MfM, Agro-Technical and Technology College

Department of Electrical and Electronics Technology

EET 4314- INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM

CHAPTER-5

MECHANICAL
DESIGN OF
OVERHEAD LINES

Lecture by: Semret M. (MSc)

Introduction
• Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by means of underground
cables or by overhead lines.

The underground cables are rarely used for power transmission due to 2 main reasons.
✓ Firstly, power is generally transmitted over long distances to load centres. Obviously,
the installation costs for underground transmission will be very heavy.

✓ Secondly, electric power has to be transmitted at high voltages for economic

reasons. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the cables to withstand
such higher pressures.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• Therefore, as a rule, power transmission over long distances is carried out
by using overhead lines.

• An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other

external interferences.

• This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety

in order to ensure the continuity of operation in the line.

• In general, the strength of the line should be such so as to provide

against the worst probable weather conditions.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Main Components of Overhead Lines

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Main Components of Overhead Lines

• An overhead line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power.

• The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent

upon the mechanical design of the line.

• While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical

strength of the line is such so as to provide against the most possible
weather conditions.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢In general, the main components of an overhead line are:
1. Support:- Depending on the working voltage and the region, poles or towers are used. The function of
the line support is obviously to support the conductor, so as to keep them at a suitable level above the
ground.

2. Cross arms and clamps:-These are used on pole structures to support the insulators and conductors
and are made of wood or steel angle section.

3. Insulators:- Pin, strain, or suspension types, depending on the application, for supporting conductors,
taking strain, or suspending conductors. Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the
conductors from the ground.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

4. Conductors:- which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving
end station.

5. Guys and Stays:- To resist lateral forces, braces or cables are fastened to the pole at
the termination or angle poles.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

6. Lightning Arrestors:- These devices are used to discharge excessive voltages built up on the line to
the ground as result of lightning strikes.

7. Fuses and Isolating Switches:- Fuses and isolating switches are used to isolate various parts of the
overhead system.

8. Continuous Earth Wire:- This is a wire that runs along the top of the towers to protect the line
from lightning strikes.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

9. Vee Guards:- They are often provided below bare overhead lines running along or across public
streets to make the line safe if it should break.

10. Guard Wires:- When a power line, telephone or telegraph line crossing, and then find the line that
connects the top and bottom of the Earth Wire is used to guard.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

11. Phase Plates:- They are used in order to distinguish the various phases.

12. Bird Guards:- it is created on the side of the saw teeth as long ebonite basest plate, it is attached
to the cross arm near the insulator to prevent flashover due to birds pecking on the conductors.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

13. Danger Plate:- It is provided on each pole, as a warning measure indicating the working voltage
of the line and the word “ danger”. It is provided at a height of 2.5 m from the ground.

14. Barbed Wire:- Barbed wire is surround on a pole at a height of about 2.5 m from the ground for at
least 1 meter. This prevents climbing by unauthorized persons.

15. Miscellaneous Items:- such as vibration dampers, top hampers, beads for jumpers etc.

➢ The continuity of operation in the overhead line depends upon the careful
& sensible choice of above components.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
All Basic Components found on an Overhead Lines

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

CONDUCTOR
MATERIALS
 Conductor Materials
• The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is
invested for it.

• Therefore, proper choice of material and size of the conductor is of considerable

importance.

• The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power
should have the following properties :

i. High electrical conductivity.

ii. High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.
iii. Low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
iv. Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while selecting a
conductor material for a particular case, a compromise is made between the cost and
the required electrical & mechanical properties.

• Common conductor materials: the most commonly used conductor materials for overhead
lines are copper, aluminium, steel-cored aluminium, galvanised steel and cadmium copper.

• The choice of a particular material will depend

upon:
✓ the cost,
✓ the required electrical & mechanical properties and
✓ the local conditions.

• All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to increase the
flexibility.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Line Supports
• The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are
various types of poles and towers called line supports.

• In general, the line supports should have the following

properties :

i. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc.
ii. Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength
iii. Cheap in cost and economical to maintain
iv. Longer life
v. Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
➢ The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon:
✓ The line span,
✓ X-sectional area,
✓ Line voltage, cost &
✓ Local conditions

➢ The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of
various types including:

1. Wooden poles,
2. Steel poles, R.C.C.
3. poles & Lattice steel
4. towers.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
1. Wooden poles

• These are made of seasoned wood and are suitable for lines of moderate X-
sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say upto 50 metres.

• Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties and,
therefore, are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas as an economical
proposition.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• Double pole structures of the ‘A’ or ‘H’ type are often used (See Fig. 4.1) to
obtain a higher transverse strength than could be economically provided by
means of single poles.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢The main objections to wooden supports are:

i. Tendency to rot below the ground level

ii. Comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
iii. Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
iv. Less mechanical strength and
v. Require periodical inspection.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Advantages of Wooden Poles
1. Their initial cost is low.
2. Being light in weight, they are portable.
3. Are bad conductors of electricity.
4. Well impregnated with oil has a longer life

Disadvantages of wooden poles

1. Forests are destroyed due to their use.
2. They are more prone to termites and fire
3. Their mechanical strength is less
4. The factor of safety for these pillars has to be kept very high 3.5
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
2. Steel poles
• The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles. They possess:
✓ Greater mechanical strength,
✓ Longer life and
✓ Permit longer spans to be used

• Such poles are generally used for distribution purposes in the cities.
This type of supports need to be galvanised or painted in order to continue its life.

➢ The steel poles are of three types viz.,

i. Rail poles
ii. Tubular poles and
iii. Rolled steel joints

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 3. RCC poles
• The reinforced concrete poles have become very popular as line supports
in recent years. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and
permit longer spans than steel poles.

• Moreover, they have:

✓ Give good outlook,
✓ Require little maintenance &
✓ Have good insulating properties
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
• Fig. 4.2 shows R.C.C. poles for single and double circuit. The holes in the
poles facilitate the climbing of poles & at the same time reduce the
weight of line supports.

• The main difficulty with the use of these poles is:

✓ the high cost of transport owing to their heavy weight.

• Therefore, such poles are often manufactured at the site in order to

avoid heavy cost of transportation.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
4. Steel towers
• In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for distribution
purposes at low voltages, say upto 11 kV.

• However, for long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably
employed.

• Steel towers have:

✓ Greater mechanical strength,
✓ Longer life,
✓ Can withstand most severe climatic conditions & Permit the use of longer spans.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• The risk of interrupted service due to broken insulation is
considerably reduced owing to longer spans.

• Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth.
This minimises the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a
lightning conductor.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• Fig. 4.3 (i) shows a single circuit tower. However, at a moderate additional cost, double
circuit tower can be provided as shown in Fig. 4.3 (ii).

• The double circuit has the advantage that it ensures continuity of supply.
✓ In case there is breakdown of one circuit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by the other circuit.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

➢ Classification of tower as per number of circuit carried away:
➢ Different height of tower based on Voltage level:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

All types of Supporter
 Sag in Overhead Lines
• While CREATING or ESTABILISHING an overhead line, it is very important that
conductors are under safe tension.

• If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save
conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in
certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive tension.

• In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully
stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

• The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.

• Fig. below shows a conductor suspended between two equal-level supports A and B.
✓ The conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a dip.
✓ The lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

The following points may be noted :

1. When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, it takes the shape
of catenary. However, if the sag is very small compared with the span, then sag-span curve is
like a parabola.

2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus tension TO at the lowest
point O acts horizontally as shown in Figure below.

3. The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire.

4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at any point
on the wire. Thus, if T is the tension at the support B, then T = TO.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Conductor sag and tension
• This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead lines. The conductor
sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor material required and to
avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above ground level.

• It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the mechanical failure
of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports.

• However, low conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag
means a tight wire and high tension, whereas a low tension means a loose wire and increased
sag.

• Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between the two.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Factor Affecting Sagging in a Transmission Line

1. Conductor Weight:
Heavier conductors tend to have greater sag.

2. Conductor Material:
Different materials, such as aluminum and copper, have varying expansion
coefficients and tensile strengths affecting sag.

3. Span Length:
Longer spans between towers result in greater sag due to the increased weight
of the conductor.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
4. Tension:
Higher tension reduces sag but can increase the risk of mechanical failure.

5. Temperature:
Conductors expand at higher temperatures, increasing sag.

6. Weather Conditions:
Wind and ice loading can add weight to conductors, increasing sag.

7. Clearance Requirements:
Sag must ensure that conductors maintain adequate clearance from the
ground, vegetation, and structures.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Significance of Sag:
1. Operational Safety:
Adequate sag prevents conductors from touching the ground or structures, reducing
the risk of short circuits and accidents.

2. Mechanical Stability:
Ensures that conductors can withstand environmental stresses like wind and
temperature variations.

