CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY

Anatomy
- the study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts. It can be divided into:
a. Gross anatomy: The study of large, visible structures
(e.g., organs, bones).
b. Microscopic anatomy: The study of structures too small
to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cells, tissues).
Physiology
- the study of how the body and its parts function. It
includes various subdivisions, such as neurophysiology and
cardiac physiology.
The Relationship Between Anatomy and Physiology
- Interconnected: Anatomy and physiology are closely
related.
- Structure determines function: The structure of a body
part determines its function. For example, the thin walls of
the lungs allow for gas exchange.
- Integrated system: The body's parts work together as a
well-organized unit.

Levels of Structural Organization

Survival Needs
 Nutrients: Food provides energy and building materials.
 Oxygen: Required for cellular respiration and energy
production.
 Water: Essential for bodily functions and maintaining fluid
balance.
 Appropriate Temperature: Body temperature must be
maintained within a narrow range.
 Atmospheric Pressure: Necessary for breathing and gas
exchange.
Necessary Life Functions  Limitations: Cannot visualize air-filled structures or
1. Maintaining Boundaries those surrounded by bone.
 Cellular level: Cell membranes separate cells from the 3. Nuclear medicine: Uses radioactive isotopes to visualize
external environment. metabolic activity.
 Organismal level: The integumentary system (skin)  Example: Positron emission tomography (PET).
protects the body from the external environment. 4. Computed tomography (CT): Uses X-rays to create
2. Movement detailed cross-sectional images.
 Muscular system: Promotes movement of the body and its  Advantages: Excellent for visualizing organs and tissues.
parts.  Applications: Brain, abdomen, and heart evaluation.
 Other systems: Cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary 5. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Uses magnetic fields
systems move substances within the body. and radio waves to create images.
3. Responsiveness  Advantages: Excellent for visualizing soft tissues,
 Nervous system: The primary system responsible for especially the brain and spinal cord.
responsiveness, allowing the body to sense and react to  Limitations: Cannot be used with patients who have
stimuli. certain metal implants.
 Other cells: All body cells are responsive to some extent. Directional Terms
4. Digestion - allows medical personnel and anatomists to explain
 Digestive system: Breaks down food into simple molecules exactly where one body structure is in relation to
for absorption. another
 Cardiovascular system: Distributes nutrients to body cells.
5. Metabolism
 Chemical reactions: Includes breaking down substances,
building structures, and producing energy (ATP).
 Dependent systems: Digestive, respiratory, and
cardiovascular systems provide nutrients and oxygen.
 Regulation: Regulated by hormones from the endocrine
system.
6. Excretion
 Removal of wastes: Involves the digestive, urinary, and
integumentary systems.
7. Reproduction
 Cellular level: Cell division for growth and repair.
 Organismal level: Reproductive system produces offspring.
8. Growth
 Increase in size: Occurs through cell division and
enlargement.
 Regulation: Influenced by hormones from the endocrine
system.

Medical Imaging
- the use of technology to visualize internal structures of the
body
- Diagnosis: Identifying abnormalities in organs and tissues.
- Treatment planning: Guiding surgical procedures and
radiation therapy.
- Monitoring disease progression: Tracking changes in the
body over time.
- Research: Studying the structure and function of organs
and tissues.
Types of Medical Imaging
1. X-rays: Oldest and most common form of medical imaging.
 Uses: Visualizing bones, lungs, and breasts.
 Examples: Mammography, bone densitometry.
2. Ultrasound: Uses high-frequency sound waves to create
images.
 Advantages: Safe, non-invasive, good for visualizing soft
tissues and fetal development.
Anatomical Position and Regional Terms  cephalic (seh-f˘a′lik): head
- allows to accurately describe body parts and position  femoral (fem′or-al): thigh
 gluteal (gloo′te-al): buttock
 lumbar (lum′bar): area of back between ribs and hips; the
loin
 occipital (ok-sip′˘ı-tal): posterior surface of head or base of
skull
 olecranal (ol-eh-kra′nel): posterior surface of elbow
 plantar: sole of the foot
 popliteal (pop-lit′e-al): posterior knee area
 sacral (sa′krul): area between hips at base of spine
 scapular (skap′u-lar): shoulder blade region
 sural (soo′ral): the posterior surface of leg; the calf
 vertebral (ver′t˘e-bral): area of spinal column

Body Planes and Sections

- Body planes: imaginary lines used to divide the body into
different sections.
