GROUP 3

Earth’s Movement - 3. Effect of Earth's Tilt: Earth's axis is

tilted relative to its orbital plane by
• The rotation of the Earth on its axis
about 23.5 degrees. This axial tilt,
is what causes day and night. The
combined with the Earth's orbit around
Earth takes approximately 24 hours
the Sun, results in variations in the
to complete one full rotation. As the
length of daylight throughout the year,
Earth rotates, different parts of it are
causing the changing seasons.
exposed to the Sun's light, creating
the cycle of day and night. When a - 4. Sunrise and Sunset: Locations on the
particular region is facing towards side of the Earth facing the Sun witness
the Sun, it experiences daylight, sunrise as they rotate into the sunlight.
while the opposite side experiences Conversely, areas rotating into the
darkness, resulting in night. This shadow of the Earth experience sunset.
rotation is consistent, giving us the
regular pattern of day and night. - 5. Equator and Poles: At the equator,
day and night are relatively equal
throughout the year. Near the poles,
Rotation of the Earth on its axis, causing there are periods of continuous daylight
day and night (summer) and continuous darkness
(winter) due to Earth's axial tilt.
The rotation of the Earth on its axis is
responsible for the occurrence of day and - 6. Consistency of Rotation: Earth's
night. rotation is remarkably consistent,
providing a reliable and predictable
- 1. Axial Rotation: Earth rotates from cycle of day and night. This rotation not
west to east on its imaginary axis, an only influences our daily lives but also
imaginary line passing through its North affects global climate patterns,
and South Poles. The time it takes for atmospheric circulation, and ocean
Earth to complete one full rotation is currents.
approximately 24 hours, defining a day.
- 2. Day and Night Cycle: As Earth
rotates, different parts of its surface are
exposed to sunlight while others are in
darkness. The side facing the Sun
experiences daylight, creating daytime.
The opposite side, in the shadow or
away from the Sun, experiences
darkness, leading to nighttime.
 Earth's orbit around the Sun and its climates. In contrast, areas closer to
impact on seasons the poles receive sunlight at a more
oblique angle, leading to colder
• Earth's orbit around the Sun is an
climates.
elliptical path that takes
approximately 365.25 days to Environmental Changes
complete, defining a year. The axis
• Environmental changes refer to
tilt of Earth is crucial to
alterations in the natural
understanding the changing seasons.
surroundings of an ecosystem or the
During different points in its orbit,
Earth as a whole. These changes can
different parts of Earth receive
encompass various factors, including
varying amounts of sunlight.
climate fluctuations, biodiversity
• When a hemisphere is tilted toward shifts, pollution levels, and
the Sun, it experiences summer, modifications in land use. Human
characterized by longer days and activities, such as deforestation,
more direct sunlight. Conversely, industrialization, and the burning of
when tilted away, it's winter, with fossil fuels, often contribute to
shorter days and less direct sunlight. significant environmental changes.
Spring and autumn occur during the
transitions between these extremes.
This axial tilt and orbital motion
combine to create the distinct
seasons we observe on Earth. Human impact on the
environment, including
Axial tilt and its significance in deforestation, pollution, and
shaping climates climate change.
The axial tilt of the Earth plays a - Human impact on the environment is
crucial role in shaping climates profound, with activities like
around the world. The Earth's axis is deforestation, pollution, and climate
tilted at an angle of approximately change causing significant
23.5 degrees relative to its orbital consequences. Deforestation, driven
plane. This tilt causes the amount of by agriculture and logging, disrupts
sunlight received by different parts ecosystems, reduces biodiversity,
of the Earth to vary throughout the and contributes to habitat loss.
Pollution, from industrial,
year, resulting in the different
agricultural, and urban sources,
seasons we experience. contaminates air, water, and soil.
• The axial tilt affects the intensity and - This pollution harms wildlife,
distribution of sunlight, which in turn ecosystems, and human health.
influences temperature and weather Climate change, largely fueled by the
patterns. Regions near the equator, burning of fossil fuels, results in
rising global temperatures, sea-level
which receive more direct sunlight
changes, and extreme weather
year-round, tend to have warmer events.
 - Addressing these issues requires Earth's Place in the Solar System
collective efforts, sustainable
practices, and a commitment to • Earth's place in the solar system is
environmental conservation to both fascinating and significant. Our
ensure a healthier and more planet is the third planet from the
sustainable future. Sun and is located in the inner part of
the solar system, known as the
"Goldilocks zone." This means that
Efforts to address environmental Earth is situated at just the right
challenges include a range of sustainable distance from the Sun to have
practices and conservation initiatives conditions suitable for life as we
1. Renewable Energy Transition: know it.
Promoting and investing in renewable The Earth's position in the solar
energy sources, like solar and wind power, system and its relationship with the
helps reduce reliance on fossil fuels, Sun and Moon
mitigating climate change.
• The Sun is at the center of our solar
2. Reforestation and Conservation: system and plays a central role in
Initiatives focused on planting trees and Earth's climate and energy balance.
protecting existing forests contribute to Sunlight provides the energy for life
biodiversity conservation, carbon and drives Earth's weather patterns
sequestration, and ecosystem health. and seasons.
3. Waste Reduction and Recycling: • The Moon, Earth's natural satellite,
Implementing effective waste management orbits our planet. Its gravitational
strategies, emphasizing recycling and influence contributes to tides,
reducing single-use plastics, helps minimize affecting Earth's oceans. The Moon
environmental pollution. also plays a role in stabilizing Earth's
4. Environmental Education: Raising axial tilt, which is crucial for
awareness and promoting environmental maintaining relatively stable climate
education fosters a greater understanding of conditions over long periods.
ecological issues and encourages responsible Explore how gravitational forces from
behavior. the Sun and Moon influence tides on
5. Conservation Reserves and Protected Earth
Areas: Establishing and maintaining • Gravitational forces from both the
protected areas helps preserve critical Sun and the Moon significantly
habitats and biodiversity, safeguarding influence the tides on Earth through
ecosystems from human encroachment. a phenomenon called tidal forces.
These efforts collectively aim to create a While the Sun is much larger and
more sustainable and resilient relationship more massive than the Moon, the
between humans and the environment. Moon's proximity to Earth results in
a stronger gravitational effect on
tides.
• The gravitational force exerted by 1. First Artificial Satellite (1957):
the Moon creates two tidal bulges on
-The Soviet Union launched Sputnik
Earth—one facing the Moon and
1, marking the beginning of the
another on the opposite side due to
space age. This satellite orbited
the centrifugal force generated by
Earth, providing crucial data about
Earth's rotation. These are known as
the atmosphere and space.
the high tides. On the sides
perpendicular to these bulges, we 2. International Geophysical Year (1957-
experience low tides. 1958):
• The Sun also exerts a gravitational - The launch of multiple scientific
force on Earth, contributing to tidal satellites during this collaborative effort
patterns. When the Sun, Earth, and laid the groundwork for understanding
Moon align during the full moon and Earth's
new moon phases, the solar tide
reinforces the lunar tide, resulting in magnetic field, radiation belts, and
higher high tides and lower low atmosphere.
tides, known as spring tides. 3. First Human in Space (1961):
Space Exploration - Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut, became
• Space exploration involves the use of the first human to orbit Earth, contributing
astronomy and space technology to to our understanding of the effects of space
explore outer space. It includes both travel on the human body.
manned and unmanned missions to 4. Earth Observation Satellites (1970s-
study celestial bodies, gather 1980s)
scientific data, and expand our
understanding of the universe. - : Launches of satellites like Landsat and
NOAA weather satellites revolutionized
The key milestones in space Earth observation, providing valuable data
exploration related to Earth for climate monitoring, disaster
1. First Artificial Satellite (1957) management, and environmental studies.

2. International Geophysical Year 5. Global Positioning System (GPS)

(1957-1958) (1970s-1980s):

3. First Human in Space (1961) - The deployment of GPS satellites

revolutionized navigation and precise
4. Earth Observation Satellites (1970s- positioning on Earth, impacting various
1980s) industries and daily life.
5. Global Positioning System (GPS) The Global Positioning System (GPS)
(1970s-1980s) consists of three main segments:
6. Earth Observing System (EOS) 1. Space Segment: This includes the GPS
(1990s) satellites orbiting the Earth, which transmit
signals used by GPS receivers to determine
their location. There are typically 24 The importance of studying Earth
satellites in orbit, providing global coverage.
1. Holistic View: Satellites provide a
2. Control Segment: The Control Segment holistic view of Earth, capturing data
consists of ground stations that track and simultaneously from various regions and
monitor the GPS satellites, ensuring they are perspectives. This allows scientists to study
functioning correctly and their orbits are interconnected systems, such as the
accurate. These ground stations also upload atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice, providing
data to the satellites to keep their navigation a more complete understanding of global
messages updated. dynamics.
3. User Segment: This refers to the GPS 2. Climate Monitoring: Space-based
receivers used by individuals, vehicles, and observations enable continuous monitoring
devices to receive signals from the satellites of Earth's climate. This includes tracking
and calculate their precise position, velocity, temperature changes, sea level rise, melting
and time. These receivers interpret the ice caps, and shifts in weather patterns,
signals from multiple satellites to determine contributing to a better understanding of
the user's location on Earth. climate change and its impacts.
3. Natural Disaster Management: Earth
observation satellites aid in monitoring and
6. Earth Observing System (EOS)
predicting natural disasters, such as
(1990s):
hurricanes, earthquakes, and wildfires. This
NASA's (National Aeronautics and information is crucial for disaster
Space Administration) EOS program, preparedness, response, and mitigation.
including satellites like Terra and Aqua,
focused on comprehensive Earth
observation, studying climate,
atmospheric composition, and land
Conservation and Stewardship
surface changes.
• Conservation: Conservation
The importance of studying Earth
involves the careful management and
from space to understand global
protection of natural resources to
patterns and changes
prevent their depletion, degradation,
• Studying Earth from space is or extinction.
essential for understanding global
• Stewardship: Stewardship is the
patterns and changes, offering a
responsible and ethical management
unique and comprehensive
of resources, emphasizing the duty to
perspective on our planet.
protect and preserve them for current
and future generations.
 The importance of environmental • Additionally, practicing waste
conservation and sustainable practices reduction and recycling can help
minimize the amount of waste that
• The importance of environmental
goes into landfills. Supporting
conservation and sustainable
sustainable agriculture and
practices cannot be overstated. It is
purchasing local and organic
crucial for the well-being of both
products is another way to
current and future generations.
contribute, as it reduces the carbon
Environmental sustainability is the
emissions associated with long
key to reversing climate change and
transportation distances. Lastly,
preventing potential climatic
raising awareness about
disasters. By living in harmony with
environmental issues and advocating
nature and adopting sustainable
for policies that promote
practices, we can ensure the
sustainability can have a significant
preservation of our planet and its
impact.
resources.
• By actively participating in
environmental conservation and
adopting sustainable practices, we
can mitigate the negative impacts of
human activities on the environment.
This includes reducing greenhouse
gas emissions, preventing
deforestation, promoting recycling
and waste reduction, and supporting
sustainable agriculture and fishing
practices.
How individuals and communities can
contribute to preserving the Earth for
future generations
• Individuals and communities can
contribute to preserving the Earth for
future generations in several ways.
One important step is to reduce our
carbon footprint by conserving
energy and using renewable sources
whenever possible. This can be done
by using energy-efficient appliances,
turning off lights when not in use,
and opting for public transportation
or carpooling.
 GROUP 2
THE EARTH- MOON- SUN SYSTEM THE ALIGNMENT OF THE
EARTH,MOON AND SUN THAT
THE SUN
LEADS TO ECLIPSE
The sun is the source of an enormous
amount of energy, a portion of which
provides Earth with the light and heat What is an eclipse?
necessary to support life. It is part of the
an eclipse occurs when one heavenly
Observable universe , the region of space
body such as moon or planet moves into the
that humans can actually or theoritically
shadow of another heavenly body.
observe with the aid of technology. It is the
closest star to earth, located at the center of
our solar system, about 93miles away.
TWO TYPES OF ECLIPSE

