NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Questions

1) What are the plums in the plum pudding model?

electrons

2) What is the pudding in the plum pudding model?

positive charge

3) Explain what happened to alpha particles heading directly towards

a gold nucleus.

The particles are deflected backwards as they are repelled by the

positive charge on the nucleus.

4) Explain what happened to alpha particles passing close to a gold

nucleus.

The particles are deflected as they are repelled by the positive

nucleus, but their momentum keeps them moving.

5) Explain what happens to alpha particles passing through the empty

space between nuclei.

The particles pass straight through as they are not near enough
the nucleus to be affected by the force of repulsion.
6) How did this experiment prove that the nucleus must be very
small?

only about 1 in 8000 particles bounced back

7) In the solar system model of the atom, what force holds the
electrons in their orbits around the nucleus?

electrostatic attraction

8) How many times greater is the mass of a proton than the mass of
an electron?

1836

9) Name two types of particles found in an atom’s nucleus.

protons and neutrons

10) State the name given to the total number of particles in a nucleus.

mass number

11) Describe what happens to the charge on an atom when it gains an

electron.

When it gains an electron, it will have an overall negative charge.

12) Explain what it means to say that an alpha particles was
“back-scattered”.

“Back-scattered” means deflected through more than 90°, so that

it comes back out of the foil rather than passing through.

13) Explain why the alpha particles were back-scattered.

because it collided with the gold nucleus. Positive charges repel

each other.

14) Explain why some alpha particles are “undeflected” means.

“Undeflected” means that the alpha particle continued in a

straight line.

15) Explain why some of the alpha particle were undeflectes as it

passed the gold nucleus.

because it was far from the gold nucleus so the repulsive force
was very small.

16) Many of the alpha particles were deflected through a range of

angles. State the conclusion that was drawn from this observation.

All the positive charge in the atom is in one small volume.

17) Explain how the alpha-scattering experiment changed the
understanding of the atom.

The plum pudding theory was believed that the mass and the
positive charge were evenly distributed throughout the volume of the
atom. It said that the electrons were distributed on the surface of this
volume.

The alpha-scattering experiment proved that most of the atom is

empty space. Almost all of the mass and all the positive charge of the
atom is concentrated in one small space within the volume of the atom.
The electrons orbit this 'nucleus' at a considerable distance.

18) Describe what is meant by the term “background radiation”.

The radiation which we are exposed to all the time from

radioactive sources.

19) Name three sources of natural background radiation.

rocks, comics rays, foods and drinks

20) Name three sources of artificial background radiation.

nuclear power stations, weapons testing, medical uses

21) Which type of natural background radiation are airline crews

exposed to more than most people?

cosmic rays
22) An alpha-particle is identical to an electron. How is it different to
most electrons?

It comes from inside the nucleus.

23) Which type of radiation travels at the speed of light?

gamma rays

24) Explain why emission of alpha-particles or beta-particles changes

the nucleus to one of a different element.

The number of protons changes and this is what determines

which element it is.

25) State one way in which gamma rays and X-rays are similar.

Both have high frequency, short wavelength. Both travel at the

speed of light and can travel through a vacuum.

26) State one way in which gamma rays and X-rays are different.

Gamma rays are emitted spontaneously from a nucleus whereas X

rays are made in machines.

27) A smoke detector uses an alpha-source.

a) Explain why a beta-particles or gamma-source would not work.

Beta particles or gamma rays would penetrate through the smoke

easily.
b) Is it safe to have this type of smoke detector in your home.

Alpha particles are stopped by the plastic casing or by a few

centimeters of air.

c) Why does the source used have a half-life of years rather than days?

A short half-life would mean the smoke detector would need to be

changed frequently.

28) Describe what would happen if the sheet became too thin.

More radiation would pass through the sheet, increasing the

count rate on the detector. This would lead to the rollers being moved
slightly further apart and the thickness would increase.