Anterior (Ventral) Body Landmarks - Body sections: actual cuts made along these planes.
 abdominal (ab-dom′˘ı-nal): anterior body trunk inferior to Types of Planes and Sections
ribs  Sagittal section: A cut along the lengthwise plane of the
 acromial (ah-kro′me-ul): point of shoulder body, dividing it into right and left parts.
 antebrachial (an″te-bra′ke-al): forearm a. Median (midsagittal) section: equal
 antecubital (an″te-ku′b˘ı-tal): anterior surface of elbow b. Parasagittal section: unequal
 axillary (ak′s˘ı-lar″e): armpit  Frontal (coronal) section: A cut along a lengthwise plane
 brachial (bra′ke-al): arm that divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
 buccal (buk′al): cheek area  Transverse (cross) section: A cut along a horizontal plane
 carpal (kar′pal): wrist that divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
 cervical (ser′v˘ı-kal): neck region
 coxal (kok′sal): hip
 crural (kroo′ral): anterior leg; the shin.
 deltoid (del′toyd): curve of shoulder formed by large
deltoid muscle
 digital (dij′˘ı-tal): fingers, toes
 femoral (fem′or-al): thigh (applies to both anterior and
posterior)
 fibular (fib′u-lar): lateral part of leg
 frontal (frun′tal): forehead Body Cavities
 inguinal (in′gw˘ı-nal): area where thigh meets body trunk; - are spaces within the body that contain and protect organs
groin 1. Dorsal Body Cavity
 mental (men′tul): chin  Cranial cavity: Contains the brain.
 nasal (na′zul): nose area  Spinal cavity: Contains the spinal cord.
 oral (o′ral): mouth 2. Ventral Body Cavity
 orbital (or′b˘ı-tal): eye area  Thoracic cavity: Located superior to the diaphragm.
 patellar (pah-tel′er): anterior knee a. Mediastinum: Central region that separates the lungs
 pectoral (pek′to-ral): relating to, or occurring in or on, the and contains the heart, trachea, and other organs.
chest  Abdominopelvic cavity: Located inferior to the diaphragm.
 pelvic (pel′vik): area overlying the pelvis anteriorly a. Abdominal cavity: Contains the stomach, liver,
 pubic (pyu′bik): genital region intestines, and other organs.
 sternal (ster′nul): breastbone area b. Pelvic cavity: Contains the reproductive organs, bladder,
 tarsal (tar′sal): ankle region and rectum.
 thoracic (tho-ras′ik): area between the neck and abdomen, Other Body Cavities:
supported by the ribs, sternum and costal cartilages; chest  Oral cavity: Contains the teeth and tongue.
 umbilical (um-bil′˘ı-kal): navel  Nasal cavity: Part of the respiratory system.
Posterior (Dorsal) Body Landmarks  Orbital cavities: Contain the eyes.
 calcaneal (kal-ka′ne-ul): heel of foot  Middle ear cavities: Contain the middle ear bones.
Homeostasis
- is the body’s ability to maintain a stable internal
environment despite external changes
- involves various organ systems working together to
regulate factors such as temperature, blood pressure, and
blood sugar levels
Components of Homeostatic Control Systems:
 Receptor: Detects changes in the environment (stimuli).
 Control center: Analyzes information and determines the
appropriate response.
 Effector: Carries out the response.
Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback: Most common type, reduces the
original stimulus.
Example: Regulating body temperature.
 Positive feedback: Amplifies the original stimulus.
Example: Blood clotting, childbirth.
Key Concepts
 Dynamic equilibrium: Homeostasis involves maintaining a
balance within a narrow range.
 Multiple systems involved: All organ systems contribute
to homeostasis.
 Communication: Nervous and endocrine systems play
crucial roles in communication and regulation.
 Survival needs: Homeostasis ensures the availability of
essential factors for survival (nutrients, oxygen, water,
temperature, pressure).