THE MOON
SOLAR ECLIPSE
Is the earth’s most constant
companion and the easiest celestial object to
find in the night sky. its the satellite of the A Solar eclipse occur when the moon
earth. The moon is bit more than 1/4 (27%) passes between the sun and earth, blocking
the size of Earth. This means moon has a all part of the sun’s light.
great effect on our planet and may even be a
major factor in making life on earth Types of solar eclipse
possible. 1. Total solar eclipse- during this eclipse,
the sun is completely obscured by the moon.

THE EARTH 2. Partial solar eclipse- only part of the sun

is covered
Earth, our home planet, is a world
unlike any other. 3. Annular solar eclipse- happens when the
moon is too far from Earth to completely
the third planet from the sun. Earth is the cover the sun, creating a ring of sunlight
only planet in the known universe to host around the moon.
life. It is the fifth largest planet in our solar
system, and it’s the only one known for sure
to have liquid water on its surface. Earth LUNAR ECLIPSE
orbits the sun every 365.25 days .
A lunar eclipse happens when Earth
It rotates on its axis every 23.9 hours, comes between the sun and moon, casting
defining day and night for surface dwellers. it’s shadow on the moon. this occurs during
This axis of rotation is tilted 23.4 degrees a full moon when the sun, earth, and moon
away from the plane of earth’s orbit around are aligned.
the sun, giving us seasons.
 THREE TYPES Of LUNAR ECLIPSE IMPACTS OF MOON ON EARTH’S
HABITALITY

1. Total lunar eclipse- during this eclipse Throughout this long history, the Moon has
the Earth’s shadow completely covers the been Earth's companion in space. They
moon, giving it’s reddish hue, often to as a shaped each other through the invisible
“blood moon” connection of their gravitational pull. The
Moon's gravitational pull is relatively weak
2. Partial lunar eclipse- in this eclipse only compared to Earth's. (Apollo astronauts
part of the moon passess through the Earth’s were able to leap across the lunar
shadow. surface because of this weaker pull.) Yet,
the Moon's gravitational pull is responsible
3. Penumbral lunar eclipse- in this eclipse for Earth's current length of day, stable
the moon passes through the outer part of seasons, and tides.
the earth’s shadow resulting in a subtle
darkening. Length of Day – Early Earth was spinning
at a much faster rate: according to computer
models, Earth had a six-hour day 4.5 billion
TIDAL FORCES years ago! Since then, with the help of our
Moon, Earth has been slowing down and our
EXPLORE HOW GRAVITATIONAL days have been getting longer.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE EARTH
AND THE MOON CAUSES TIDES , Over time, the Moon's gravitational pull on
AFFECTING OCEANIC MOVEMENTS. the Earth "stole" some of Earth's spin
energy, launching the Moon slowly into
higher and higher orbits. [The Apollo laser
Tidal force is the difference in gravity from experiments confirmed that the Moon is
one side of a body to the other that is moving away at the rate of two inches (five
excerted by a 2nd object. centimeters) per year.] The distance between
Earth and Moon increased and the spins of
TIDES both decreased. Today, Earth spins once
every 24 hours.
The moon excerts a tidal force on
Earth that causes the oceans facing the Today’s more distant Moon takes
Moon to bulge out towards it, and the over 27 days to complete one full orbit
oceanson the opposite side of the Earth to around Earth. Just like Earth, our Moon
bulge out away from the Moon. These rotates on its own axis and experiences
varying ocean levals are called Tides. daylight and dark cycles. Our Moon's day
and night cycles are longer than Earth's —
As Earth rotates , the moon’s gravity the Moon spins on its axis once every 27.3
pulls on different parts of our planet . even days. The Moon takes the same amount of
though the moon only has about1/1000th us, time to spin around once as it does to orbit
it has enough gravity to move things around. completely around Earth. This means that
Earth observers always see the same side of
the Moon (the nearside). The side we do not
see from Earth (the farside) has been
mapped during lunar missions.

Stable Seasons – The giant impact that

formed the Moon may have tipped the Earth 2 TYPES OF TIDE
a little and contributed to the 23.5° tilt of our
North Pole away from "straight up." This tilt 1. SPRING TIDE
gives us our seasons. - Occur during the full moon,
new moon phases with the
The very presence of the Moon helps sun, moon, and earth align,
to keep this tilt relatively stable The Moon's creating maximum
gravitational pull acts like training wheels gravitational pull.
for Earth on its journey around the Sun. It - These tides result in higher
keeps Earth’s axis pointed at a consistent high tides and lower low
angle. Without the Moon, the Earth's stately tides, leading to greater tidal
progression through spring, summer, fall, range.
and winter would have fluctuated widely 2. NEAP TIDE
over eons. -Neap tides occur during the first and
third quarter moon phases when the
Tides – The Moon's gravitational pull tugs Sun, Moon, and Earth form a right
on Earth — especially the portion that is angle.
nearest to the Moon. Earth's crust rises
slightly (several centimeters) due to this -The gravitational pull of the Sun
force. Ponds and lakes — such as the Great partially cancels out the gravitational
Lakes — experience small tides, as well. pull of the Moon, resulting in weaker
Earth's oceans (and atmosphere), however, tides.
are free to lift many feet in response this tug.
As the Moon orbits the Earth, it drags along MOON LANDINGS: HISTORICAL
behind it a "bulge" in the oceans. On the HUMAN MISSIONS TO THE MOON
side of Earth opposite the Moon, the AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN
gravitational pull is less than on any other SPACE EXPLORATION
part of the Earth and the oceans are "left
behind" in another bulge.

The Moon's contribution to Earth's tides is What is moon landings

significant because it is so close. The Sun, of Moon landings refer to the series of
course, also exerts a powerful gravitational missions in which spacecraft successfully
pull on Earth — that's what keeps Earth in a landed on the moon's surface. The most
steady orbit. Earth's oceans are pulled
famous of these missions are the apollo
toward the Sun, but the difference between
missions conducted by NASA in the late
Sun's gravitational pull on Earth’s near side
and far side is much less; the Sun’s gravity 1960s and early 1970s. The first successful
contributes only about a third of the tides’ manned mission to the moon was apollo 11,
height. which landed on july 20, 1969. The crew of
apollo 11, consisting of neil armstrong, buzz
aldrin, and michael collins, made history by
becoming the first humans to set foot on the 1. Apollo 11 (July 20, 1969): The first
moon. successful manned mission to land on the
Moon, with astronauts Neil Armstrong and
Buzz Aldrin becoming the first humans to
The Apollo program consisted of a walk on the lunar surface.
total of six manned missions that landed on
the Moon between 1969 and 1972. Each
mission had a different set of scientific 2. Apollo 12 (November 19, 1969): The
objectives, and the astronauts conducted second successful manned mission to land
various experiments and collected samples on the Moon, with astronauts Charles
of lunar rocks and soil to bring back to Earth Conrad and Alan Bean conducting scientific
for analysis. experiments and exploring the lunar surface.
The success of the Apollo missions
marked a significant milestone in human
3. Apollo 14 (February 5, 1971): The third
exploration and space travel, demonstrating
successful manned mission to land on the
the capability of humans to travel beyond
Moon, with astronauts Alan Shepard and
Earth and land on another celestial body.
Edgar Mitchell conducting scientific
The Moon landings also provided valuable
experiments and exploring the lunar surface.
scientific data that helped advance our
understanding of the Moon and the solar
system.
Apollo program consisted of a total of six
manned missions: 4. Apollo 15 (July 30, 1971): The fourth
successful manned mission to land on the
The Apollo program was a series of Moon, with astronauts David Scott and
missions conducted by NASA, the United James Irwin conducting scientific
States space agency, with the goal of landing experiments and exploring the lunar surface
humans on the Moon and returning them using the Lunar Roving Vehicle.
safely to Earth. The program began in 1961
and concluded in 1972. It consisted of a total
of 17 missions, including both manned and 5. Apollo 16 (April 21, 1972): The fifth
unmanned missions. successful manned mission to land on the
The manned missions, known as the Apollo Moon, with astronauts John Young and
missions, were numbered from Apollo 7 to Charles Duke conducting scientific
Apollo 17. There were a total of six experiments and exploring the lunar surface
manned missions that successfully landed using the Lunar Roving Vehicle.
on the Moon.
These missions were:

6. Apollo 17 (December 7, 1972): The sixth

and final successful manned mission to land
on the Moon, with astronauts Eugene
Cernan and Harrison Schmitt conducting crewed missions to the lunar surface. This
scientific experiments and exploring the international collaboration will provide a
lunar surface using the Lunar Roving platform for conducting scientific research,
Vehicle. testing technologies, and preparing for
future human exploration missions.
3. Commercial lunar landers: Several
In addition to the manned missions,
private companies, such as SpaceX, Blue
the Apollo program also included several
Origin, and Astrobotic, are developing lunar
unmanned missions, such as the Apollo 1
lander systems to transport astronauts and
mission, which ended in a tragic accident
cargo to the moon. These commercial
during a pre-launch test, and the Apollo 13
partnerships aim to reduce costs and
mission, which was intended to land on the
accelerate the pace of lunar exploration,
Moon but was aborted due to an onboard
potentially paving the way for sustainable
explosion.
human settlements on the moon.
4. Lunar resource utilization: Future moon
FUTURE EXPLORATION: PLANS missions will focus on extracting and
FOR FUTURE MOON MISSIONS AND utilizing resources available on the lunar
THE POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN surface, such as water ice, for life support,
SETTLEMENT fuel production, and construction purposes.
This capability will be essential for
There are several planned future establishing long-term human presence on
moon missions that aim to continue the moon and enabling missions to Mars and
exploring the lunar surface and lay the other destinations in the solar system.
groundwork for potential human settlement.
Some of the key upcoming missions include:
1. Artemis program (NASA): In conclusion, future moon missions
NASA's Artemis program aims to return and plans for human settlement represent the
humans to the moon by 2024, including the next chapter in human space exploration,
first woman and the next man to walk on the building on the legacy of past missions
lunar surface. This program will leverage while opening up new opportunities for
the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and scientific discovery and exploration. By
the Orion spacecraft to transport astronauts leveraging international partnerships,
to the moon's vicinity. Artemis also plans to commercial innovation, and cutting-edge
establish the Gateway, a lunar orbiting technologies, we are poised to unlock the
outpost that will serve as a staging point for potential of the moon as a stepping stone for
crewed missions to the moon and beyond. future crewed missions to Mars and beyond.

2. Lunar Gateway (International Space

Station partner countries): The Lunar
Gateway is a planned space station that will
orbit the moon and serve as a hub for
 This zone is next to the radiation zone, and it
forms 30% of the Sun. In this zone, the
temperature is about 2,000,000 degrees
centigrade. Energy produced in the core
region moves through this zone by the
GROUP 5 process of convection. Convection is the
TOURING THE SOLAR SYSTEM transfer of heat energy by the movement of
matter. Around the convection zone is the
THE SUN Sun’s atmosphere. Sun’s atmosphere refers
The Sun is the star at the to the uppermost portion of the solar gases.
heart/central star of our solar system. It This portion has 3 layers, namely –
provides light and energy to all its planets. photosphere, chromosphere, and corona
Its gravity holds the solar system together, PHOTOSPHERE
keeping everything from the biggest planets
to the smallest bits of debris - in its orbits. It is the innermost layer of the Sun’s
atmosphere. The meaning of the
COMPOSITION OF SUN photosphere is ‘sphere of light.’ The
Approximately 75% of the Sun’s photosphere is made of gases that come
mass consists of hydrogen. Hydrogen and from the convection zone. The temperature
helium together make up 99% of the Sun’s of this photosphere is around 6000°C. Much
mass. The Sun’s spectrum shows that it of the energy given out from this sphere is in
comprises trace amounts of other chemical the form of visible light. The dark spots are
elements. cool areas with temperatures of 3800°C and
are called sunspots.
VARIOUS PARTS OF THE SUN
CHROMOSPHERE
THE CORE
A chromosphere, or color sphere, is a thin
It is the center part of the Sun. It consists of layer of gases that glow with light reddish
25% of the Sun’s total diameter of color given off by hydrogen. The
1,390,000 km. The temperature of the core temperature of the chromosphere ranges
is 15,000,000 °C. The core is made up of from 6000°C to 50,000°C.
ionized gas. The most common reaction that
occurs inside the Sun is the fusion of CORONA
hydrogen into helium. It is the outermost layer of the Sun’s
THE RADIATION ZONE atmosphere. It is also called a crown.
Corona, or crown, is a large area of gas with
It is the surrounding zone of the core. Here a temperature above 1,000,000°C. Corona’s
the temperature ranges from 2,000,000°C to magnetic field can stop the escape of many
7,00,000°C. In this zone, the energy moves sub-atomic particles into space.
outside in the form of electromagnetic
radiation or electromagnetic waves. FUSION PROCESSES OF THE SUN

