INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Statistics
It is the art of science of collecting, presenting, analyzing
and interpreting data (Broto, 2006)
The science that deals with the collection, tabulation or
presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical or
quantitative data(Pagoso, 1997)
This refers to the techniques by which quantitative data are
collected, presented, organized, analyzed and interpreted.
The focal point of modern statistical analysis is decision
making.
Descriptive Statistics
This includes the techniques which are
concerned with summarizing and describing
numerical data. This method can either be
graphical or computational. It is used to
present and analyze information in a
convenient, usable and understandable for
data management and other purposes
These includes:

Measure of central tendency

mean, median, mode
Measure of Point or Location
quartile, decile and percentile
Measure of Spread, Dispersion or Variability
MAD, variances and standard deviation
Graphs
normal, skewness and kurtosis
Inferential Statistics
The technique by which decisions about a
statistical population are made based only on a
sample having been observed or a judgment having
been obtained.
This kind of statistics is concerned more with
generalizing information or making inference about
population.
These includes
Hypothesis Testing by

Parametric test
z-test
t-test
pearson product moment of correlation analysis
regression analysis
ANOVA, ANCOVA, MANOVA
Non-parametric test

chi-square test
Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test
Kruskal-Wallis Test
Spearman Rank Order Coefficient of
Correlation rs
Sign Test
Mc Nemar’s Test
Friedman Fr Test
Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance
Population & Sample
Population - It is the totality of all actual or concern able objects of a
certain class under consideration. It is a complete set of individuals,
objects or measurements having some common observable
characteristics.

Sample-It is a finite number of objects selected from the population.

Data
Data-the statistical facts, historical facts, principles, opinions and items
of various sources like scores, ages, I.Q., income, etc.

Ungrouped data
The data which have not been organized or classified and usually exhibit
no pattern.
Tabulation - the process of grouping or classifying data for purposes of
analysis and interpretation.

Statistical Methods-Any method of research involving mathematical

operations both simple and complicated.

Array-this is an arrangement of data from the highest to lowest or vice

versa.
THE VARIABLE
In research, the term variable refers to property whereby the
members of the population vary from one another.
Examples the members of the group may vary in
Gender
Height
weight
SES and
others
constant
The members of the population can have property or characteristics
wherein they are alike or the same, this is referred to as constant. When
a researcher is interested to deal with only female BCS students, then
sex is a constant not a variable.
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
A. Types of variable or data.
1. Qualitative variables represents differences in quality, character, or
kind that not in amount.
Examples.
Sex
birthplace or geographic locations,
religious preference,
marital status,
and eye color.
Quantitative variables
2. Quantitative variables are numerical in nature and can ordered and
ranked.
Examples.
Weight
height
age and
test scores.
Classification of Quantitative
variable
Continuous variables. These are the variables that can take the form of
decimals.
Examples:
weight,
length,
height,
school achievement,
etc.
Discrete or discontinuous
variables
Discrete or discontinuous variables. These are variables that can’t take
the form of decimals.
Examples:
number of students
number of houses
size of a family, etc.
According to a functional
relationship
Independent variable. This is sometimes termed as
predictor variable.
Dependent variable. This is sometimes called
criterion variable.
Example.
Academic Achievement is dependent on I.Q..
I.Q. is the independent variable and academic
achievement is the dependent variable.
According to scale of
measurements
Nominal variable. This property allows one
to make statements of similarities or
differences.
Example:
Gender. Members of the population may be
classified as male or female.
Ordinal variable

This refers to a property whereby

members of the group are ranked. For
example, one can judge and rank the
contestants in a beauty contest.
Interval variable
Indicate an actual amount and there is equal unit
of measurement separating each score, specifically
equal intervals. 0 has no meaning
Example:
Score,
Fahrenheit temperature
Ratio variable
Are similar to interval data, but has an absolute zero and
multiples are meaningful.
Example:
height,
weight,
length,
area,
volume, etc.
STEPS IN A STATISTICAL
INVESTIGATION
The steps in a statistical investigation are:
Collection
Presentation/organization
Analysis
Interpretation
Planning a Study
1. Make an estimate of the number of the population
2. Assess resources such as time and money factors which
are available to pursue the research
3. Determine the sample size needed when the use of the
entire population does not warrant the resources
4. Pick the sample using the appropriate sampling
techniques
5. Prepare questions to be asked in the interview or in the
questionnaire.
Two Types of Data( by source)
1. Primary Data-Primary data refers to the first hand data
gathered by the researcher himself.