The Elements of a Homeostatic Control System
CHAPTER 3: CELLS AND TISSUES Cell Membrane Junctions
Tight Junctions
CELLS - are like a zipper that seals cells together tightly. They
- the structural units of all living things prevent things from leaking between cells, like digestive
- 1600s Robert Hooke juices in the intestine.
1800s Cell Theory Desmosomes
- A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living - are anchoring points that connect cells together, providing
organisms. So, when you define cell properties, you are in structural support. They are strong and help cells
fact defining the properties of life. withstand stress, like in the heart or skin.
- The activity of an organism depends on the collective Gap Junctions
activities of its cells. - or communicating junctions connect cells, allowing
- According to the principle of complementarity, the communication and the exchange of substances. They are
activities of cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy), often found in the heart and between developing cells.
which determines function (physiology). Connexons, the transmembrane protein channels that
- Continuity of life has a cellular basis. form these junctions, enable direct communication
ANATOMY OF THE CELL between cells.
Nucleus Cytoplasm
- “headquarters” or control center - the “factory floor” found outside the nucleus and inside
- contains DNA (has genes which carry instructions for the plasma membrane
building proteins Cytosol
Nuclear envelope - a semi-transparent fluid that suspends other elements
- double membrane barrier: in between the membrane is a Inclusions
fluid-filled “moat” - the “pantry” that stores nutrients or cell products floating
- two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse generating in the cytosol
openings called nuclear pores Organelles
- enclose a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm - are metabolic machinery of the cell
Nucleolus
- sites where ribosomes are assembled then most migrate
to cytoplasm to serve as sites of protein synthesis

Chromatin
- when cell is not dividing, its DNA is carefully wound around
proteins called histones to form chromatin
- when cell is dividing to form two daughter cells, the
chromatin threads coil and condense to form dense,
rodlike bodies called chromosomes (chromo = colored,
soma = body)
Plasma membrane
- is a fragile transparent barrier that contains cell contents
and separates them from the surrounding environment
- Fluid Mosaic Model is the structure of the plasma
membrane consists of 2 phospholipids (fat) layers
arranged “tail to tail” with cholesterol and floating
proteins scattered among them. Some phospholipids may
also have sugar groups attached, forming glycolipids. The
proteins, some of which are free to move and bob in the
lipid layer, form a constantly changing pattern or mosaic
- polar “heads” of lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules
are hydrophilic (“water loving”)
- nonpolar fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic (“water
fearing”)
- Branching sugar groups attached to proteins are called
glycoproteins because of this the cell surface is a fuzzy,
sticky, sugar-rich area called glycocalyx.
Cell Extensions Filtration
Cilia - the process by which water and solutes are forced through
- are whiplike cellular extensions that move substances a membrane (or capillary wall) by fluid, or hydrostatic
along the cell surface pressure
- when a cell is about to make cilia, its centrioles multiply Active Processes
and then line up beneath the plasma membrane at the Active transport is a cellular process that requires energy to
free cell surface. Microtubules then begin to “sprout” from move substances against their concentration gradient. This
the centrioles and put pressure on the membrane, forming means that the substances are being transported from an area
the projections. of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration,
Flagella which is energetically unfavorable.
- projections formed by the centrioles are substantially 1. Active Transport
longer (e.g. sperm) - “solute pumping” is an energy-requiring process that
Microvilli moves substances against their concentration gradient,
- are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane using protein carriers. It differs from facilitated diffusion,
that project from an exposed cell surface which does not require energy and moves substances with
CELL DIVERSITY their concentration gradient.
 Cells that connect body parts - e.g. sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump alternately carries
Fibroblast: Elongated, responsible for producing connective sodium ions (Na+) out of and potassium ions (K+) into the
tissue fibers. cell
Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cell): Disk-shaped, carries oxygen in 2. Vesicular Transport
the blood. Lacks organelles to maximize oxygen-carrying - process uses ATP to fuse or separate membrane vesicles,
capacity. allowing substances to be moved into or out of cells in
 Cells that cover and line body organs bulk without directly crossing the plasma membrane.
Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle Cells: Elongated, filled a. Exocytosis
with contractile filaments, capable of movement. Cells that - Cells release substances (like hormones or waste) by
move organs and body parts packaging them in vesicles, which fuse with the cell
 Cell that stores nutrients membrane and release their contents.