THE CONVECTION ZONE - 1. Proton-Proton Chain

- The primary fusion process in the core The inner planets, or terrestrial planets,
of the Sun is the proton-proton chain are the four planets closest to the Sun:
reaction. This process involves the Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
following steps: Figure below shows the relative sizes of
these four inner planets.
a. Step 1 - Proton-Proton Fusion: Two
protons (hydrogen nuclei) fuse to form MERCURY
deuterium (a heavier isotope of hydrogen), a
Of the inner planets, Mercury is the
positron, and a neutrino.
closest to our Sun and the smallest of the
b. Step 2 - Deuterium Fusion: A deuterium terrestrial planets. This small planet
nucleus fuses with another proton to form looks very much like the Earth’s Moon
helium-3. and is even a similar grayish color, and it
even has many deep craters and is
c. Step 3 - Helium-3 Fusion: Two helium-
covered by a thin layer of tiny particle
3 nuclei combine to produce helium-4
silicates.
(standard helium) and two protons.
- Its magnetic field is only about 1
2. Helium Capturing percent that of Earth’s, and it’s
In addition to the proton-proton chain, very thin atmosphere means that
the Sun also undergoes a process called it is hot during the day (up to
the CNO cycle (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen 430°C) and freezing at night (as
low as -187 °C) because the
cycle) in which carbon, nitrogen, and
atmosphere can neither keep heat
oxygen isotopes act as catalysts to
in or out. It has no moons of its
convert hydrogen into helium. This own and is comprised mostly of
process is more dominant in stars more iron and nickel. Mercury is one
massive than the Sun of the densest planets in the Solar
System.
3. Energy Release
VENUS
During these fusion processes, the mass
- Venus, which is about the same size as
of the resulting helium nucleus is
Earth, has a thick toxic atmosphere that
slightly less than the mass of the original
traps heat, making it the hottest planet in
hydrogen nuclei. This mass difference is
the Solar System. This atmosphere is
converted into energy following
composed of 96% carbon dioxide, along
Einstein's famous equation, E=mc^2,
with nitrogen and a few other gases.
where E is energy, m is mass, and c is
Dense clouds within Venus’ atmosphere
the speed of light. This energy is what
are composed of sulphuric acid and other
powers the Sun and sustains all life on
corrosive compounds, with very litter
Earth.
water.
THE INNER PLANETS
- Only two spacecraft have ever
(TERRESTRIAL PLANETS) penetrated Venus’s thick atmosphere,
but it’s not just man-made objects that
have trouble getting through. There are
 fewer crater impacts on Venus than other rises some 21,229 m (69,649 ft) above
planets because all but the largest the surface, and a giant canyon called
meteors don’t make it through the thick Valles Marineris. Valles Marineris is
air without disintegrating. Much of 4000 km (2500 mi) long and reaches
Venus’ surface is marked with volcanoes depths of up to 7 km (4 mi)!
and deep canyons — the biggest of
- Mars is less dense than Earth and has a
which is over 6400 km (4,000 mi) long.
smaller magnetic field, which is
- Venus is often called the “morning star” indicative of a solid core, rather than a
because, with the exception of Earth’s liquid one. Mars’ thin atmosphere has
moon, it’s the brightest object we see in led some astronomers to believe that the
the sky. Like Mercury, Venus has no surface water that once existed there
moon of its own. might have actually taken liquid form,
but has since evaporated into space. The
EARTH
planet has two small moons called
- Earth is the third inner planet and the Phobos and Deimos.
one we know best. Of the four terrestrial
UNIQUE FEATURE OF EACH
planets, Earth is the largest, and the only
PLANETS
one that currently has liquid water,
which is necessary for life as we know - UNIQUE FEATURES OF MERCURY
it. Earth’s atmosphere protects the planet
- 1. Closest to the Sun: Mercury is the
from dangerous radiation and helps keep
closest planet to the Sun, with an
valuable sunlight and warmth in, which
average distance of about 57.9 million
is also essential for life to survive.
kilometers (36 million miles). This
- Like the other terrestrial planets, Earth proximity results in extreme
has a rocky surface with mountains and temperatures, with surface temperatures
canyons, and a heavy metal core. Earth’s ranging from about -173°C (-280°F) to
atmosphere contains water vapor, which 427°C (801°F).
helps to moderate daily temperatures.
- 2. Small and Dense: Mercury is the
Like Mercury, the Earth has an internal
smallest planet in our solar system, with
magnetic field. And our Moon, the only
a diameter of about 4,879 kilometers
one we have, is comprised of a mixture
(3,032 miles). Despite its small size, it is
of various rocks and minerals.
one of the densest planets, with a
MARS composition primarily consisting of iron
and nickel.
- Mars is the fourth and final inner planet,
and also known as the “Red Planet” due - 3. Slow Rotation: Mercury has a slow
to the rust of iron-rich materials that rotation compared to other planets. It
form the planet’s surface. Mars also has takes approximately 59 Earth days for
some of the most interesting terrain Mercury to complete one rotation on
features of any of the terrestrial planets. its axis. Additionally, it has a unique
These include the largest mountain in the "resonance" rotation, where it rotates
Solar System – Olympus Mons – which three times for every two orbits
 around the Sun, resulting in a day on
Mercury lasting about 176 Earth days.
- 4. Lack of Atmosphere: Unlike many
other planets, Mercury has a very thin
and tenuous atmosphere. It doesn't UNIQUE FEATURES OF VENUS
have a significant atmosphere to THICK ATMOSPHERE
retain heat or protect it from the
Sun's radiation. This lack of
atmosphere also contributes to - 2. Carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere:
extreme temperature variations Venus' atmosphere is composed
between the planet's day and night primarily of carbon dioxide (about
sides 96.5%), with small amounts of
nitrogen and traces of other gases.
- 5. Scarred Surface: Mercury's surface
This high concentration of carbon
is marked by numerous impact
dioxide creates a strong greenhouse
craters, similar to the Moon. These
effect, trapping heat and leading to
craters are a result of the planet's
extreme surface temperatures on
proximity to the Sun, which makes it
Venus.
susceptible to collisions with asteroids
and comets. Some of the largest - 3. Sulfuric acid clouds: Venus'
impact basins on Mercury are Caloris atmosphere contains thick clouds of
Basin and Rembrandt Basin. sulfuric acid droplets that completely
enshroud the planet. These clouds
- 6. Unusual Magnetic Field: Mercury
reflect sunlight, contributing to
has a unique magnetic field. It is much
Venus' high albedo (reflectivity) and
weaker compared to Earth's magnetic
making the planet appear bright in
field but has a higher intensity in
the sky.
certain regions. The interaction
between the planet's magnetic field - 4. Super-rotating atmosphere: Venus'
and the solar wind creates a atmosphere rotates much faster than
"magnetosphere," which helps protect the planet itself, with winds reaching
Mercury's surface from the Sun's speeds of up to 360 kilometers per
charged particles. hour (225 miles per hour) in the upper
atmosphere. This super-rotation
- 1. Dense atmosphere: Venus has an
phenomenon results in a complex and
atmosphere that is about 90 times
dynamic atmospheric circulation
denser than Earth's atmosphere at the
pattern on Venus.
surface. The atmospheric pressure at
the surface of Venus is about 92 times - 5. Absence of a magnetic field: Unlike
that of Earth's sea level pressure, Earth, Venus does not have a global
which is equivalent to the pressure magnetic field to protect its
found 900 meters (3,000 feet) atmosphere from the solar wind. As a
underwater on Earth. result, the solar wind can strip away
lighter elements in Venus' upper
 atmosphere, contributing to the relatively stable and habitable climate
planet's lack of water and other on Earth.
volatile compounds.
- 4. Nitrogen-rich atmosphere: Earth's
- 6. Atmospheric composition atmosphere is composed mostly of
variations: Venus' atmosphere nitrogen (about 78%), which is
exhibits variations in composition at essential for the growth of plants and
different altitudes, with different other organisms. Nitrogen is a key
layers containing different component of proteins and nucleic
concentrations of gases and aerosols. acids, making it vital for all living
These composition variations organisms.
contribute to the unique atmospheric
- 5. Weather systems: Earth's
dynamics and chemistry of Venus.
atmosphere supports complex weather
systems that include phenomena such
as clouds, precipitation, and storms.
- UNIQUE FEATURES OF EARTH'S
These weather patterns play a crucial
ATMOSPHERE
role in distributing heat and moisture
- around the planet, shaping Earth's
climate and influencing life on Earth.
- 1. Oxygen-rich atmosphere: Earth's
atmosphere contains about 21% - 6. Ionosphere: Earth's atmosphere
oxygen, which is essential for the contains the ionosphere, a region of
respiration of many organisms, charged particles in the upper
including humans. This abundance of atmosphere that plays a key role in
oxygen sets Earth apart from other the propagation of radio waves and
planets in our solar system. the formation of the auroras
(Northern and Southern Lights).
- 2. Ozone layer: Earth's atmosphere
contains a layer of ozone in the - UNIQUE FEATURES OF MARS
stratosphere that helps protect life on CANYONS
Earth by absorbing the majority of
1. Valles Marineris
the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. This ozone layer shields - Valles Marineris is one of the largest
organisms from the harmful effects of canyons in the solar system, located on
excessive UV radiation. Mars. It stretches over 4,000 kilometers
(2,500 miles) long, up to 600 kilometers
- 3. Greenhouse gases: Earth's
(370 miles) wide, and reaches depths of
atmosphere contains greenhouse gases
up to 7 kilometers (4.3 miles). Valles
such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
Marineris is much larger and deeper than
methane (CH4), and water vapor that
the Grand Canyon on Earth.
help regulate the planet's temperature
by trapping heat. This greenhouse 2. Noachis Terra
effect is crucial for maintaining the
- Noachis Terra, one of the oldest and insights into the planet's unique geology
most enigmatic regions on Mars, has and surface processes.
captivated scientists for decades due to
its striking geological features, possible
indications of ancient water activity, and
its immeasurable significance in helping
us understand the evolutionary history of
the Red Planet.
3. Candor Chasma ASTEROID BELT
- Candor Chasma is a large canyon within What is the asteroid belt?
the Valles Marineris system,
characterized by steep walls and intricate - The asteroid belt is a region of space
landforms. It is one of the most visually between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
striking canyons on Mars. where most of the asteroids in our Solar
System are found orbiting the Sun. The
4. Ophir Chasma asteroid belt probably contains millions
of asteroid, the asteroids in the asteroid
- Ophir Chasma is another prominent
belt come in a variety of sizes. Some are
feature within the Valles Marineris
very small (less than a mile across),
canyon system. It is known for its
while others are quite large. The largest
rugged terrain and unique geological
asteroid is called Ceres. It is about one-
formations, including layered rock
quarter the size of our moon. It is a
formations that provide clues about the
dwarf planet.
planet's past.
5. Evidence of ancient water flow
ROLE OF ASTEROID BELT
- Many of the canyons on Mars show
evidence of ancient water flow, - 1. Formation of Planets: The early solar
suggesting that liquid water may have system was a chaotic place with many
once flowed on the surface of the planet. small rocky planetesimals colliding and
The erosion patterns and sediment merging to form larger bodies. The
deposits in these canyons provide presence of the asteroid belt helped in
valuable information about Mars' past clearing out some of the debris, allowing
climate and geology. the planets to form without as much
interference.
6. Potential for future exploration
- 2. Jupiter's Influence: The gravitational
- Mars' canyons offer intriguing
influence of Jupiter is believed to have
opportunities for future exploration and
prevented the formation of a planet in
scientific study. They provide clues
the region where the asteroid belt is
about the planet's geological history,
located. Jupiter's strong gravitational
potential for past habitability, and
pull disrupted the accretion process of
planetesimals in this region, leading to
 the formation of the asteroid belt instead
of a large planet.

SATURN
3. Source of Meteorites: Asteroids in the
- Saturn is famous for its stunning ring
belt are remnants from the early solar
system, which is composed of ice
system, containing valuable information
particles and rocky debris. These rings
about the conditions and processes that were
are made up of numerous smaller
present during planet formation. Studying
ringlets and are one of the most
meteorites that have originated from the
distinctive features of the planet. Saturn
asteroid belt can provide insights into the
is also known for its hexagonal-shaped
composition and history of our solar system.
jet stream at its north pole. Like Jupiter,
4. Impact Events: Occasionally, asteroids Saturn has numerous moons, with its
from the belt can get knocked out of their largest moon, Titan, being of particular
orbit and collide with other bodies in the interest due to its thick atmosphere and
solar system, including planets. These surface features.
impact events have had significant
URANUS
consequences, such as shaping planetary
surfaces and potentially causing mass - Uranus is unique among the gas giants
extinctions on Earth. because it rotates on its side, with its
THE GAS GIANTS axis almost parallel to its orbital plane. It
has a pale blue-green appearance due to
(OUTER PLANETS) the presence of methane in its
atmosphere, which absorbs red light.
JUPITER
Uranus has a faint ring system and a
- Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar diverse array of moons, with its largest
system and is known for its immense moons being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel,
size and strong magnetic field. It has a Ariel, and Miranda.
banded appearance caused by its
NEPTUNE
turbulent atmosphere, with prominent
features such as the Great Red Spot, a - Neptune is similar in size and
massive storm that has been raging for composition to Uranus and is often
centuries. Jupiter also has a large referred to as an "ice giant." It has a deep
number of moons, including the four blue coloration due to the presence of
largest known as the Galilean moons: Io, methane in its atmosphere. Neptune is
Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. known for its dynamic atmosphere,
 featuring high-speed winds and large - The Oort Cloud is much less well-
storms, such as the Great Dark Spot understood than the Kuiper Belt because
(similar to Jupiter's Great Red Spot). it is so far away and faint. It's believed to
Neptune also has a system of rings and a contain billions or even trillions of
collection of moons, with Triton being cometary nuclei - icy objects that can
its largest moon and notable for its become comets when disturbed by the
retrograde orbit. gravitational pull of a passing star or
another object
The Great Pluto Demotion: (A
DWARF PLANETS AND SMALL
Reclassification Story)
BODIES
- Pluto's fall from grace from planet to
- Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that
dwarf planet in 2006 was a major event
meet most of the criteria for planethood
in astronomy. It wasn't just about Pluto;
but haven't cleared the neighborhood
it was about how we define what a
around their orbit. They are spherical in
planet actually is.
shape due to their own gravity, but they
haven't been able to gravitationally - For most of the 20th century, Pluto
dominate their orbital region. Some reigned supreme as the ninth planet.
dwarf planets like Pluto reside in the
Kuiper Belt, while Eris, the most - However, in the 1990s, astronomers
massive dwarf planet, is found in the began discovering other icy objects in
scattered disc, a region beyond the the Kuiper Belt, some of which were
Kuiper Belt. comparable in size to Pluto.

