Genetic Code

Index

1.What is genetic code

2.Introduction
3.Discovery
4.Codon
5.Types of codon
6.Anti codon
7.Difference between codon and anticodon
8.Characteristics of the Genetic Code
9.Degeneracy of genetic code
10.Wobble hypothesis
11.Mutation
12.Bibliography
What is genetic code?
The genetic code is the set of rules that defines how the sequence of
nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA) is translated into
proteins. These proteins are essential for the structure and function of
cells in living organisms.

Here are some key points about the genetic code:

1. Nucleotides and Codons: The genetic code is based on

sequences of four nucleotides in DNA (adenine [A], thymine
[T], cytosine [C], and guanine [G]). RNA, which is a messenger
molecule in the process of gene expression, uses uracil (U)
instead of thymine. Every three consecutive nucleotides in the
RNA sequence form a "codon," which corresponds to a specific
amino acid or a signal to start or stop protein synthesis.
2. Amino Acids: The codons in mRNA (messenger RNA) are
translated into amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids,
and they are the building blocks of proteins. A sequence of
amino acids forms a polypeptide chain, which folds into a
functional protein.
3. Universal: The genetic code is nearly universal across all living
organisms. This means that the same codon in one organism
(e.g., humans) will code for the same amino acid in another
organism (e.g., bacteria), showing how similar the biological
processes are across life forms.
4. Start and Stop Codons:
o Start codon: The codon AUG (adenine-uracil-guanine)
signals the beginning of protein synthesis and codes for the
amino acid methionine.
o Stop codons: There are three stop codons (UAA, UAG,
and UGA) that signal the end of protein synthesis.
5. Degeneracy: The genetic code is considered degenerate because
multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. For example,
both GCU and GCC code for the amino acid alanine.
 Introduction

The genetic code is a fundamental concept in molecular

biology that explains how genetic information, stored in DNA
(or RNA in some viruses), is translated into the synthesis of
proteins within cells. Proteins are essential molecules that
carry out most of the biological functions within an organism,
from structural support to catalysing biochemical reactions.
The genetic code consists of sequences of nucleotides, which
are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. There are four
nucleotides in DNA (adenine [A], thymine [T], cytosine [C],
and guanine [G]) and four in RNA (adenine [A], uracil [U],
cytosine [C], and guanine [G]). These nucleotides are
arranged in triplets called codons, each of which corresponds
to a specific amino acid, the building blocks of proteins.
The genetic code is nearly universal, meaning that the same
codons specify the same amino acids in nearly all living
organisms. This universality points to the shared evolutionary
origin of life on Earth. The code is also degenerate, meaning
that multiple codons can specify the same amino acid,
providing some redundancy and protection against genetic
mutations.
In addition to coding for amino acids, the genetic code also
contains start and stop signals to guide the process of protein
synthesis. The start codon (AUG) signals the beginning of
protein translation, while stop codons (UAA, UAG, and
UGA) signal the end of the process.
 Discovery

George Gamow:
George Gamow, a renowned physicist, made a significant
contribution to our understanding of the genetic code in the early
1950s. His work, although based on his background in physics, played
a key role in deciphering how genetic information is translated into
proteins.

Here are the key aspects of his contribution:

1. The Concept of Codons:

Gamow proposed the idea that the genetic code is based on triplets of
nucleotides, which he called codons. This concept was vital for
understanding how the sequence of DNA (or RNA) could specify a
sequence of amino acids in a protein. Before this, scientists had no
clear idea of how many nucleotides would be needed to code for an
amino acid.

He reasoned that with four nucleotides in DNA (adenine [A], cytosine

[C], guanine [G], and thymine [T]), a system of three-letter codons
would provide 64 possible combinations (4 × 4 × 4 = 64), which is
more than enough to code for the 20 amino acids that make up
proteins.

2. Triplet Code Hypothesis:

In 1954, Gamow published a hypothesis in which he proposed that the

genetic code is made up of three nucleotide bases, or triplets, that
each correspond to a specific amino acid. This was a crucial step in
the understanding of the code's structure, as it provided the foundation
for the experiments that would eventually confirm the triplet nature of
codons.
3. Use of Physical Models:

Gamow, who was deeply familiar with physics and mathematics, used
his expertise in these fields to approach the problem of the genetic
code. He even developed models of the genetic code using physical
models of RNA molecules, where groups of three nucleotides were
shown to be related to specific amino acids. This visualization helped
the scientific community understand the concept more clearly.