2. Secondary Data-means data collected by someone else

earlier

https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.safestates.org/resource/resmgr/
connections_lab/glossary_citation/Primary__Secondary_Data_
Defi.pdf
https://researchguides.ben.edu/c.php?g=282050&p=7037027
Surveys, observations, experiments,
questionnaire, personal interview, etc.
Government publications, websites,
books, journal articles, internal records
etc
Primary Data Sources
Primary data analysis in which the same individual or team of
researchers designs, collects, and analyzes the data, for the purpose of
answering a research question (Koziol & Arthur, nd)
Advantages to Using Primary
Data
•You collect exactly the data elements that you need to answer your
research question (Romano).
•You can test an intervention, such as an experimental drug or an
educational program, in the purest way (a double-blind randomized
controlled trial (Romano).
•You control the data collection process, so you can ensure data quality,
minimize the number of missing values, and assess the reliability of
your instruments (Romano).
Secondary Data Sources
Existing data collected for another purposes, that you use to answer
your research question (Romano).
Advantages of Working with
Secondary Data
•Large samplesCan provide population estimates : for example state data
can be combined across states to get national estimates (Shaheen, Pan,
& Mukherjee).
•Less expensive to collect than primary data (Romano)
•It takes less time to collect secondary data (Romano).
•You may not need to worry about informed consent, human subjects
restriction (Romano).
Issues in Using Secondary Data
Study
•Design and data collection already completed (Koziol & Arthur, nd).
•Data may not facilitate particular research question o Information
regarding study design and data collection procedures may be scarce.
•Data may potentially lack depth (the greater the breadth the harder it is
to measure any one construct in depth) (Koziol & Arthur, nd).
•Certain fields or departments (e.g., experimental programs) may place
less value on secondary data analysis (Koziol & Arthur, nd).
•Often requires special techniques to analyze statistically the data
METHODS OF COLLECTING
DATA
A. Direct
- interview method . this is a personal
communication with the individual you want to
interview

◦ questionnaires method. This is done by sending

questionnaires to the person from whom you
would like to get the information.

◦ Please refer to the features of good questionnaire

Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
1.The length of questionnaire should be proper one.
2.The language used should be easy and simple.
3.The term used are explained properly.
4.The questions should be arranged in a proper way.
5.The questions should be in logical manner.
6.The questions should be in analytical form.
7.Complex questions should be broken into filter
questions.
8.The questions should be described precisely and
correctly.
 Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
9.The questionnaire should be constructed for a specific
period of time.
10.The questions should be moving around the theme of
the investigator.
11.The answers should be short and simple.
12.These answers should be accurate.
13.The answers should be direct one.
14.The answers should be relevant to the problem.
15.The answers should be understand able to everyone of
respondents.
http://studylecturenotes.com/qualities-of-a-good-questionnaire/
◦ Observation. the careful watching and recording
of something,
e.g. a natural phenomenon observation.
◦ Experiment. This is done by making or
conducting scientific inquiry.
The Indirect
Registration. Utilizing existing records is
registration. Document Analysis
Sampling, Sampling
Designs and Sample
Size Determination
 INTRODUCTIONS

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative

portion of a population.
Population refers to the entire group or set of
individuals or items which is the focus of the
investigation.
Respondent population refers to a group of
individuals who furnish the needed information on
which the generalization is based.
Topic population refers to the group of people
about which generalization will be made
Sample refers to a subset or portion of the
population on which is based the statement or
generalization about the population from which it is
drawn
Sampling unit is one of several other similar units
which can be selected at any stage of the sampling
process
Advantages of using a sample
◦Reduced Cost
◦Greater Speed
◦Greater Scope
◦Greater Accuracy
 General Considerations in
Sampling
• The population is the total of all possible observations.
• The sample must be a representative portion of the
population through random selection.
• Observed characteristics of the sample provide estimates
of the characteristics of the population.
• The sample values will always have a certain degree of
error or difference from the true value of the population,
this error is called the sampling error.
 Considerations in Sampling

• Sampling errors could be minimized by

considering more samples.
• The larger the size of the sample, the higher will
be the precision of the results under study.
 Method of calculating the
sample size.

When N is known we can use the formula given as

follows:
N
n = --------------
1 + N(e2)
where:
N is the population size
e is the margin of error
 Example
Suppose that N = 5000 and that the margin
of error is 5%, then the sample size is

N 5000
n = ------------ = ----------------------
1 + N(e2) 1 + 5000(0.05)2

= 370 samples
 Example
Suppose that N = 6500 and that the margin
of error is 4%, then the sample size is