KUIPER BELT ( A Realm of Icy Objects) - In 2006, the International Astronomical

Union (IAU) stepped in to create a new
- The Kuiper Belt is a circumstellar disc in category: dwarf planet. To be classified
the outermost region of the solar system. as a planet, an object had to meet three
It's a ring-shaped reservoir of icy objects criteria:
and is sometimes referred to as the
"Kuiper disk" or "Kuiper region". It's 1. Be in orbit around the Sun.
filled with millions of icy objects, 2. Be massive enough to be nearly round
leftover debris from the solar system's due to its own gravity (hydrostatic
formation. equilibrium).
OORT CLOUD 3. Have "cleared the neighborhood"
- The Oort Cloud is a much more distant around its orbit. This means its gravity is
and theoretical reservoir of icy objects. dominant in its orbital path, with no
Unlike the Kuiper Belt, which lies other objects of comparable size sharing
within the plane of the solar system, the the space.
Oort Cloud is a giant, spherical shell that - Pluto failed the third criterion. Its orbit
extends far beyond the Kuiper Belt, out overlaps with Neptune's, and it shares
to a distance of roughly 2 light-years. the Kuiper Belt with many other objects.
 So, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf - Our solar system is filled with
planet, along with Eris, Haumea, and fascinating moons, each with unique
Makemake. characteristics that shed light on the
formation and evolution of our celestial
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING THE
neighborhood.
DISTANT OBJECTS
- Earth's Moon
Understanding the Solar System's
Formation - Our constant companion, Earth's Moon
- These icy leftovers from the solar is a relatively small, airless world with a
heavily cratered surface. It is tidally
system's birth hold clues to how our
locked with Earth, meaning the same
solar system formed and evolved. Their
side always faces us. This explains why
composition and distribution can tell us
we only ever see one face of the Moon
about the conditions in the early solar
from Earth.
system.
Unlocking the Secrets of Comets - The Moon is thought to have formed
from a giant impact early in Earth's
- The icy bodies in the Kuiper Belt and history. Studies of Moon rocks have
Oort Cloud are thought to be the source provided valuable insights into the
of comets. Studying them helps us composition of the early Earth and the
understand the composition of comets bombardment history of the inner solar
and the potential hazards they pose to system. The Moon plays a crucial role in
Earth. stabilizing Earth's axis, influencing tides,
and even affecting the length of our day.
The Search for Extraterrestrial Life
- Mars has two moons, Phobos and
- Some icy objects, like dwarf planets and
Deimos. Both are thought to be captured
moons, may harbor internal oceans
asteroids, or debris from early in the
liquid water beneath their icy surfaces.
formation of our solar system. Phobos is
Liquid water is a key ingredient for life
the larger of Mars' two moons. It orbits
as we know it, so these objects become
Mars three times a day, and is so close to
prime targets in the search for
the planet's surface that in some
extraterrestrial life.
locations on Mars it cannot always be
Redefining Planetary Systems seen. Phobos is nearing Mars at a rate of
six feet (1.8 meters) every hundred
- The discovery of dwarf planets and years. At that rate, it will either crash
other objects beyond Neptune has forced into Mars in 50 million years or break up
us to reconsider our definition of a into a ring. Deimos is the smaller moon.
planetary system. It shows us that It orbits Mars every 30 hours.
planetary systems can be more diverse
than we originally thought. - Jupiter, the king of planets in our solar
system, boasts a whopping 92 moons,
MOON AND SATELLITES
making it the second-most populous
planetary system after Saturn.
JUPITER’S GANYMEDE world with rivers, lakes, and seas of
liquid hydrocarbons like methane and
- Ganymede is the largest moon not only
ethane. Titan is the only place besides
in our solar system but also in the entire
Earth known to have liquids in the form
solar system, even bigger than the planet
of rivers, lakes and seas on its surface.
Mercury! This massive moon is thought
These hydrocarbon liquids could
to be composed of a rocky core
potentially support life forms that are
surrounded by a mantle of ice and rock.
very different from life on Earth. Titan's
NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has
surface is also thought to have
found the best evidence yet for an
cryovolcanoes that erupt with water ice
underground saltwater ocean on
instead of molten rock
Ganymede. The ocean is thought to have
more water than all the water on Earth's - Uranus has 28 known moons, including
surface. five major moons: Miranda, Ariel,
Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.
- Ganymede was discovered by Italian
astronomer Galileo Galilei on Jan. 7, - The moons are sometimes called the
1610. The discovery, along with his "literary moons" because they are named
discovery of three other large moons for Shakespearean characters, along with
around Jupiter, was the first time a moon a couple of the moons being named for
was discovered orbiting a planet other characters from the works of Alexander
than Earth. The discovery eventually led Pope.
to the understanding that planets in our
- The most recently discovered moon was
solar system orbit the Sun, instead of our
first spotted in November 2023. It's
solar system revolving around Earth.
currently designated at S/2023 U1, and
- The exploration of Ganymede is a focus will eventually be named for a literary
of future missions, as scientists hope to character like the other moons of
unravel the secrets it holds about Uranus.
habitability and the history of our solar
- Neptune, the eighth and farthest known
system.
planet from the Sun, has a retinue of 14
SATURN’S TITAN MOON discovered moons. These moons are a
fascinating bunch, ranging in size from
- Titan is a truly alien world, the second-
tiny, irregularly shaped rocks to the
largest moon in our solar system and the
massive Triton, which is even larger
only moon known to have a thick, dense
than the dwarf planet Pluto.
atmosphere. Titan's atmosphere is
composed primarily of nitrogen, much Triton
like Earth's, but with significantly higher
- The largest and most massive moon of
pressure. This nitrogen atmosphere gives
Neptune, Triton is even bigger than the
Titan a hazy orange appearance and
dwarf planet Pluto. It is the only large
obscures the surface from visible light.
moon in the solar system that orbits its
- However, spacecraft have been able to planet in a retrograde direction, or in the
peer through Titan's haze to reveal a opposite direction of Neptune's rotation.
 Triton is a geologically active world protection for future deep space
with a surface of frozen nitrogen, missions.
methane ice volcanoes, and an
Potential for Habitability
atmosphere.
- Water Ice: The presence of water ice in
- Research addresses fundamental
permanently shadowed craters at the
questions about the origin of the Solar
Moon's poles is a game-changer. Water
System and the evolution of its planets
is essential for life as we know it, and
and moons, including the investigation
also for creating breathable atmospheres
of potentially habitable environments in
and fuels. Having a readily available
the past and present. Research projects
source on the Moon would be crucial for
and collaborations focus on exploration
any sustained human presence or
of the Moon via samples and remote
potential future biodomes.
sensing, exploration of Mars via rovers
and orbiters, and exploration of ocean- - Geological Record: The Moon's lack of
world icy satellites, the Pluto-Charon plate tectonics means its surface
system and Kuiper-belt objects. preserves a record of past impacts and
bombardments. By studying the Moon's
- Moons act as stepping stones in our
composition, we can potentially
exploration of the solar system. They
understand if it ever had a more water-
provide valuable clues about our own
rich environment or conditions that
planet's past, serve as training grounds
could have supported life in the past.
for future missions, and hold their own
This knowledge can help us identify
potential for harboring life or resources
potential signatures of past habitability
that could sustain human presence off
on other moons or planets.
Earth
- Simulating Martian Conditions: The
Understanding Planetary Formation
Moon's environment, with its lack of