4. Gamow's "RNA Tetrahedron" Model:

One of his most famous contributions was his proposal of the RNA
tetrahedron model, where the nucleotides of RNA were visualized
as a three-dimensional shape, and the codons were arranged to match
up with specific amino acids. This model helped conceptualize how
genetic information might be translated into the amino acid sequences
of proteins.

Impact:

While Gamow's initial ideas about the genetic code were theoretical,
they laid the groundwork for later experimental discoveries. In the
following years, scientists like Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gobind
Khorana experimentally decoded the genetic code, confirming that
the code is indeed based on triplets of nucleotides.

Gamow's work bridged the gap between physics and biology, and his
creative, interdisciplinary approach significantly advanced our
understanding of the genetic code. His hypothesis about the triplet
codon system is now considered one of the most important steps in
molecular biology.
 Codon

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA

that encodes a specific amino acid or a signal to start or stop
the process of protein synthesis. Codons are a fundamental
part of the genetic code, which is the set of rules by which the
information in DNA (or RNA) is translated into proteins.
Key Points About Codons:
1. Triplet Code: Codons consist of three nucleotides
(bases) in a row. Each codon in the messenger RNA
(mRNA) sequence specifies a particular amino acid in a
protein.
o In DNA, the four bases are adenine (A), thymine

(T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).

o In RNA, thymine (T) is replaced by uracil (U).

2. Amino Acids: There are 20 different amino acids that

make up proteins. Since there are four different
nucleotides (A, T, C, G in DNA or A, U, C, G in RNA),
a sequence of three nucleotides (a codon) can form 64
possible combinations (4 × 4 × 4 = 64), more than
enough to cover all 20 amino acids.
3. Start Codon:
o The codon AUG (adenine-uracil-guanine) is the

start codon. It signals the beginning of protein

synthesis and also codes for the amino acid
methionine in eukaryotes (formylmethionine in
bacteria).
 4. Stop Codons:
o There are three stop codons that signal the

termination of protein synthesis:

 UAA

 UAG

 UGA These codons do not code for any amino

acid; instead, they tell the ribosome to stop

translating the mRNA into a protein.
5. Degeneracy of the Code: The genetic code is
degenerate, meaning that multiple codons can specify
the same amino acid. For example, the amino acid serine
can be encoded by the codons UCU, UCC, UCA, and
UCG.
6. Universal Code: The genetic code is nearly universal,
meaning that most organisms, from bacteria to humans,
use the same codons to produce proteins. This
universality suggests a common evolutionary origin for
life on Earth.
Example of Codons in mRNA:
 AUG → Methionine (Start codon)
 UUU → Phenylalanine
 UCG → Serine
 UAA → Stop codon
Type of codon:
1. Start Codon:
o Function: Signals the initiation of translation and

the start of a protein-coding sequence.

o Example: AUG (codes for methionine in

eukaryotes and sometimes formylmethionine in

prokaryotes).
2. Stop Codons (Termination Codons):
o Function: Signal the termination of translation,

ending the protein synthesis process.

o Examples:

 UAA: Known as ochre.

 UAG: Known as amber.

 UGA: Known as opal.

3. Sense Codons:
o Function: Code for specific amino acids (other than

stop codons).
o Examples: The remaining 61 codons out of the total

64 in the genetic code.

4. Redundant Codons (Degeneracy of the Code):
o Function: Multiple codons can encode the same

amino acid due to redundancy in the genetic code.

o Example: Both UCU and UCC code for serine.

5. Universal Codons:
o Codons that are conserved across almost all

organisms, reflecting the universality of the genetic

code.
o Rare exceptions are seen in some mitochondria and

microorganisms.