Fat Cell: Spherical shape, stores nutrients. b. Endocytosis
 Cell that fights disease - cells take in substances by forming vesicles around them,
Macrophage (White Blood Cell): Phagocytic, moves through which then move into the cell. This can be used to take in
tissues to fight infection. nutrients or to break down foreign substances.
 Cell that gathers information and control body  Phagocytosis: A type of endocytosis where cells "eat"
functions large particles like bacteria by engulfing them with
Nerve Cell (Neuron): Long processes for communication, pseudopods.
synthesizes membrane components and neurotransmitters.  Pinocytosis: A type of endocytosis where cells "drink"
 Cells of reproduction extracellular fluid by forming tiny pits in the cell
Oocyte (Female): Largest cell, contains multiple copies of membrane.
organelles.  Receptor-mediated endocytosis: A specific type of
Sperm (Male): Long and streamlined for swimming, propelled endocytosis where cells take in specific substances by
by a flagellum. binding to receptors on the cell surface. This process is
CELL PHYSIOLOGY highly selective and allows cells to take in only the
Membrane Transport substances they need.
Solution - a homogeneous solution of two or more TONICS
components Isotonic - equal solutions
Solvent - largest amount substance in a solution Hypertonic - more solutes
Solute - smaller amount substance in a solution Hypotonic - more solvent
Passive Processes: Diffusion and Filtration CELL LIFE CYCLE
Passive transport does not require energy and occurs when - the stages a cell goes through from its creation to division
substances move from an area of higher concentration to an Two Main Phases:
area of lower concentration, following their concentration 1. Interphase: “metabolic phase” cell growth and normal
gradient. This is a natural process that is driven by the random activities.
2. Cell Division: Cell reproduction.
movement of molecules.
a. Mitosis (body cells)
Diffusion
b. Meiosis (sex cells)
- particles tend to move away from areas where they are Mitosis
most highly concentrated and to become evenly Prophase
distributed - the nucleolus disappears as the nuclear envelope breaks
1. Simple Diffusion – lipid soluble solutes directly through down
phospholipid bilayer - the centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell, forming
Osmosis - diffusion of water through a selectively the mitotic spindle.
permeable membrane such as the plasma me Metaphase
2. Facilitated Diffusion – lipid-insoluble and too large to pass
through the membrane pores
 - the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate, attaching  Squamous: Found in the skin, mouth, and esophagus.
to the spindle fibers at their centromeres  Cuboidal and Columnar: Less common, found in some
Anaphase ducts.
- the sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite  Transitional: Can change shape, found in the urinary
poles of the cell by the spindle fibers bladder.
Telophase 3. Glandular Epithelium: These cells produce and secrete
- nuclear envelopes reform around the separated substances.
chromatids at each pole  Endocrine: Release hormones directly into the
- the nucleolus reappears within each new nucleus. bloodstream.
- the spindle fibers disassemble  Exocrine: Release secretions through ducts.
- cytokinesis occurs, dividing the cytoplasm and forming two  CONNECTIVE TISSUE
new cells, each with a complete set of organelles - connects body parts
Protein Synthesis phases - protects, supports, binds together other body tissues
1. Transcription - Cell Types: Connective tissues contain various cell types,
- when complementary mRNA (the messenger) is made such as fibroblasts, adipocytes, and chondrocytes.
using the information in the DNA gene - Fiber Types: The extracellular matrix contains different
2. Translation types of fibers, including collagen, elastic, and reticular
- when the information carried in mRNA molecules is fibers.
“decoded” and translated from nucleic acids into proteins Hallmarks:
1. Extracellular Matrix: A non-living substance that surrounds
BODY TISSUES and supports connective tissue cells. It consists of ground
- groups of cells that are similar in structure and function substance and fibers.
 EPITHELIAL TISSUE 2. Variations in Blood Supply: Some connective tissues are
- the lining, covering, glandular tissue of the body well-vascularized (e.g., bone), while others have limited
- protects, absorbs, filtrates, and secretes blood supply (e.g., tendons, ligaments, cartilage).