Technological Proving Ground: atmosphere and harsh radiation, shares
some similarities with Mars. Studying
- Sending missions to the Moon is
how life support systems and resource
significantly cheaper and faster than
extraction techniques function on the
deeper space ventures. We can test
Moon can inform our efforts to create
technologies crucial for Mars missions,
sustainable habitats on Mars, another
like life support systems, rovers, and in-
potential candidate for life.
situ resource utilization (making use of
materials found on location). - The Moon serves as a natural
comparison point, a celestial body
Understanding Space Environments:
similar in formation to Earth but lacking
- The Moon exposes astronauts and the conditions that support life today.
equipment to a harsh environment of Studying the Moon helps us understand
radiation and micrometeoroids. Studying the key ingredients needed for a
these effects helps us develop better habitable environment, like a
magnetosphere to shield radiation and
 geological processes to maintain a water 2005, revealing a complex world with
cycle. lakes and rivers of liquid hydrocarbons,
hinting at the possibility of prebiotic
SPACE EXPLORATION
chemistry – the building blocks of life.
MILESTONES AND MISSIONS
LANDING ON ANOTHER WORLD
- While Venera 7 holds the title for the
first robotic landing on another celestial
body, it wasn't exactly a walk in the park
(or on Venus' scorching surface). The
harsh Venusian environment limited ONGOING AND FUTURE
Venera 7's operation to a mere 23 EXPLORATIONS
minutes. However, this mission paved
MARS 2020 PERSERVERANCE
the way for more sophisticated landers
ROVER
like the Mars rovers currently exploring
the red planet. - This rover, affectionately nicknamed
LEAVING THE SOLAR SYSTEM "Percy," is currently exploring an
ancient river delta in Jezero Crater,
- The Pioneer missions, particularly searching for biosignatures – signs of
Pioneer 10, pushed the boundaries of past microbial life. Percy is also
exploration even further. Launched in equipped with a sophisticated helicopter
1972, Pioneer 10 became the first drone called Ingenuity, which has
human-made object to escape the Sun's conducted the first powered flight on
gravity and venture into interstellar another world.
space. It carried a gold plaque etched
EUROPA CLIPPER
with information about humanity and
our location in the Milky Way galaxy, a - Scheduled for launch in 2024, Europa
message in a bottle for any potential Clipper will embark on a multi-year
extraterrestrial lifeforms that might mission to study Jupiter's moon Europa,
encounter it in the vastness of space. a world with a vast ocean of liquid water
CASSINI’S REIGN AT SATURN hidden beneath a thick icy crust.
Scientists believe this ocean could be a
- The Cassini-Huygens mission stands as potential habitat for extraterrestrial life,
a testament to international collaboration making Europa a prime target in the
in space exploration. A joint effort by search for life beyond Earth.
NASA and the European Space Agency,
DRAGONFLY MISSION
Cassini spent nearly 20 years orbiting
Saturn, providing us with a wealth of - Set for launch in 2027, Dragonfly will be
data and stunning imagery of the ringed the first rotorcraft to explore another
giant and its moons. The mission's world. This drone will touch down on
crowning achievement was the Huygens Titan, Saturn's largest moon, and explore
probe's descent onto Titan's surface in its methane lakes and rich organic
 chemistry, searching for clues about the - Nutrients: Chemical elements like
potential for prebiotic life. carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are
vital for biological processes.
Why is Finding Habitable Exoplanets
BEYOND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM:
Important?
THE SEARCH FOR HABITABLE
- The implications of finding a truly
EXOPLANETS
habitable exoplanet are staggering. It
- For centuries, humanity has gazed at the would fundamentally change our place
stars and wondered if we are alone. in the universe. Knowing life isn't
Now, with the marvels of modern confined to Earth would open up a
telescopes and space exploration, we've whole new chapter in our understanding
entered a new era: the era of exoplanets. of biology, evolution, and the potential
These are planets that orbit stars beyond for life to arise under different
our own solar system. conditions.
- The discovery of the first exoplanet in
1995 revolutionized our understanding
of the universe. Since then, thousands of
exoplanets have been confirmed, with - The Broader Search for
many more waiting to be discovered. Extraterrestrial Life
This has ignited a thrilling scientific
quest: the search for habitable - Finding a habitable exoplanet wouldn't
exoplanets – worlds that could necessarily mean finding little green
potentially support life as we know it. men. Life on other worlds could be
vastly different from anything we know.
What Makes a Planet Habitable? However, it would significantly increase
the chances of life existing elsewhere.
- Liquid water: Water is essential for most
Even if we don't find a perfect Earth
life forms as we know them. A planet
twin, exoplanet studies could reveal
needs to be within a specific range of
worlds with conditions that could harbor
temperatures relative to its star (often
exotic lifeforms adapted to those
called the habitable zone) to allow liquid
environments. The search for
water to exist on its surface. *Suitable
extraterrestrial life (SETI) encompasses
atmosphere:*The atmosphere needs to
not just habitable exoplanets but also the
be thick enough to provide pressure and
search for potential technosignatures –
protection from harmful radiation, but
signs of intelligent life beyond Earth.
not so thick that it becomes a crushing
This could include radio signals, unusual
greenhouse. The presence of certain
stellar activity, or even large-scale
gases, like oxygen or methane, could
structures in space.
also be biosignatures, hinting at the
possibility of life.
What Makes a Planet Habitable?
 the surface of the moon, making it
dangerously habitable for humans or any
living being without adequate protection.
- New moon occurs when the Moon is
between Earth and the Sun, and thus the
side of the Moon that is in shadow faces
Earth.
- This phase is called the Waxing Crescent
GROUP 4 because the area illuminated on the
surface of the Moon makes the shape of
a crescent, and the term waxing means
EARTH’S MOON increasing. This phase is one step in the
cycle away from the First Quarter phase,
MOON’S SIZE so the angle of the Earth, Moon, and Sun
- THE MOON IS JUST ¼ THE SIZE OF is almost perpendicular.
EARTH, WITH A DIAMETER OF - The first quarter moon and it occurs
2,159 MILES (3,475 KILOMETERS). halfway between a new moon and full
MOON’S COMPOSITION moon. The first quarter moon is also
referred to as a half moon because half
- THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF of the moon is illuminated by the sun.
THE LUNAR SURFACE ( MOON) BY
WEIGHT IS ROUGHLY 43% - The term waxing means increasing, and
OXYGEN, 20% SILICON, 19% the term gibbous means “humped-back.”
MAGNESIUM, 10% ALUMINIUM, Therefore, this phase is called Waxing
0.42% CHROMIUM, 0.18% Gibbous because the surface area of the
TITANIUM AND 0.12% Moon that you see is increasing and the
MANGANESE. shape of the lit-up part of the Moon
looks like a hump-back.
MOON’S DISTANCE FROM THE
EARTH - During this phase the entire
round illuminated face of the Moon is
- The Moon’s average distance from the visible from Earth.
earth is 238,855 miles (384,399 km) and
it takes the moon 27.3 Earth days to - The full moon is typically considered the
revolve around our planet earth. most striking of the lunar phases because
during this phase the most sunlight
- THE MOON AND ITS reflects off the Moon toward Earth.
IMPLICATION
- After the full Moon, the illuminated
- The main consequence of the lack of portion of the Moon visible from Earth
atmosphere involves the direct entry of begins to wane, or decrease in size.
solar wind and electromagnetic rays on
- A last quarter moon appears half-lit by
sunshine and half-immersed in its own
shadow.
- The area illuminated on the surface of
the Moon during this phase is in the
shape of a crescent and the amount of
sunlight reflecting off of the Moon is
decreasing.
- Why does this happen? The shape of the
Moon isn’t changing throughout the
month. However, our view of the Moon
does change.
- The Moon does not produce its own
light. There is only one source of light in
our solar system, and that is the
Sun.Without the Sun, our Moon would
be completely dark.