Anticodon
An anticodon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecule that is complementary to a codon in messenger
RNA (mRNA). Here are the key points about anticodons:

1. Complementary Base Pairing:

o Each anticodon matches a specific codon on the mRNA
through complementary base pairing (e.g., codon AUG
pairs with anticodon UAC).
2. Role in Translation:
o Anticodons are crucial in the process of translation, where
the genetic code in mRNA is read to synthesize proteins.
o They ensure that the correct amino acid is added to the
growing polypeptide chain.
3. tRNA Molecule:
o The anticodon is located on one loop of the tRNA
molecule, opposite the site where the corresponding amino
acid is attached.
4. Wobble Hypothesis:
o The third position of the anticodon (the "wobble" position)
can sometimes pair with more than one base in the codon,
allowing flexibility in the genetic code.
5. Specificity:
o Each tRNA is specific to one amino acid, which
corresponds to its anticodon-codon pair.
6. Interaction with Ribosomes:
o During translation, the anticodon of the tRNA pairs with
the codon on the mRNA in the ribosome's active site.
7. Genetic Fidelity:
o The anticodon ensures that the genetic information is
translated accurately, maintaining the correct sequence of
amino acids in proteins.
Difference between codon and anti
codon:
 Feature Codon Anticodon
A sequence of three A sequence of three
nucleotides in mRNA that nucleotides in tRNA
Definition
codes for a specific that is complementary
amino acid or stop signal. to a codon in mRNA.
Found on messenger Found on transfer
Location
RNA (mRNA). RNA (tRNA).
Specifies which amino
Ensures that the correct
acid is to be added to the
amino acid is delivered
Function polypeptide chain or
to the ribosome by
signals termination of
pairing with the codon.
translation.
Matches the anticodon Matches the codon
Complementarity through complementary through complementary
base pairing. base pairing.
Uses complementary
Uses standard nucleotide
Sequence bases: U pairs with A,
bases: A, U, G, C (in
Relation A with U, G with C,
RNA).
and C with G.
Provides the genetic Decodes the codon by
Role in
instructions for protein pairing with it to bring
Translation
synthesis in the ribosome. the correct amino acid.
Example: AUG (start Example: UAC
codon), UUU (anticodon for start
Key Examples
(phenylalanine), UAA codon AUG), AAA
(stop codon). (anticodon for UUU).

Characteristics of the Genetic Code:

 Triplet Code:
  Each codon consists of three nucleotides, and each
triplet corresponds to a specific amino acid or a stop
signal.
 Universal:
 The genetic code is nearly the same in all living
organisms, from bacteria to humans, demonstrating
evolutionary conservation. Exceptions occur in some
mitochondria and microorganisms.
 Degenerate (Redundant):
 Most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon.
For example, leucine is coded by UUA, UUG, CUU,
CUC, CUA, and CUG.
 Non-Overlapping:
 The genetic code is read sequentially in groups of three
nucleotides without overlapping or skipping nucleotides.
 Unambiguous:
 Each codon specifies only one amino acid or a
termination signal, ensuring precision in protein
synthesis.

 Has Start and Stop Signals:

 Start Codon: Usually AUG, which codes for methionine
and signals the start of translation.
  Stop Codons: UAA, UAG, and UGA, which signal the
end of translation.
 Comma-Free:
 Codons are read continuously without spaces or
punctuation between them, once translation starts.
 Non-Random:
 Codons coding for the same amino acid often have
similar sequences, reducing the effects of point
mutations.
 Wobble Hypothesis:
 The third base of a codon is often less critical and allows
for pairing flexibility, which explains the degeneracy of
the code.
 Directionality:
 The code is read in the 5’ to 3’ direction on the mRNA
strand.

Degeneracy of genetic code:

Degeneracy of the Genetic Code refers to the phenomenon
where multiple codons can encode the same amino acid. This
characteristic is a key feature of the genetic code and
contributes to its robustness and evolutionary efficiency.
 Multiple Codons for One Amino Acid:
 There are 64 possible codons (4 bases, each in 3
positions: 43=644^3 = 6443=64), but only 20 amino
acids are coded by these codons.
 As a result, most amino acids are specified by more than
one codon.
 Example:
 Leucine: Encoded by six codons (UUA, UUG, CUU,
CUC, CUA, CUG).
 Phenylalanine: Encoded by two codons (UUU, UUC).
 Synonymous Codons:
 Codons that code for the same amino acid are called
synonymous codons.
 Synonymous codons often differ at the third nucleotide
position, known as the wobble position.
 Wobble Hypothesis:
 Proposed by Francis Crick, this explains that the third
base of a codon is less specific, allowing tRNA to pair
with multiple codons.
 For example, tRNA with anticodon GGU can pair with
codons GGA, GGG, or GGC.
 Not Universal:
  Some amino acids, such as methionine (AUG) and
tryptophan (UGG), are encoded by a single codon and
thus are not degenerate.
 Benefits of Degeneracy:
 Error Tolerance: Reduces the impact of point mutations
in the third nucleotide of a codon (silent mutations), as
the mutated codon may still encode the same amino acid.
 Evolutionary Flexibility: Allows genetic variation
without drastically affecting protein function.
 Impact on Translation:
 Degeneracy ensures efficiency in protein synthesis by
enabling the use of fewer types of tRNA molecules.
Wobble Hypothesis
The Wobble Hypothesis explains the flexibility in base
pairing between the codon in messenger RNA (mRNA) and
the anticodon in transfer RNA (tRNA) during translation.
Proposed by Francis Crick in 1966, it accounts for how a
single tRNA can recognize multiple codons for the same
amino acid, contributing to the degeneracy of the genetic
code.

Key Points of the Wobble Hypothesis

1. Flexibility at the Third Position:
o The first two nucleotides in the codon form strong

Watson-Crick base pairs with the last two

nucleotides of the anticodon.
o The third position of the codon (5' end of the

anticodon, 3' end of the codon) allows non-

standard base pairing or "wobbling."
2. Non-Standard Pairings:
o At the wobble position, certain bases in the tRNA

anticodon can pair with multiple bases in the mRNA

codon:
 Inosine (I) in tRNA can pair with U, C, or A.

 G in tRNA can pair with C or U.

 U in tRNA can pair with A or G.

3. Codon Recognition:
o Due to wobble, fewer tRNA molecules are needed

to recognize all 61 sense codons.

 Example: A tRNA with anticodon GCU can
o

recognize the codons CGA and CGU, both coding

for arginine.
4. Mechanism:
o Wobble occurs because the ribosome's structure

allows a slight relaxation in the pairing rules at the

third codon position.

Benefits of the Wobble Hypothesis

1. Efficiency:
o Reduces the number of unique tRNA molecules

required for translation.

2. Error Tolerance:
o Silent mutations in the third base of codons are

often neutral because of degeneracy.

3. Evolutionary Adaptation:
o Allows flexibility in genetic code usage across

organisms.

Illustrative Example:
 Codons for glycine: GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG.
 A tRNA with anticodon CCI (where I = inosine) can
recognize all four codons.
Mutation
A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of
an organism. These changes can occur naturally during DNA
replication or be induced by external factors. Mutations play a
significant role in evolution, genetic diversity, and can also
lead to genetic disorders or diseases.

Types of Mutations
1. Based on the Nature of Change:
 Point Mutation:
o A single nucleotide is altered.

o Subtypes:

 Substitution: One base is replaced by another.

 Silent Mutation: No change in the amino

acid sequence.
 Missense Mutation: Alters the amino

acid (e.g., sickle cell anemia).

 Nonsense Mutation: Creates a premature

stop codon.
o Example: Substitution of A with G in a codon.

 Frameshift Mutation:
o Caused by the insertion or deletion of nucleotides.

o Alters the reading frame of the genetic code.

o Typically leads to nonfunctional proteins.

 Insertion/Deletion:
o Addition or removal of nucleotides in the DNA

sequence.
2. Based on Impact on Function:
 Neutral Mutation:
 o No significant effect on the organism's fitness.
 Beneficial Mutation:
o Provides an advantage (e.g., antibiotic resistance in

bacteria).
 Harmful Mutation:
o Disrupts normal function, leading to diseases or

disorders.
3. Based on Scale:
 Small-Scale Mutations:
o Affect one or a few nucleotides (e.g., point

mutations).
 Large-Scale Mutations:
o Involve structural changes in chromosomes (e.g.,

deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion).

Bibliography
1.Google.
2.Chatgpt.
3.Scribd.