29) When medical equipment is to be sterilised, it is first sealed in a

plastic wrapper. Why does this not absorb the radiation used?

The radiation used is gamma which can penetrate through plastic.

30) Define what is meant by the term “half-life”.

The time taken for half of the unstable nuclei to decay.

31) Radium emits ionizing radiation. State how this can affect living
cells.

Ionization causes cells/DNA to mutate

32) Describe some safety precautions which must be taken when
radioactive radium is used in a school laboratory.

store it in a lead lined box, store it in a labelled cupboard, only

qualified people handle it, handle with tweezers, do not point source at
anyone and record exposure times

33) Name a particle which is identical to a beta-particle.

electrons

34) Name a material which could be used to stop beta-particles but

which would not stop gamma-rays.

aluminium

35) Describe the structure of alpha-particles.

2 protons and 2 neutrons OR identical to the nucleus of a helium

atom

36) Scientists test a rock with a Geiger counter and find that it is
emitting radiation. They suspect it is alpha-radiation. How could they
test to confirm this?

Place paper between the rock and the detector. If the count rate
drops, it is alpha-radiation.

37) What measuring instrument is used to measure radioactive

isotopes?

Geiger counter
38) State which type of radiation is the most penetrating.

Gamma-rays

39) State which type of radiation can be absorbed by a few

centimeters of air or by a thin sheet of paper.

Alpha-radiation

40) State which types of radiation are absorbed by a thick sheet of

lead.

Alpha-radiation, Beta-radiation, Gamma-rays

41) Explain the meaning of the term “ion”.

An ion is a particle that has become charged because it has gained

or lost one or more electrons.

42) State which type of ionizing radiation is a form of electromagnetic

radiation.

Gamma-rays

43) What property of nuclear radiation is used to detect it.

The fact that it is ionizing.

44) Explain what causes nuclear instability.

Excess neutrons in the nucleus; nucleus being too heavy

45) Geiger counters, film badges and spark counters are all used to
detect nuclear radiation. What do they all have in common, in the way
they perform their function?

Contains an inert gas at low pressure, inside a tube which forms

one electrode, and has another electrode along the axis of this tube.
There is a p.d. of around 400 V between the electrodes.

When ionizing radiation enters the tube through the thin window
at the front, electrons removed by ionization are attracted to the anode
and the positive ion is attracted to the cathode; this causes a pulse of
current, which is counted by the scaler.

46) Describe how you could use an electric field to tell whether a
source was emitting one, two or three types of radiation in a narrow
beam of radiation.

You can use an electric field to observe how each type is

deflected.

Alpha particles are positively charged and are attracted to the

negative plate, causing them to deflect in one direction.

Beta particles, being negatively charged, are attracted to the

positive plate and deflect in the opposite direction.

Gamma rays, which are neutral, do not deflect at all and travel in a
straight line.
47) Considering the K.E and the charge of each, explain the ionizing
ability of the three types of nuclear radiations.

Alpha particles have much greater mass than beta, so they have
greater kinetic energy and are therefore more ionizing.

Alpha particles also have twice the charge of a beta particle and so are
more ionizing than beta.

Gamma rays have neither charge nor mass and so are not very ionizing.

48) State the type of radioactive emission in which the number of

protons in the nucleus changes. Also state whether it increases or
decreases.

beta-emissions, no of protons increases

49) Explain why the calculations are not likely to match actual
measurements.

Nuclear decay is a process that is random in time and direction.

50) State what “radioactive decay” is.

Decay is the loss of particles or energy from an unstable nucleus.

51) Describe radioactive decay.

Alpha: reduces the mass number of the parent nucleus by four

and the atomic number by two.
 Beta: the mass number of the nucleus is unchanged, the mass
number increases by one.

Gamma: atomic and mass numbers are unchanged. It is the

emission of electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus.

52) List and explain the precautions that can be taken to reduce the
danger to living things from ionizing radiation.

Reduce exposure time of living tissue to radiation, to reduce the

chances of damage to living tissue.

