thermodynamics

By Cap. Eng. Hazim Mohamed Taha Yousif

• Thermodynamics is The field of science dealing with the relationships of heat,
work, and properties of systems.
• Thermodynamics studies the transformation of energy from one form to another
and the interaction of energy with matter.
• There are two main approaches to deal with thermodynamics:
1. classical thermodynamics This macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the behavior of individual
particles It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems.
2. statistical thermodynamics A more elaborate approach, based on the average
behavior of large groups of individual particles.
• The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamics (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat
into power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of
energy and energy transformations, including power generation, refrigeration, and
relationships among the properties of matter.
 Application Areas of Thermodynamics
• All activities in nature involve some interaction between
energy and matter.
• The human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this
metabolic heat rejection. We try to control this heat transfer
rate by adjusting our clothing to the environmental
conditions.
• Many ordinary household utensils and appliances are
designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of
thermodynamics. Some examples include the electric or gas
range, the heating and air-conditioning systems, the
refrigerator, the humidifier, the pressure cooker, the water
heater, the shower, the iron, and even the computer and the
TV.
• On a larger scale, thermodynamics plays a major part in the
design and analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet
engines, and conventional or nuclear power plants, solar
collectors, and the design of vehicles from ordinary cars to
airplanes
 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units. Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions, while others such as velocity
V, energy E, and volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and are called
secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• A number of unit systems have been developed over the years. Despite strong efforts in the
scientific and engineering community to unify the world with a single unit system, two sets of units
are still in common use today: the English system, which is also known as the United States
Customary System (USCS), and the metric SI which is also known as the International System.

SI system British system Equavilant

Length Meter (m) foot (ft) 1 ft = 0.3048 m

Mass Kilogram (Kg) pound-mass (lbm) 1 lbm = 0.45359 kg

Time Second (s) second (s) -

For secondary dimensions
Secondary dimensions Equivalent primary dimension

1 pascal newton/meter2
1 bar 100000 pascal (newton/meter2 )
1 joule 1 newton * (meter)
1 newton newton=(1 kilogram)(1 meter/seconds2 )
1 cal 4.187 kJ
1 watt 1 joule/second
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the
boundary.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact
surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the
boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any
volume in space.
• There are three main types of
systems
• closed system (also known as a control
mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary. That is,
no mass can enter or leave a closed system,
But energy, in the form of heat or work, can
cross the boundary; and the volume of a
closed system does not have to be fixed.
Consider the piston-cylinder device Let us
say that we would like to find out what
happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated.
Since we are focusing our attention on the
gas, it is our system. The inner surfaces of the
piston and the cylinder form the boundary,
and since no mass is crossing this boundary,
it is a closed system. Notice that energy may
cross the boundary, and part of the boundary
(the inner surface of the piston, in this case)
may move. Everything outside the gas,
including the piston and the cylinder, is the
surroundings.
• An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in
space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine,
or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the
device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control
volume. The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be
real or imaginary and it can be moving or fixed.
• isolated system both energy and mass can’t cross its boundary.
 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressure
P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar
ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
• Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are
those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and
density. Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of
the system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are some examples of
extensive properties. An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or
extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, Each
part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half the
value of the extensive properties.
 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

• Density is defined as mass per unit volume

𝑚
𝜌 =
𝑉
• The reciprocal of density is the specific volume v, which is defined as volume per unit
mass.