3. Power Transmission Efficiency:

Proper sag maintains the optimal tension for efficient current flow and minimizes
power losses.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Minimizing Excess Sag:

1. Optimal Tensioning: Balancing tension to avoid mechanical failure while limiting sag.

2. Temperature Monitoring: Using temperature-resistant conductors to maintain

consistent sag levels.

3. Use of Composite Materials: Lightweight, high-strength materials can reduce sag.

4. Adjusting Tower Heights: Ensures proper clearance and mechanical efficiency.

➢ Proper sag management is critical for the safety, reliability, and efficiency
of high-voltage power transmission systems.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Calculation
of Sag
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Calculation of Sag
• In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is
within safe limits.

• The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and
temperature variations.

• It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50% of its ultimate tensile
strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in respect of conductor tension should be 2.

• When calculating sag in a transmission line, two different conditions need to be

considered:

1. When supports are at equal levels

2. When supports are not at equal levels

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Calculation of Sag…
1. When supports are at equal levels

• The formula to calculate sag changes based on whether the support levels (i.e. the transmission towers
holding up the overhead conductor) are at the same level.
• Sag calculation for supports are at equal levels

• Suppose, AOB is the conductor. A and B are points of supports. Point O is the lowest point and the midpoint.
• Equating two moments of two forces about point O as per the figure above we get,

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

 Calculation of Sag…
2. When supports are not at equal levels
• Suppose AOB is the conductor that has point O as the lowest point.

➢ Now,

✓ So, having calculated the value of x1 and x2, we can easily find out the value of sag S1 and sag S2.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Advantages of sag
• Sag determine the value of safe working tension (it reduce excessive tension) and the minimum
clearance of the conductor with respect to ground.

• The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor material
required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above ground level.

Disadvantage of sag
• If the sag is too small then the tension between two supports will increase so, it leads to break the
conductors.

• It Increases the Cost in Transmission Line when Too Much:. If there is too much sag in a
transmission line, it will increase the amount of conductor used, increasing the cost more than is necessary.

• It Causes Power Failure: When a transmission line sag excessively, it is liable of causing power failure. An
overheating electrical transmission line sagging into a tree sparked the greatest power failure.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Sag Template
• The sag template is used for allocating the position and height of the supports correctly on the profile.

• The sag template decided the limitations of vertical and wind load. It also limits the minimum clearance
angle between the sag and the ground for safety purpose.

• The sag template curves have the following marked on it:

1. Hot Template Curve or Hot Curve

2. Ground Clearance Curve
3. Support Foot or Tower Curve
4. Cold Curve or Uplift Curve

➢ The curves are explained below details in

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Hot Curve
• The hot curve is obtained by plotting the sag at maximum temperature against span length.
• It shows where the supports must be located to maintain the prescribed ground clearance.

Ground Clearance Curve

• The clearance curve is below the hot curve.
• It is drawn parallel to the hot curve & at a vertical distance equal to the ground clearance as prescribed by the regulation
for the given line.

Support Foot Curve

• This curve is drawn for locating the position of the supports for tower lines.
• It shows the height from the base of the standard support to the point of attachment of the lower conductor.
• For wood or concrete line, pole line this curve is not required to be drawn since they can be put in any convenient
position.

Cold Curve or Uplift Curve

• Uplift curve is obtained by plotting the sag at a minimum temperature without wind price against span length.
• This curve is drawn to determine whether uplift of conductor occurs on any support.
• The uplift conductor may occur at low temperature when one support is much lower than either of the adjoining ones.
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Stringing Chart
• The stringing chart is very useful to find the tension and the sag at any temperature and
the loading conditions when these values at any other temperature and the loading
conditions are known to us.

• Now the graph of tension verses temperature

and sag verses temperature can be plotted as
shown in the figure.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Example
& Exercise!
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
Problem 1 - Example
• 1 A 132 kV transmission line has the following data : Wt. of conductor = 680 kg/km ;
Length of span = 260 m ; Ultimate strength = 3100 kg ; Safety factor = 2 Calculate the
height above ground at which the conductor should be supported. Ground clearance
required is 10 meters.

Solution:

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

Problem 2 - Exercise
• The towers of height 30 m and 90 m respectively support a transmission line conductor at
water crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers is 500 m. If the tension in the
conductor is 1600 kg, find the minimum clearance of the conductor and water and
clearance mid-way between the supports. Weight of conductor is 1·5 kg/m. Bases of the
towers can be considered to be at water level.

Solution:
Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)
 Assignment
The Effect of Wind and Ice Loading in a

transmission line sag.

Lecture By: Semret M. (MSc)

THANK YOU!