N 6500
n = ------------ = ----------------------
1 + N(e2) 1 + 6500(0.04)2

= ? samples
 Lynch et al formula:
Determining the sample size using Lynch et al formula:
𝑁𝑍 2 ∙ 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑛=
𝑁𝑑2 + 𝑍 2 𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
where
Z = the value of the normal variable (1.96)
for a reliability level of 0.95
p = the largest possible proportion (0.50)
d = sampling error
N = population
n = sample size
Example
Let N = 1000
The desired reliability level is 0.95
The allowed sampling error is 0.05
The proportion of a target population with a certain characteristic
important to the study is 0.50, then the sample size is computed:
1000 (1.96)2 x 0.50 (1 - 0.50)
n= 1000 (0.05)2 + (1.96)2 x 0.50 (1 - 0.50)

n = 277.54 0r 278
 Pointers in sample size
determination
❖ When the population N is large, a small percentage
is recommended and when the population is small, a
larger percentage is necessary.
❖ The sample size should preferably be not smaller
than 30

❖The sample size n should be as large as possible as

the budget and time allocation allow
Sampling Strategies
In social science research, mostly survey methods. The
following are some sampling strategies considered:

Simple Random Sampling

It is a sampling method in which all
members of the population have an
equal chance of being included in the
sample.
The characteristics of the population
is homogeneous
Two basic principles in random
sampling which are:
1. Equi – probability – this means that every member of the population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

2. Independence – this refers to the fact that when one member is

selected for the sampling this should not affect the chances of the other
members getting chosen.
Simple random sampling Can be
done by the use of the following:
1. Table of random numbers. This is the
most systematic technique for getting
sample units at random. The random table
contains columns of digits that have been
mechanically generated, usually by a
computer, to assure a random order. Most
books in statistics and research includes
tables of random numbers.
Lottery sampling
2. Lottery sampling.
Called the fishbowl technique by

Fox (1969), this procedure can be applied by first assigning numbers

to the participants of your population assembling them in sampling frame.
Then write the number of your participants in small pieces of paper one
number to a piece. Next, role these small pieces of paper and put them in a
container big enough to allow all the rolled papers to move freely in all
directions.
◦ Fox (1969) presents two arrangements in using
the lottery or fishbowl technique. First, is
sampling without replacement in which the
drawn pieces of paper with number each are no
longer returned in a box. The other procedure is
called sampling with replacement which returns
to the box every piece of paper drawn. This
hold the probability constant.
Stratified Random Sampling
Population is made up of groups of items with
heterogeneous characteristics under study.
In such situation the population is divided or
stratified into more or less homogeneous
subpopulations (strata) before sampling is done.
After stratification or grouping, a random sample of
size ni can be selected from each stratum, using the
simple random sampling procedure
 Example using Types of
stratified sampling
Total per Number of samples (ni)
stratum
Stratum Ni Equal Proportional
allocation allocation
1 15 6 5

2 15 6 5

3 20 6 8

Total N=50 n = 18 n = 18
Example:
Course No of Enrolles
MAED Math 40
MAED English 66
MAED Science 78
MAED ECD 34
MAED Reading 27
MAN 44
Total 289
Using Slovenes' Formula for sample n=167.78 or
168
Proportional
Course No of Enrolles Equal allocation Allocation
MAED Math 40 28 23
MAED English 66 28 38
MAED Science 78 28 45
MAED ECD 34 28 20
MAED Reading 27 28 16
MAN 44 28 26
Total 289 168 168

no. samples (n) 167.7793904

Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling with a “random
start” is a method of selecting a sample by
taking every kth unit from an ordered
population, the first unit being selected at
random.
Figure 6. Result of systematic sampling
showing the location of the sample
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43
44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is sometimes known as area
sampling because it is frequently applied on a
geographical basis.
A town or city may have blocks or districts
which constitute the clusters which are then
selected through simple random sampling. Units in
each cluster will also be drawn through simple
random selection
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

Multi-stage sampling involves several stages or phases in

drawing the sample. The population may be grouped by
hierarchy of units, say in a nationwide survey.
First select the regions, then provinces from the
selected regions, then towns from the chosen provinces,
the barangays from the selected towns, finally the sample
units from the selected barangays
 Non-Probability Sampling

1. Purposive/judgmental sampling.
Here the researcher uses his good
judgment in selecting the respondents who best
meet the purposes of his study.
2. Quota sampling
is the non-probability equivalent of stratified
sampling with the added requirement that each substratum
is generally represented in the sample in the same
proportion as in the population.
If sex has something to do with the sharp difference
of the characteristics one wishes to measure, then quota
should be allotted for males and another for females, the
proportions of which should reflect their respective
proportions in the population
3. Convenience/accidental sampling.

The investigator simply takes the closest persons as

respondents until the sample size has been reached.
4. Snowball sampling

This requires identification of a few persons who

meet the requisite characteristics needed in the study.
These persons act as informants to identify others who
qualify for inclusion in the sample who, in turn, lead to
more persons who can be added until the sample size is
reached.