- are avascular (no blood supply) Types of Connective Tissue
- regenerate easily when well-nourished 1. Bone: Also known as osseous tissue, it is hard and rigid,
- Mucosae are specialized epithelial tissues that line body provides support and protection. It contains osteocytes
cavities exposed to the exterior. They often contain goblet (bone cells) embedded in a hard matrix.
cells that produce mucus for protection and lubrication. 2. Cartilage: A flexible and resilient tissue.
Locations of Mucosae:  Hyaline cartilage: The most common type, found in the
Digestive tract trachea, ribs, and joints.
Respiratory tract  Fibrocartilage: A tough, shock-absorbing cartilage found in
Layers the intervertebral discs.
1. Apical surface  Elastic cartilage: Flexible and elastic, found in structures
- exposed surface and can have modifications like microvilli like the external ear.
or cilia 3. Dense Connective Tissue: Strong and fibrous, found in
2. Type of Epithelial Tissue tendons (attach muscles to bones), ligaments (connects
bones to bones at joints), and the dermis (lower layer of
the skin). It contains fibroblasts (cells that produce
collagen fibers).
4. Loose Connective Tissue: Softer and more flexible,
includes areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue.
 Areolar tissue: A loose connective tissue that provides
support and cushioning.
 Adipose tissue: Stores fat for energy.
 Reticular tissue: Forms the stroma (internal framework) of
3. Basal surface lymphoid organs.
- bottom or attached surface that rests on the basement 5. Blood: Also known as vascular tissue, is a specialized
membrane connective tissue that transports substances throughout
Types of Epithelial Tissue the body. It consists of blood cells and a fluid matrix called
1. Simple Epithelium: blood plasma.
 Squamous: Flat and thin, found in places like the lungs and  MUSCLE TISSUE
blood vessels. - specialized to contact and generates force for movement
 Cuboidal: Cube-shaped, found in glands and kidney tubules. - Contractility: The ability to shorten and generate force.
 Columnar: Single layer of tall, rectangular cells, found in the - Excitability: The ability to respond to stimuli.
digestive tract. Often contains goblet cells that produce mucus. - Extensibility: The ability to be stretched.
 Pseudostratified Columnar: Looks layered but is actually a - Elasticity: The ability to return to its original length after
single layer, found in the respiratory tract. Often contains being stretched.
goblet cells that produce mucus. Types of Muscle Tissue
2. Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers of cells, typically for 1. Skeletal Muscle “voluntary muscle”
protection. Voluntary control: Can be consciously controlled.
 Striated: Has a striped appearance.  Phagocytes remove the blood clot.
Multinucleated: Contains multiple nuclei.  Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers.
Location: Attached to bones. 3. Regeneration and Fibrosis
Function: Produces body movement and facial  Surface epithelium regenerates.
expressions.  Scar tissue (fibrosis) forms to bridge the gap.
2. Cardiac Muscle “involuntary muscle” or “myocardium”  The scab detaches.
Involuntary control: Cannot be consciously controlled. Factors Affecting Tissue Repair
Striated: Has a striped appearance. 1. Tissue type: Some tissues regenerate better than others
Single-nucleated: Contains a single nucleus. (e.g., epithelial tissues vs. cardiac muscle).
Location: Found only in the heart wall. 2. Severity of injury: Clean cuts heal better than ragged tears.
Function: Pumps blood through the body. Complications of Tissue Repair
Intercalated discs: Specialized junctions that allow Contractures: Permanent tightening of the skin that can limit
electrical signals to spread quickly. movement.
Functional syncytium: A network of interconnected
cardiac muscle cells that allows for coordinated DELEPOMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND TISSUES
contraction. - occur throughout life, with the most rapid growth
3. Smooth Muscle “visceral muscle” happening during childhood and adolescence. This growth
Involuntary control: Cannot be consciously controlled. is driven by cell division (mitosis).
Non-striated: Does not have a striped appearance. Cell Division
Single-nucleated: Contains a single nucleus. 1. Mitosis: Most cells undergo mitosis until puberty, leading
Location: Found in the walls of hollow organs (e.g., to body growth.
stomach, intestines, blood vessels). 2. Post-puberty: Only certain cells continue to divide, such as
Function: Controls the movement of substances through skin and intestinal cells.
organs. 3. Amitotic cells: Some cells, like heart muscle and nervous
Peristalsis: Wave-like contractions that propel substances tissue, lose their ability to divide after maturity.
through organs. Aging
 NERVOUS TISSUE  Causes: The exact causes of aging are unknown, but
- transmits electrical signals throughout the body theories include chemical insults, physical factors, and
- found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves genetic factors.
