conventional energy Emission Reduction (CER) credit
generation by 2022. markets.
Renewable Energy To address the demand and supply 2011
Certificates (REC) imbalances of renewable energy between
Mechanism different states of the country or between
different bearers, the REC mechanism has level were established under the ERC Act 1998 to determine and create
been introduced. tariffs [115]. The various renewable policies implemented by the Gov­
National Solar Mission The Jawaharlal Nehru Solar mission was 2015
updated from 20 GW to 100 GW by 2022.
ernment of India are depicted in Fig. 2 (b). In 2003, Electricity Act 2003
National Offshore Wind To develop and increase the capacity of 2015 (EA 2003) was passed, which brought a major change in the Indian
Energy Policy offshore wind energy farms in the country’s Energy Sector. The EA 2003 act consolidated all the acts which were
Exclusive Economic Zone. passed earlier and were repealed in 2003. According to EA 2003, it
Priority Sector Lending The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) designated 2015
governs the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity
Programme the renewable energy sector as a priority
sector, requiring banks to set aside a including tariffs for the sale of electricity. India has mostly relied on
particular amount of their financing for the solar and wind for renewable electricity generation. Tables 7 and 8 show
RE sector. the past renewable energy policies and Renewable energy schemes
Tariff Policy This updated Tariff Policy’s main aim is to 2016 introduced by the Indian government. Additional sources, such as
develop and increase renewable energy
generation through competitive bidding
biomass, tidal, and others, exist alongside wind and solar, although to a
and tendering. lesser level. According to the National Institute of Wind energy (NIWE),
India has the capability of generating 750 GW from solar and 300 GW
from wind energy. MNRE announced that there would be an increment
Supply Act 1926, was passed in 1948. The IEA 1948 helped in fabri­ of 5 GW in off-shore wind energy by 2020 and 30 GW by 2030. By 2022,
cating State Electricity Boards (SEBs) and Central Electricity Authority India’s target is to produce a total of 175 GW of power from renewable
(CEA) that gave substantial growth to the generation and supply of energy sources of which solar comprises a majority of 100 GW and wind
electricity. However, issues grew over time, and the SEBs became 60 GW. According to the reports in January 2020, 23.41 percent of the
financially unstable, amassing massive debts [114]. energy is generated by renewable energy sources of the country’s total
The Power Regulatory Commission Act 1998 (ERC Act 1998) was electricity generation. It is expected that by 2030, a total of 670 GW of
established in 1998 with the primary goal of removing the Indian gov­ electricity will be generated by renewable energy sources. To promote
ernment from the process of regulating electricity tariffs and establish­ more energy generation from renewable energy sources the Indian
ing separate entities to control tariffs for state and central governments. Government introduced the following Policies/Schemes. Despite India’s
State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) at the state level and abundance of renewable energy sources, the country’s renewable energy
the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) at the national access is hampered by many impediments and challenges.

13
T. Kataray et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 58 (2023) 103363

Fig. 3. Barriers to integration of renewable energy [117,118].