𝑉 1
𝑣= =
𝑚 𝜌
• Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known
substance. Then it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the
ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which density of water is 1000 kg/m3).
𝜌
𝑆. 𝐺 =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Note that the specific gravity of a substance is a dimensionless quantity
• The weight of a unit volume of a substance is called specific weight and is expressed as
𝑊 𝑚 𝑔
𝛾= 𝑉
= 𝑉
=𝜌𝑔
• The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus they can often be approximated
as being incompressible substances during most processes without sacrificing much in
accuracy.
 STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At
this point, all the properties can be measured or
calculated throughout the entire system, which
gives us a set of properties that completely
describes the condition, or the state, of the
system. At a given state, all the properties of a
system have fixed values. If the value of even one
property changes, the state will change to a
different one.
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A
system in equilibrium experiences no changes
when it is isolated from its surroundings.
• There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is
not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions
of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied:
• thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same
throughout the entire system, the system involves no
temperature differential, which is the driving force for
heat flow.
• Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a
system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no
change in pressure at any point of the system with time.
However, the pressure may vary within the system with
elevation as a result of gravitational effects.
• Phase equilibrium when the mass of each phase
reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
• chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does
not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions
occur.
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
• Process is Any change that a system undergoes
from one equilibrium state to another.
• The series of states through which a system
passes during a process is called the path. To
describe a process completely, one should specify
the initial and final states of the process, as well
as the path it follows, and the interactions with
the surroundings.
• When a process proceeds in such a manner that
the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a
quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium, process. A
quasi-equilibrium process can be viewed as a
sufficiently slow process that allows the system
to adjust itself internally so that properties in one
part of the system do not change any faster than
those at other parts.
• It should be pointed out that a quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process and is
not a true representation of an actual process. But many actual processes closely
approximate it, and they can be modeled as quasi equilibrium with negligible error.
Engineers are interested in quasi equilibrium processes for two reasons. First, they are
easy to analyze; second, work-producing devices deliver the most work when they
operate on quasi equilibrium processes.
• Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic properties as coordinates are
very useful in visualizing the processes. Some common properties that are used as
coordinates are temperature T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v).
• Note that the process path indicates a series of equilibrium states through which the
system passes during a process and has significance for quasi equilibrium processes
only. For non quasi-equilibrium processes, we are not able to characterize the entire
system by a single state, and thus we cannot speak of a process path for a system as a
whole. A non quasi-equilibrium process is denoted by a dashed line between the initial
and final states instead of a solid line.
• The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant. An isothermal process, for example, is a process during which the
temperature T remains constant.
• isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant; and an
• isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the specific volume v remains
constant.
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of the
process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.

The Steady-Flow Process

• The term steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or
transient.
• The term uniform, however, implies no change with location over a specified region.
• A large number of engineering devices operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.
• Processes involving such devices can be represented
reasonably well by a somewhat idealized process, called
the steady-flow process, which can be defined as a
process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily That is, the fluid properties can change
from point to point within the control volume, but at any
fixed point they remain the same during the entire
process. Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the
total energy content E of the control volume remain
constant during a steady flow process.
• Steady-flow conditions can be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for continuous operation such as
turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat exchangers
or power plants or refrigeration systems.
• Some cyclic devices, such as reciprocating engines or
compressors, do not satisfy any of the conditions stated
above since the flow at the inlets and the exits will be
pulsating and not steady. However, the fluid properties
vary with time in a periodic manner, and the flow through
these devices can still be analyzed as a steady-flow
process by using time-averaged values for the properties.
 THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left on the table eventually cools off
and a cold drink eventually warms up. That is, when a body is brought into contact with
another body that is at a different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher
temperature to the one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature
At that point, the heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have reached thermal
equilibrium. The equality of temperature is the only requirement for thermal equilibrium.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be restated as two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they
are not in contact.
 Temperature scale
• The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15
• The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T (R) = T (°F) + 459.67
• The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
T (R) = 1.8T (K)
T (°F) = 1.8T (°C)+ 32
 Pressure
• 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
• 1 atm = 101325 Pa =101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
• The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure. Most pressure-
measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and so they
indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
This difference is called the gage pressure.
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and are measured by
vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are
related to each other by
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠
 Homework
1. The deep body temperature of a healthy person is 37°C. What is it in kelvins?
2. Consider a system whose temperature is 18°C. Express this temperature in R, K, and °F.
3. The temperature of a system rises by 15°C during a heating process. Express this rise in
temperature in kelvins.
4. The temperature of a system drops by 45°F during a cooling process. Express this drop
in temperature in K, R, and °C.
5. Explain why some people experience nose bleeding and some others experience
shortness of breath at high elevations.
6. A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 35 kPa at a location where the atmospheric
pressure is 92 kPa. Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
THE END