- Sensory function: Receives information from the  Changes: Aging leads to changes in tissues, such as
environment and transmits it to the brain and spinal cord. thinning of epithelial membranes, decreased gland
- Integration function: Processes information and makes activity, and decreased bone density.
decisions. Abnormal Cell Growth
- Motor function: Sends commands to muscles and organs 1. Neoplasms: Abnormal cell masses that can be benign or
to produce responses. malignant.
- Homeostatic regulation: Helps to maintain the body's a. Benign neoplasms: Non-cancerous, encapsulated, slow-
internal environment. growing, and do not metastasize.
Types of Nervous Tissue b. Malignant neoplasms (cancer): Cancerous, not
1. Neurons: the functional cells of nervous tissue encapsulated, rapidly growing, and can metastasize.
Irritability: The ability to respond to stimuli. Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells spread
Conductivity: The ability to transmit electrical impulses. from the primary tumor to other parts of the body,
Unique structure: Neurons have long processes called
forming secondary tumors.
dendrites and axons that allow them to conduct signals
2. Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number due to stimulation.
over long distances.
3. Atrophy: Decrease in cell number due to lack of
2. Neuroglia: supporting cells that provide insulation,
stimulation.
support, and protection for neurons
TISSUE REPAIR
- the process by which the body repairs damaged tissue. It
involves two main mechanisms: regeneration and fibrosis
a. Regeneration: involves replacing damaged tissue with the
same type of cells
b. Fibrosis: involves replacing damaged tissue with scar
tissue (dense connective tissue)
Tissue Repair Process
1. Inflammation
 Injured tissue releases inflammatory chemicals.
 Blood vessels become leaky, allowing fluid and clotting
proteins to enter the area.
 A clot forms to stop bleeding and prevent infection.
 A scab forms if the clot is exposed to air.
2. Granulation Tissue Formation
 New blood vessels grow into the damaged area.
CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES  Epidermal dendritic cells: Alert the immune system to
threats.
BODY MEMBRANES
 Longerhans cells: Part of the immune system.
- cover surfaces, line body cavities, and form protective
 Merkel cells: Sensory receptors for touch.
sheets around organs. They fall into two main categories:
 Layers of the Epidermis:
1. Epithelial Membranes:
a. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum): The deepest
- Cutaneous membrane (skin): The outermost layer of the
layer, containing stem cells that divide to produce new
body.
epidermal cells.
 Epidermis: The superficial layer, composed of stratified
b. Stratum spinosum: Contains spiny-looking cells and is
squamous epithelium.
where keratinization begins.
 Dermis: The deeper layer, composed of dense connective
c. Stratum granulosum: Contains granules of keratin and
tissue.
other proteins.
- Mucous membranes: Line body cavities that open to the
d. Stratum lucidum: Only present in thick skin, a clear layer
exterior, such as the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
of dead cells.
reproductive tracts.
e. Stratum corneum: The outermost layer, composed of
 Epithelial layer: Varies depending on the location. dead, keratinized cells.
Examples include stratified squamous epithelium (mouth, 2. Dermis
esophagus) and simple columnar epithelium (digestive  Connective tissue: Composed of dense irregular
tract).
connective tissue.
 Lamina propria: Underlying connective tissue layer.
 Contains: Blood vessels, sweat glands, oil glands, hair
- Serous membranes: Line body cavities that are closed to
follicles, and sensory receptors.
the exterior, such as the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
 Layers of the Dermis:
 Parietal layer: Lines the cavity walls.
a. Papillary layer: Contains dermal papillae with capillary
 Visceral layer: Covers the organ. loops, pain receptors, and touch receptors.