TYPES OF TIDES

- The moon's gravitational pull may have

been key to making Earth a livable
planet by moderating the degree of
wobble in Earth's axial tilt, which led to
 a relatively stable climate over billions their specific distance from each other is
of years in which life could flourish. the primary reason why the Earth’s
rotational axis has had an undisturbed tilt
for so long. The Earth’s constant tilt of a
relative 23.5 degrees is critical in
stabilizing our planet's uninterrupted
life-sustaining climate and weather
patterns. This relationship also keeps the
Earth’s orbit from wobbling out of the
Goldilocks zone. Simply put, this
scenario is a mathematical and
astronomical miracle.
- This tilt also creates our seasons. As the
Earth rotates around the sun, half of the
year the northern hemisphere is pointed
towards the sun (summer), while the
other half of the year, the northern
hemisphere is pointed away from the sun
(winter).
The Moon played a role not only in the
transformation of the earth, but also in the - Besides maintaining climate stability,
Development of Life on this planet. the Moon also sets the rhythm of Earth
— the highs and lows of our tides —
Earth-Moon Symbiosis which affects the variety of ways we use
THE REAL SYNERGY BETWEEN the ocean for food, travel and recreation.
EARTH AND MOON - Precisely measuring the mass, size and
- Earth and the Moon are like lifelong orbital properties of the Moon is
buddies, each impacting the other. The essential for predicting these rhythms of
Moon stabilizes Earth's climate, prevents tides and seasons.
our planet from wobbling, influences - Our shield, the Earth's magnetic field,
nutrient cycles, and supports marine keeps out dangerous solar wind and
ecosystems. Moon regulates biological cosmic ray particles. Liquid iron and
functions, from fertility in humans to the nickel in the Earth's outer core flow
growth and flowering cycles in plants. It quickly, creating this vital buffer.
also influences culture from movies to
books and serves a specific role in - The liquid outer core sloshes around as a
Earth's natural systems. result of the Moon's gravitational pull on
Earth's mantle layer, which sits on top of
The Moon Makes Our Existence the outer core, contributing to the energy
Possible needed to keep our magnetic field intact.
- The symbiotic relationship between the NASA’s Planned Future Explorations
size of both the moon and the Earth and
Future Moon Explorations fascination. We could always see our
cosmic partner’s mottled, cratered face
- In 2025, it plans to fly astronauts around
by eye. Later, telescopes sharpened our
the moon and back; the rocket and crew
views of its bumps, ridges, and relict
capsule for that mission have already
lava seas. Finally, in the mid-20th
been built. In 2026, SpaceX, on behalf of
century, humans visited Earth’s moon
NASA, aims to land astronauts on the
and saw its surface up close.
lunar south pole, and also to launch a
new international space station called The Space Age arrives: Robots to the
Gateway, which will orbit the moon. Moon
Similar in design to the International
- With the shocking launch of Sputnik 1 in
Space Station, Gateway will be an
October 1957, the Moon changed from a
expandable environment for staging
distant silver disk in the sky to a real
crew and cargo, allowing for “high-
place, a probable destination for probes
tempo” lunar operations.
and people. The Soviets struck first,
- The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, flying Luna 1 by the Moon in January
is a space station which Artemis 1959. They followed this success with a
program participants plan to assemble in number of other robotic probes,
an orbit near the Moon. The Gateway is culminating later the same year with
intended to serve as a communication Luna 3, which photographed the far side
hub, science laboratory, and habitation of the Moon, never visible from Earth.
module for astronauts. From these early, poor quality images,
we discovered that the far side has
- In 2028, nasa hopes to fly a team of surprisingly little of the dark, smooth
astronauts to Gateway. The following mare plains that cover about a third of
year, the organization aims to have a the near side. Other surprises would
different group explore the lunar surface soon follow.
by means of an advanced “lunar-terrain
vehicle”—the first of two. If its Artemis - In response to the 1961 flight of Soviet
missions all go according to plan, within cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, President John
a decade, people will live and work from F. Kennedy committed the United States
a permanent, fission-powered outpost on to landing a man on the Moon by the end
the moon. Privately operated robots will of the decade. The Apollo program
cudgel and carve the lunar landscape, greatly accelerated interest in exploring
scooping up and recycling any useful the Moon. To ensure that human crews
material. could safely land and depart from the
lunar surface, it was important to
understand its environment, surface and
Lunar Exploration processes. At the same time, the robotic
precursors would collect valuable
HISTORY OF LUNAR EXPLORATION information, constituting the first
- For as long as humans have gazed scientific exploration of another
skyward, the moon has been a focus of planetary body.
- This is the first picture of the Moon by a availability of water and other resources
U.S. spacecraft, taken by Ranger 7 on 31 on the Moon's surface, but it was
July 1964 at 13:09 UT (9:09 AM EDT). canceled in 2018. Similar objectives are
The large crater at center right is the 108 being pursued by other missions.
km diameter Alphonsus. Above it is
- • NASA's Artemis program aims to
Ptolemaeus and below it Arzachel. Mare
return humans to the Moon by the mid-
Nubium is at center and left.
2020s, with the goal of establishing a
- NASA sustainable human presence. It plans to
land the first woman and the next man
- The Apollo 11 mission, with Neil on the lunar surface, utilizing the Space
Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin becoming Launch System (SLS) rocket and the
the first humans to set foot on the Moon Orion spacecraft. Artemis also envisions
on July 20, 1969, marked a historic the construction of the Lunar Gateway, a
achievement in human exploration. Its space station in lunar orbit, to serve as a
significance lies in several key aspects: staging point for lunar missions and
Technological advancement, space race, facilitate international collaboration.
scientific discovery, inspiration and
national pride.
- The Apollo 11 mission was a Moon's Surface
monumental moment in human history, - The Moon, like Earth, was formed about
leaving an indelible mark on science,
4.5 billion year ago. The Moon’s heavily
technology, and culture, and serving as a
cratered highlands are made of rocks
testament to what humanity can achieve
more than 4 billion years old. The darker
when driven by ambition and
volcanic plains of the maria were
collaboration.
erupted primarily between 3.3 and 3.8
- In recent years, several lunar missions billion years ago. Generally, the surface
have been conducted by various space is dominated by impacts, including
agencies and private companies. continuing small impacts that produce its
fine-grained soil.
- • China's Chang'e program has
successfully launched multiple missions - Craters are bowl-shaped depressions on
to the Moon, including orbiters, landers, the lunar surface, formed primarily by
and rovers. Notably, Chang'e 4 became the impact of meteoroids and asteroids.
the first mission to land on the far side of They come in various sizes, from small,
the Moon in January 2019. simple craters to large, complex ones.
The Moon's lack of atmosphere allows
- • NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter craters to remain well-preserved over
(LRO) has been studying the Moon since time.
2009, providing detailed maps and data
for future exploration missions. - Lunar mountains are primarily of two
types: individual peaks and mountain
- • NASA's Lunar Resource Prospector ranges. Individual peaks can rise several
mission aimed to investigate the kilometers above the surrounding terrain
 and are often formed by the impact of HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL
large objects. Mountain ranges, such as SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MOON IN
the Montes Apenninus and the Montes VARIOUS CIVILIZATIONS.
Caucasus, are extensive formations that
- - In Mesopotamian cultures, such as
can span hundreds of kilometers.
Sumer and Babylon, the Moon was often
- The lunar maria, Latin for "seas," are associated with various deities, such as
large, dark plains on the Moon's surface. Sin (Nanna) in Sumerian mythology and
They are primarily composed of basaltic Nanna in Babylonian mythology. The
lava flows that filled in large impact lunar cycles were used for timekeeping
basins early in the Moon's history. The and calendrical purposes.
maria are smoother and darker in
- - In ancient Egyptian religion, the Moon
appearance compared to the surrounding
was associated with the god Thoth, who
highlands and cover about 16% of the
was often depicted with a lunar crescent
lunar surface. Prominent maria include
on his head. The lunar cycles were also
Mare Imbrium, Mare Serenitatis, and
important for agricultural and religious
Mare Tranquillitatis.
practices, such as determining the timing
- The lunar highlands are rugged, heavily of festivals and ceremonies.
cratered regions that make up the
- Throughout history, the Moon has
majority of the Moon's surface. They are
inspired countless works of literature,
composed of ancient, lighter-colored
poetry, art, and music. From
rocks and are thought to represent the
Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" to
original crust of the Moon.
Claude Debussy's "Clair de Lune," the
- These surface features provide valuable Moon's beauty and mystery have
insights into the geological history and captured the imagination of artists and
evolution of the Moon, as well as writers across cultures.
serving as potential targets for future
- The Moon's historical and cultural
exploration and scientific study.
significance is diverse and multifaceted,
How does the lack of atmosphere affect serving as a symbol of time, fertility,
the Moon? spirituality, and beauty in various
civilizations throughout human history.
- Contributing to the thin atmosphere
around the moon, the solar wind Moon myths and culture
removes the molecules and atoms of gas
- Earthlings have entertained many
away from the moon. The thin
theories about the moon throughout
atmosphere causes the temperature on
history.
the moon to vary greatly during the day
and night. The sky from the moon is - In European folklore, there is a belief
always black, including during the in werewolves, creatures that are said
daylight hours. to transform from human to wolf-like
beings during a full moon. This
concept has been depicted in
 literature, movies, and folklore for on the moon in 1969, grew so
centuries. exasperated with one conspiracy
theorist’s accusations that he punched
FULL MOONS MAKE YOU CRAZY
him in the face. The septuagenarian
- Since ancient times, full moons have space pioneer was not prosecuted.
been associated with odd or insane
-
behavior, including sleepwalking,
suicide, illegal activity, fits of violence
and, of course, transforming into
werewolves. Indeed, the words “lunacy”
and “lunatic” come from the Roman
goddess of the moon, Luna, who was
said to ride her silver chariot across the
dark sky each night.
- In East Asian cultures, such as Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean, there is a legend
of the Moon Rabbit (also known as the
Jade Rabbit or Rabbit in the Moon).
According to the myth, a rabbit lives on
the Moon and pounds medicine or makes
rice cakes with a mortar and pestle.
- In some indigenous cultures, the Moon
is seen as a guiding force and protector
of travelers, hunters, and adventurers. Its
light provides illumination and direction
during the night.
- Across various cultures, the Moon's
cycles are often interpreted as symbols
of change, transformation, and renewal.
The waxing and waning of the Moon
represent the eternal cycle of birth,
growth, death, and rebirth.
- Despite overwhelming evidence to the
contrary, some people believe that the
Apollo moon landings were faked by
NASA, which used doctored photos,
staged videos and other ploys to dupe
the public.
- In 2002, retired astronaut Buzz Aldrin,
who became the second person to walk
 and how impacts of large meteorites have
altered Earths history and life on our
planet.Scientist can learn about the materials
present in the early solar nebula ,the process
that led to planet formation and the
conditions that prevailed during solar
systems infancy.

METEORITES
TRANS-NEPTUNIAN OBJECT
The term “meteorite” comes from
the greek word “meteoron” meaning  “trans” in Latin means
phenomenon in the sky .A meteorite is a “beyond” ;thus trans-Neptunian
fragment of spatial matter or space rocks means “beyond Neptune”
that falls to the surface of a planet.
Meteorites are the last existence of these  A trans Neptunian Object commonly
type of space rocks. referred to as TNO ,is any small
Most meteorites look very much like a rocks planetary body that orbits the sun at
found on Earth ,except meteorites usually a distance beyond the orbit of
have a dark ,burned exterior.This exterior is Neptune.
formed as friction from the atmosphere
melts it as it crashes towards the Earth
 TNOs can be found in the Kuiper
known as thermal ablation.
Built.

The most important clues about the

early stages of the solar system come from PLUTINO
meteorites.Some are older than the  trans-Neptunian Objects like Pluto
formation of the earth.They reveal how
are called Plutinos.It is a TNOs that
smaller bodies coalesced to form planets,and
are too small to be planets but that
how our own planet developed after it had
orbit the sun at a ratio that is two
formed.The study of meteorites has helped
us understand the beginnings of our solar orbits for every three orbits that
system,how planets and asteroids formed Neptune makes.Pluto orbits the sun
 at this 2:3 orbital resonance with its formation and evolution.By studying
Neptune and is a largest Plutino. their composition ,orbits, and sizes,
scientist can infer the conditions and
 Plutinos form the inner part of the processes that prevailed during the solar
Kuiper Belt . systems infancy.

 Other example of plutinos include

Orcus,Ixion and Varuna.
CENTAURS
SCATTERED DISC
The scattered disc is a distant circumstellar  a small solar system body that
disc in the Solar System that is sparsely orbits the Sun between Jupiter
populated by icy small solar system bodies , and Neptune and crosses the
which are a subset of the broader family of orbits of one or more of the giant
transNeptunian objects.It begins at the outer planets.
edge of the Kuiper Belt at about 2,800 have unstable orbits
million miles from the Sun and extend as far
out as 10,000 million miles .  Similar to asteroids in size but to
 dynamic environment or unstable comets in composition.
nature
 named after the mythological
 According to contemporary model, centaurs that were a mixture of
the scattered disc formed when human and horse.
Kuiper Belt objects were scattered it has been estimated that there
into eccentric and inclined orbits by are around 44,000 centaurs in the
gravitational interaction with solar system with diameteres
Neptune and the other outer planets. larger than 1 kilometer.

 It is typically made up of water ice or  The first centaur to be

frozen methane ,the objects within discovered ,under the difinition
the disc are quite tiny. of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
was Hidalgo in
 Have orbital eccentricities as high as 1920.However ,they were not
40 degree and perihelia greater than recognized as a distinct
30 astronomical units. population until the discover of
example of scattered disc are 2060 Chiron in 1977.
ERIS,SEDNA,HAUMEA and 2007  the largest centaur is 10199
0R10. Chariklo,which at 260 km in
diameter.
TNOs are relics from the early solar
system,providing valuable clues about DWARF PLANETS
 A celestial body that is similar to  distance from the Sun is about 5.9
planet,but not exactly a planet. billion kilometers

In Prague on August 24,2006 , the  Pluto has five moons ,the largest which
International Astronomical Union is Charon .The other moons are
Styx,Nix,Kerberos and Hydra
votes to demote Pluto from the ninth
planet from the Sun.Pluto is now  has thin atmosphere composed of
classified as dwarf planet because, nitrogen, methane and carbon
while it is large enough to have monoxide.
become spherical ,it is not big
enough to exert its orbital dominance  In 2015,NASA’s New Horizon
and clear the neighborhood spacecraft made a historic flyby of
sorrounding its orbit. Pluto,providing the first close-up
images .

 orbit is elliptical

 average temperature in surface is -232

degrees celsius
The International Astronomical
Union defines a planet as ;  a day in Pluto is about 153 hours