Increase distance of living tissue from source, to reduce the

intensity of the radiation received

Shielding from absorbing radiation before it reaches living tissue.

53) What would be the appropriate source for a medical tracer?

Gamma source: high penetration, so will be detectable outside

the body; low ionization ability, so minimum risk of harm to patient.

Half-life long enough for a medical tracing procedure, but count

rate will fall rapidly, reducing danger to patients and those around
them.
54) What would be the appropriate source to check the thickness of
paper in a mill.

Beta source: will be affected by thickness of paper.

Long half-life, so source does not need to be replaced too

frequently, and equipment does not need to be recalibrated too often
due to falling count rate.

55) What would be the appropriate source in a domestic smoke

detector.

Alpha source: will be absorbed by smoke.

Half-life long enough to allow constant count rate over the life of
detector, but not so long as to pose a very long-term hazard.

56) What would be the appropriate source to treat cancer by

radiotherapy.

Gamma source source: high penetration, so will be detectable

outside the body; low ionization ability, so minimum risk of harm to
patient.

Long half-life, so source does not need to be replaced too

frequently, and equipment does not need to be recalibrated too often
due to falling count rate.
57) State three ways in which γ-emission differs from β-emission.

gamma-emission is electromagnetic radiation

it has the strongest penetrating radiation

it has no mass and uncharged

58) The majority of the alpha-particles pass through the gold sheet
undeflected and are detected on the far side.

deduction: nucleus is very small and atoms are mainly empty

space

explanation: very few α-particle pass near to a nucleus

59) A small number of α-particles are deflected as they pass through

the gold sheet.

deduction: nucleus has positive charged

explanation: α-particle is also positively charged so it experience

force.

60) A very small number of α-particles are deflected through very

large angles or return back the way they came.

deduction: most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the

central nucleus

explanation: α-particle move and nucleus stays still

61) State two ways in which the deflection of the α-particles differs
from that of the β-particles.

opposite direction

smaller deflection

62) Ionization smoke detectors contain americium and two small

electrodes with a small voltage between them. The air between the
electrodes is ionized by α-particles so that there is a small electric
current between the electrodes.

i) Suggest and explain the effect of smoke on the current between the
electrodes in the smoke detector.

Suggestion: current decreases

Explanation: alpha particles are absorbed by smokes

ii) Suggest two reasons for using an α-particle emitter in a smoke

detector.

they are more ionizing than beta-particles or gamma-particles

they travel short range in air

63) Describe how radioactive isotopes should be handled, used and
stored in a safe way.

wear protective clothing such as gloves and lead aprons

minimize the exposure time as little as possible

use a lead box shielded storage

must be disposed securely

64) State three economic and environmental consequences of

producing nuclear waste.

danger to people

expensive to store and transport

must be stored with safe shielding

65) State and explain any type of radiation passing through the
aluminium foil.

beta-particles would stop by 5mm thick aluminium but

gamma-particles would not stopped by 5mm and alpha-particles won’t
be able to pass 5mm thick aluminium.
66) β-particles ionize the air they pass through less strongly than the
same number of α-particles. Suggest why this is so.

beta-particles has smaller mass than alpha-particles

beta-particles has less energy than alpha-particles

beta-particles travel faster than alpha-particles

67) Describe the paths of the α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays as

they pass through the magnetic field. Explain your answers.

i) α-particles

out of the page

move same direction with current

ii) β-particles

into the page

move to opposite direction to the current

iii) γ-rays

continue going straight

they are unchanged

68) The lead cylinder has a narrow central hole. State and explain the
effect of the lead cylinder.

the beam is narrow and travel in one direction

radiation in other directions absorbed

69) State what is meant by background radiation. Suggest one source

for it.

radiation that is always present in the environment

rocks

70) State two differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

nuclear fission is when heavy nucleus splits into two

nuclear fusion is when two nuclei join together and it produces

more energy than nuclear fission

71) Why alpha-particles which are used in medicine should not have a
half-life shorter or longer?