Technological, economic, legal, and regulatory constraints, as well as a to the utility grid for power stability for Kinshasa city in the Democratic
shortage of human resources, are all barriers and challenges. Republic of the Congo and reported that the 5◦ tilt angle of the module
Fig. 3 shows the important barriers to integrating renewable energy results in the highest annual production of the PV power plant alongside
sources with the smart grid. Various governments have introduced the increased efficiency. Sunjoo Hwang et al. [125] quantified the economic
following policies/measures to boost renewable energy generation in value and environmental benefit of replacing diesel backup generators
their countries, which can be replicated in India with certain modifi­ with PV-plus-storage microgrids for public buildings in California using
cations. These policy recommendations are listed in Table 9. an energy integration and optimization model and developed a marginal
resilience curve for the cost and environmental impact of extended
Case studies on integrated systems of microgrid and renewables outages.
To reach a carbon-free society and have high economic growth,
The transmission process is the major drawback where most of the developed countries are moving towards renewable sources to produce
power produced in solar-based power plants is wasted due to the power and thereby reduce the global warming potential and the emis­
different electrical power networks. One of the ways to limit wastage is sion of greenhouse gases. To enhance the efficiency of the renewable-
by employing the smart grids, which act as a distributed or decentralized based power generation system, many researchers have focused on the
system to transfer the power from one place to another. In microgrid use of microgrids, which will reduce transmissivity losses. Years
systems, electrical power is generated from green sources of energy such 2020–21 saw a temporary decrease in carbon emissions owing to the
as solar PV, solar cells, wind farms, fuel cells, etc. Cheng-Yi Liu et al. lockdown due to COVID-19 and is expected to increase in the coming
[121] designed and fabricated a self-sustaining smart dust module, with years. The ways to achieve a temperature limit of < 2 ◦ C will be chal­
embedded flexible triple-junction III-V solar cells to enhance their effi­ lenging. Renewable-based technologies will be taken as the forerunners
ciency and reported that the dust module can sustain continuous-wave but still needs improvement in their core transition, which helps to
operation for data collection and wireless transmission even when the accelerate the clean energy potential. Investments in renewable-based
incident angle of the sunlight reaches 75◦ . Another work reported by technologies need to be done by the governments to integrate them
Ramakrishna Kappagantu et al. [122] reported on the Rooftop solar PV with the non-residential sectors, which account for 65 % of global
system installed in Puducherry, India as a part of a smart grid project by emissions.
the Government of India and surveyed the performance of the system
with customers, considering the consumptions over different time, Conclusions and future directions
availability of space, and the user experience of the technology. Hasan
Huseyin Coban et al. [123] investigated the frequency and power bal­ The current review article reports on smart grids and the various key
ance of an isolated microgrid system consisting of a battery and pump- factors that need to be addressed during their integration with renew­
hydro and reported that by employing storage units, the system is more able energy sources. The major findings of the article are listed below,
consistent and gives out smooth dynamic performance. Arcell Lelo
Konde et al. [124] discussed the solar power potential areas to develop • Technical aspects of the smart grids are discussed and reviewed to
solar photovoltaic power plants integrated with battery banks connected study the ways to improve the optimization of smart grids and

14
T. Kataray et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 58 (2023) 103363

Table 9 • Propose a novel risk assessment model which will cater away the
Policy recommendations. various limitations from the sustainable entrepreneurs’ point of
Country Policy/Measure Ref view.
• Most importantly, the collaborations between industries, univer­
China Removed coal and petroleum [120]
subsidies for energy generation. sities, and research institutions must be enhanced to develop and
Golden sun program: An off-grid PV implement the recent solar energy technologies and adequate fund­
system gets a 70% subsidy and an ing must be provided to develop cost-effective technologies for solar
on-grid PV system will get a 50% energy applications.
subsidy to form the government.
EU countries (Netherlands, Laying tax on environment-
• In-depth knowledge of the case studies of the separate facilities
Denmark, Germany, Finland, affecting activities such as using available needs to be carried out which will give us deep insights into
Sweden, Portugal and Austria) fossil fuels.In the different strategies to adopt the solar-based business models.
Sweden, taxes on CO2 gave rise to • Most importantly, an investigation has to be carried out based on the
the development of bioenergy, as
business models which operate in different countries and compare
energy generation from coal had
become expensive.In the same to have a sound knowledge of the technological advance­
Portugal, interest-free loans are ments happening in the PV market.
provided for setting up renewable • Studies can be done to know about the long-term reliability of the
energy generation. integrated system which will be useful to know about the long-term
Brazil Tax exemption on wind turbine [120]
components.
operation of the PV system along with their lifetime analysis and
Compulsory blend of some degradation performance.
percentage of biofuel in diesel and
usage of flex-fuel vehicles.
Auction System RE projects and
Declaration of Competing Interest
Brazilian National Development
Bank giving low-interest loans to
renewable energy projects which The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
lead to the rapid growth of wind interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
energy generation to 5300 MW in the work reported in this paper.
2013.
UK, France & Ireland Tendering and Bidding: Tenders are [121]
organised by public bodies for Data availability
quotas of RE supplies or supply
capacity, and successful bids are No data was used for the research described in the article.
rewarded at prices that are often
higher than the regular market
level. References

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