 Serous fluid: Lubricating fluid between the two layers. b. Reticular layer: Contains collagen and elastic fibers,
2. Connective Tissue Membranes: blood vessels, sweat glands, oil glands, and lamellar
- Synovial membranes: Line joint cavities and secrete corpuscles.
synovial fluid for lubrication. 3. Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue)
 Composition: Composed of loose areolar connective - the deepest layer of the skin.
tissue. - is composed mainly of adipose tissue and provides
 Function: Provides a smooth surface and secretes insulation, cushioning, and energy storage
synovial fluid for lubrication. - anchors the skin to the underlying muscles and bones
Bursae and tendon sheaths are specialized connective tissue
structures lined by synovial membranes.
 Bursae are small, fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction
between bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
 Tendon sheaths are elongated bursae that surround
tendons, providing protection and reducing friction.
Function of the Integumentary System

Structure of the Skin

1. Epidermis
 Stratified squamous epithelium: Composed of multiple
layers of keratinized cells.
 Keratinization: The process of producing keratin, a tough
protein that protects the skin.
 Melanocytes: Produce melanin, a pigment that
determines skin color.
Skin Color  Cold sores: Viral infection caused by herpes simplex virus
- determined by a combination of pigments, including 1.
melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin  Contact dermatitis: Allergic reaction to chemicals or other
1. Melanin substances.
 Primary pigment: The most significant factor in  Impetigo: Bacterial infection, often affecting children.
determining skin color.  Psoriasis: Autoimmune disorder characterized by red,
 Types of Melanin: scaly patches.
a. Eumelanin (brown-black) Burns
b. Pheomelanin (yellow-reddish)  Tissue damage caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
 Production: Produced by melanocytes in the stratum chemicals.
basale.  Life-threatening consequences: Dehydration, electrolyte
 Function: Protects against UV radiation by absorbing imbalance, infection.
harmful rays.  Classification of the Burn:
 Variation: The amount and type of melanin determine skin a. First-degree (superficial)
color (from light to dark). b. Second-degree (partial-thickness)
2. Carotene c. Third-degree (full-thickness)
 Yellow-orange pigment: Found in carrots and other d. Fourth-degree (deep-tissue involvement).
orange or yellow vegetables.  Treatment: Fluid replacement, infection prevention, skin
 Accumulation: Can accumulate in the stratum corneum grafting.
and subcutaneous tissue. Skin Cancer
 Effect: Gives the skin a yellowish-orange tint.  Risk factors: Overexposure to UV radiation, infections,
3. Hemoglobin chemicals, or physical trauma.
Red pigment: Found in red blood cells.  Types of Skin Cancer:
Visibility: More visible in light-skinned individuals. a. Basal cell carcinoma: Least malignant, often appears as a
Effect: Gives the skin a rosy glow when oxygenated. shiny, dome-shaped nodule.
b. Squamous cell carcinoma: More aggressive, can
Skin Appendages metastasize.
- formed from the epidermis but resides in the dermis c. Malignant melanoma: Most dangerous, can spread
1. Sebaceous glands produce an oily product rapidly.
(sebum), released at a hair follicle via a duct.  Detection: ABCDE rule (Asymmetry, Border irregularity,
Sebum keeps the skin and hair soft and contains Color, Diameter, Evolution).
chemicals that kill bacteria.
2. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands, under the control
of the nervous system, produce sweat, which is
released at the epithelial surface. These glands
participate in regulating body temperature.
a. Eccrine glands: Widely distributed, produce sweat for
cooling.
b. Apocrine glands: Found in axillary and genital areas,
produce a thicker secretion with a musky odor.
3.1. Hair: A flexible epithelial structure composed of keratin.
 Root: The part embedded in the skin.
 Shaft: The visible part.
 Medulla: The central core.
 Cortex: The middle layer.
 Cuticle: The outermost layer.
3.2. Hair follicles: Structures that contain hair follicles.
 Matrix: The growth zone of the hair follicle.
 Arrector pili muscles: Muscles that cause hair to stand
upright.
4. Nails: Are primarily dead keratinized cells.
 Structure: A scale-like modification of the epidermis.
 Parts: Free edge, body, root.
 Nail matrix: Produces nail cells.
 Lunula: The white, crescent-shaped area at the base of the
nail.

Infections and Allergies

 Athlete's foot: Fungal infection between the toes.
 Boils and carbuncles: Bacterial infections of hair follicles.