If longer half-life, radioactive substances are active in the body for

a long time.

If shorter half-life, it might be insufficient time for investigation.

72) State and explain one practical application of γ-rays.

application: medical treatment

explanation: destroying cancer

73) State what is meant by nuclear fusion.

nuclear fusion is when two nuclei join together to produce a

bigger nucleus

74) State what is meant by nuclear fission.

nuclear fission is when neutrons hit the large unstable nucleus, it

splits into smaller nuclei and large energy is released

75) State two resources for which nuclear fusion in the Sun is not the
source.

geothermal energy

tidal energy

76) Explain why gamma-emission is a suitable material for a tracer in

medical diagnosis.

needs long enough half-life to be detected

gamma-emission is weakly ionizing so it pass out of the body

without harm
77) Describe the composition and structure of a neutral atom of
uranium-235.

In a neutral atom, it has a very small nucleus surrounded by

electrons. The protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the number
of protons and electrons are the same. Number of neutrons is 143.

78) Describe how the americium-241 ionizes air.

alpha-particles emitted from americium-241

these particles hit air molecules which remove electron out of air
molecules

79) Suggest and explain two reasons why smoke detectors use an
isotope that emits α-particles rather than an isotope that emits
γ-radiation.

alpha-particle is less harmful to humans

it is more highly ionizing than gamma-radiation and ionize air

more easily

80) Explain why an extremely high temperature is needed when

forcing these two nuclei together.

high temperature provides high kinetic energy to do large quantity

of work

nuclei are both positively charged so that they repelled each other
81) Explain why the readings are not the same as the plotted graph.

background radiation is included in the table but not in the graph

82) Determine the magnitude of the charge of an α-particle.

3.2 x 10-19 C

83) State and explain which tracks are produced by α-particles and
which tracks are produced by β-particles.

α-particles: thick and short tracks, more mass and less

penetrating

β-particles: thin and long tracks, less mass and more penetrating

84) The isotope of magnesium is stable and does not undergo

radioactive decay. Explain why this is suitable to detect leaks from
water pipes.

half-life of Na-24 is long enough for use

negligible amount of Na-24 remains in liquid after a few days so

less harmful to human health

85) State one advantage and one disadvantage of generating electrical

power in nuclear power stations compared with electrical power
generated using wind turbines.

advantage: produces large amount of energy

disadvantage: produces dangerous waste

86) Define the term half-life.

time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei reduced by half.

87) Suggest one reason why isotopes with very short half-lives are
especially hazardous.

they have large decay rate

88) Explain why α-particles are more strongly ionising than

β-particles.

alpha-particles have more K.E and more charge than

beta-particles

89) Explain the advantage of a long half-life for the use of a household
smoke alarm.

longer half-life means it has lower emission of activity

so smoke detector are not hazardous to humans

90) State one advantage and one disadvantage of using nuclear fuels
in a power station instead of using fossil fuels.

advantage: no air pollution

disadvantage: danger if any leak of radiation

91) Describe the mass and energy changes that take place during this
process in a nuclear reactor.

Nucleus converted to more stable nuclei with smaller total mass.

It converted as K.E of product

92) Describe how thermal energy from nuclear reactions is used to

generate electricity in a power station.

The thermal energy from nuclear reactions is used to heat cold

water. The steam is at high pressure. The steam drives a turbine and
operates the generator.

93) Explain why lead-214 is radioactive.

Lead-214 has too many neutrons and decay reduces the number
of neutrons.

94) State and explain which type of radioactive emission is suitable for
household smoke alarms.

type of emission: alpha

explanation: alpha particles have highly ionizing, half-life 200 years

95) State and explain which type of radioactive emission is suitable for
measuring the thickness of aluminium strips produced in a factory.

type of emission: beta

explanation: absorption depends on thickness of aluminium,

half-life 300 years