1.An object orbits the sun  a year in pluto is about 248 Earth years
2.An object that have enough gravity
to pull its mass to form a spherical
shape ERIS
3.An object that clear its orbital path When it was discovered,Eris was
to smaller objects. thought to be the largest of the dwarf
planets,with a mass 27 percent larger than of
Pluto and a diameter of approxiamtely 1,400
PLUTO to 1,500 miles(2,300 to 2,400 km).It was the
Pluto enters the solar system discovery of Eris that prompted the IAU to
stage.The then 9th planet was reconsider the definition of planet.Further
discovered in 1930 by Clyde observation went on to suggest that the
Tombaugh at Lowell dwarf planet is slightly smaller than Pluto.
Observatory.The first two letters of
PL uto are also for Percival -orbit is very erratic
Lowell ,who mathematically -three times larger than Pluto’s orbit
predicted the location. -it takes 557 years for Eris to orbit the Sun
-At its farthest point from the sun,Eris and
 1,400 miles wide and two third size its satellite Dysmonia travel far beyond the
of the Earth’s moon Kuiper Belt.
-surface is nitrogen and methane-rich  Completes one rotation every 22 and
a half hours ,making its day length
similar to Earth and Mars

HAUMEA  reddish-brownish color

 name suggested by David  second brightest object in Kuiper

Rabinowitz Belt

 Haumea is uniqe because of its  volatile surface

ellipsoid shape,only just meeting the
hydrostatic equillibrium criteria for
dwarf planet status. By studying dwarf planets,scientists can
learn about the processes that shaped
 One of the fastest rotating large their surfaces and interior over billion of
objects in our solar system .It rotates years,helping to understand planetary
on its axis less than four hours. evolution
dwarf planets cab influence the dynamics of
 Haumea’s “day” is one of the other celestial bodies in their
shortest in the solar system(1-284) vicinity ,providing clues about the history
and stability of planetary orbits.
 surface is very bright due to its helps us understand the early solar
composition.Rocky inside and thin system,planetary evolution ,and the diversity
film crystalline water ice outside . of worlds beyond traditional planets.It also
shed lights on orbital dynamics and provides
 has 2 moons(Hi’iaka & Namaka) insights into potential habitability criteria in
extreme environments.
 ring about 70km wide (40 miles)

MAKEMAKE
 discovered by Mike Brown in
2005(Easterbunny)

 named after the Rapa Nui god

makemake, the creator.(2008)
surface is extremely cold

 45.8 AU away from the sun,it takes

sunlight 6 hours and 20 minutes to
travel from the sun to makemake

 takes 305 Earth years to make one

trip
around the Sun.
 knowledge about the nature of light and how
it interacts with matter.
One of the key concepts in optics is
the understanding of how lenses, mirrors,
and prisms manipulate light. These optical
elements have distinct properties that enable
them to alter the path of light rays, leading
to fascinating phenomena like refraction,
reflection, and dispersion.

GROUP 7
OPTICS
• Introduce optics as the study of light
and its significance and its interactions with
various materials.
• Discuss how the lenses, mirrors, and
prisms manipulate light, leading to
phenomena like refraction, reflection, and
dispersion. NATURE OF LIGHT
• Discuss light as electromagnetic
radiation that behaves both as waves and
Optics is the branch of physics that particles (protons).
deals with the study of light and its
interactions with various materials. Light, as • Explore the speed of light in a
we perceive it, plays a fundamental role in constant at approximately 299, 792
our understanding of the universe and has kilometers per second, and its significance
immense significance in numerous scientific in the universe.
disciplines and everyday life. Light, as we perceive it, is a form of
At its core, optics explores how light electromagnetic radiation that behaves both
behaves when it encounters different as waves and particles. This duality is a
mediums, such as air, water, glass, and other fundamental aspect of quantum mechanics
transparent materials. Through and is encapsulated in the wave-particle
experimentation and theoretical models, duality principle.
scientists have uncovered a wealth of
Christian Huygens, who was a contemporary environment e.g. rigid surfaces, walls and
of Isaac Newton, suggested that light travels human eye, obey Newtonian physics.
in waves.
Newton thought light cannot be a
Huygens' model of light assumes light wave primarily because it did not show
behaves as a longitudinal wave. diffraction characteristics like sound. He
argued that if light is a wave, we would be
Huygens understood light’s propagation as a
able to see light when a physical barrier is
wave’s direction of travel. He proposed that
placed in front of the source, analogous to
the nature of light can be better understood
how sound travels around a physical
by observing the motion of water surfaces.
barrier to reach our ears.
Oscillation, Crests, Troughs, and Amplitude
He argued that light does not
In addition, he extended the understanding exhibit diffraction
of light as a wave by proposing that a
‘We can hear sound from behind
primary wave front can be perceived as
an obstacle, but we don’t see light’
infinite number of points, each point
generating a secondary wavelet in a In 1801 a physicist in England,
Thomas Young, performed an experiment

that showed that light behaves as a wave.

spherical manner. The interference of these
secondary wavelets create wavefronts of
varying shapes and direction.

Isaac Newton, however, thought

that light was composed of particles that
were too small to detect individually.
Newton's model of light proposes
that propagation of light is caused by the
rectilinear motion of light particles which
he termed light corpuscles. These light
particles travel at a finite speed and their Each slit, in turn, diffracted the light
interactions with the external as if they were also individual sources of
light. The light impacted an observation The visible spectrum refers to the range of
screen. This is shown to the right. electromagnetic radiation that human eyes
can perceive as color. This spectrum spans
Particle interpretation: If light exists
wavelengths approximately between 400 to
as particles, the intensity of both slits will be
700 nanometers (nm), although the exact
the sum of the intensity from the individual
boundaries may vary slightly depending on
slits.
individual perception. Within this range,
Wave interpretation: If light exists as different colors correspond to specific
waves, the light waves will wavelengths of light.
have interference under the principle of
The visible spectrum consists of the
superposition, creating bands of light
following colors, typically listed in order of
(constructive interference) and dark
increasing wavelength:
(destructive interference).
The wavelengths of visible light are:
Violet: 380–450 nm (688–789 THz
The speed of light, speed at
frequency)
which light waves propagate through
different materials. In particular, the value Blue: 450–495 nm
for the speed of light in a vacuum is now
Green: 495–570 nm
defined as exactly 299,792,458 metres per
second. Yellow: 570–590 nm
The significance of the speed of light Orange: 590–620 nm
extends beyond its role in relativity. It
influences various phenomena in Red: 620–750 nm (400–484 THz
astrophysics, such as the measurement of frequency)
cosmic distances and the study of the early Each of these colors corresponds to a
universe. Light from distant celestial specific range of wavelengths within the
objects, such as stars and galaxies, takes visible spectrum. For example, violet light
time to reach us due to its finite speed. has the shortest wavelength among visible
Consequently, when we observe these colors, while red light has the longest
objects, we are effectively looking back in wavelength.
time, allowing astronomers to study the
universe's history and evolution. There are two main types of color mixing:
additive color mixing and subtractive color
mixing.
COLORS OF LIGHT Additive color mixing is creating a new
• Discuss the visible spectrum and color by a process that adds one set of
how different colors corresponds to different wavelengths to another set of wavelengths.
wavelengths. Additive color mixing is what happens when
lights of different wavelengths are mixed.
• Explore the concept of additive and
subtractive color mixing. Subtractive color mixing is creating a new
color by the removal of wavelengths from a
light with a broad spectrum of wavelengths. interaction between light and matter, with
Subtractive color mixing occurs when we the goal of breaking down light into its
mix paints, dyes, or pigments. When we mix component wavelengths or frequencies. This
paints, both paints still absorb all of the analysis provides valuable information about
wavelengths they did previously, so what we the composition, structure, and properties of
are left with is only the wavelengths that substances.
both paints reflect. It is called subtractive
mixing because when the paints mix,
wavelengths are deleted from what we see Spectroscopy finds wide-ranging
because each paint will absorb some applications in astronomy, chemistry, and
wavelengths that the other paint reflects, biology:
thus leaving us with a lesser number of
wavelengths remaining afterward. So the
easy way to remember the difference 1. Astronomy: Spectroscopy has
between additive and subtractive color revolutionized our understanding of the
mixing is that additive color mixing is what universe by enabling astronomers to study
happens when we mix lights of different the light emitted or absorbed by celestial
colors whereas subtractive color mixing objects. Astronomical spectroscopy involves
occurs when we mix paints or other colored analyzing the spectra of stars, galaxies,
nebulae, and other cosmic phenomena. By
examining the spectral lines produced by
different elements or molecules in these
objects, astronomers can determine their
composition, temperature, density, motion,
and other important properties.
Spectroscopic techniques, such as Doppler
material. spectroscopy and absorption spectroscopy,
are crucial for studying the evolution of
galaxies, the formation of stars, and the
SPECTROSCOPY detection of exoplanets.
• Explore spectroscopy as the analysis
of lights and interaction with matter,
2. Chemistry: In chemistry,
breaking it into its components wavelength.
spectroscopy is used extensively for
• Discuss the application of qualitative and quantitative analysis of
spectroscopy in astronomy, chemistry, and substances. Various spectroscopic
biology for studying the composition and techniques, such as infrared spectroscopy,
properties of substances. nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis)
Spectroscopy is a powerful analytical
spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry, are
technique that involves the study of the
employed to characterize chemical
compounds and elucidate their molecular
structures. These techniques provide
information about bond vibrations,
electronic transitions, molecular
configurations, and chemical environments.
Spectroscopy is indispensable in fields like
organic chemistry, analytical chemistry,
environmental science, and materials
science, where it helps identify unknown
compounds, monitor chemical reactions, and
determine the concentration of substances.
3. Biology: Spectroscopy plays a vital
role in biology and biomedicine for studying
biological molecules, tissues, and
organisms. Techniques such as fluorescence
spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and
circular dichroism spectroscopy are used to
investigate the structure, conformation,
dynamics, and interactions of biomolecules
like proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and
carbohydrates. Spectroscopic methods are
employed in areas such as drug discovery,
medical diagnostics, molecular biology,
biochemistry, and biophysics. For example,
infrared spectroscopy is used to analyze the
composition of biological samples, while
fluorescence spectroscopy is utilized for
imaging and probing cellular processes.