Neanderthal 1

Feldhofer 1 or Neanderthal 1 is the scientific name of

Feldhofer 1
the 40,000-year-old type specimen fossil of the species
Homo neanderthalensis.[1] The fossil was discovered
in August 1856 in the Kleine Feldhofer Grotte cave in
the Neander Valley (Neandertal), located 13 km
(8.1 mi) east of Düsseldorf, Germany.

In 1864, the fossil's description was first published in a

scientific journal, where it was officially named.[2]
Neanderthal 1 was not the first Neanderthal fossil ever
discovered. Other Neanderthal fossils had been found
earlier but were not recognized as belonging to a
distinct species.[2]

Discovery
Limestone has been mined in the Neander Valley since
the early 16th century. By the mid-19th century, Type specimen, Neanderthal 1
mining operations had expanded to an industrial scale.
Common name Feldhofer 1
In August 1856, two Italian workers extended the
entrance to the Kleine Feldhofer Grotte by removing Species Neanderthal
the naturally sintered, rock-hard clay layers embedded Age 40,000 years
in the limestone of the cave. During the removal of the Place discovered Erkrath, North Rhine-
sediment fillings, the workers unearthed fossilized Westphalia, Germany
bones at a depth of 60 cm (24 in). Initially unnoticed, Date discovered August 1856
the bones were discarded among the mud and debris
and scattered throughout the valley.

The discovery came to the attention of the cave's owner, Wilhelm Beckershoff, who assumed the bones
belonged to a cave bear. Beckershoff, along with quarry co-owner Friedrich Wilhelm Pieper,[3] retrieved
16 bones and fragments from the rubble and handed them to Elberfeld teacher and fossil collector Johann
Carl Fuhlrott. Among the preserved remains were a skullcap with a fragment of the left temporal bone, a
fragment of the right scapula, a right clavicle, both humeri (with the right side intact), a complete right
radius, fragments of the right and left forearm bones, five ribs, an almost complete left half of the pelvis,
and both femora.[4]

Fuhlrott reportedly recognized[5] immediately that the remains belonged to a human who significantly
differed from modern humans. Without his consent, a notice was published on September 4, 1856, in the
Elberfeld newspaper and the Barmer Local Journal:
 In neighboring Neanderthal, a surprising discovery
was made in recent days. The removal of the
limestone rocks, which certainly is a dreadful deed
from a picturesque point of view, revealed a cave that
had been filled with mud-clay over the centuries.
While clearing away this clay, a human skeleton was
found. Undoubtedly, it would have been ignored and
lost if not for the timely intervention of Dr. Fuhlrott of
Elberfeld, who secured and examined the find.
Examination of the skeleton, particularly the skull,
suggests it belonged to the tribe of the Flat Heads,
which still exists in the American West and of which
several skulls have been found in recent years on the
upper Danube in Sigmaringen. Perhaps this find can Location of Neander Valley,
help determine whether the skeleton belonged to an Germany
early central European native or simply to one of
Attila's roaming horde.

This report drew the attention of two Bonn professors of anatomy,

Hermann Schaaffhausen and August Franz Josef Karl Mayer. They
contacted Fuhlrott and requested to examine the bones. Fuhlrott
Kleine Feldhofer Grotte (cross-
personally brought the remains to Bonn during the winter, where
section);
Schaaffhausen conducted an investigation. On June 2, 1857, from: Charles Lyell (1863): The
Schaaffhausen and Fuhlrott presented their findings to the Geological Evidences of the
members of the Natural History Society of the Prussian Rhineland Antiquity of Man.
and Westphalia. Paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall summarized
their findings:

Here, Fuhlrott summarized the history of the discovery, based

on a careful survey of the workers who had excavated the
finds. He emphasized the age of the bones, evident from the
thickness of the overlying strata [...] as well as from the
strong mineralization and dendrite formation on the surface,
also present in the bones of extinct giant cave bears.
Schaaffhausen described and interpreted the find.

Schaaffhausen noted the unusually massive bone structure, particularly the

cranium’s low, sloping forehead and prominent brow ridges: Johann Carl Fuhlrott

He considered these characteristics natural rather than

pathological or the result of abnormal development. These
traits reminded him of the great apes. However, this was not
an ape. If the features were not pathological, they must have
been due to the age of the remains. [...] Although
Schaaffhausen's own search for comparable specimens was
 unsuccessful, he concluded that the bones belonged to a
native tribe that had inhabited Germany before the arrival of
modern humans.

Schaaffhausen published his findings in 1858 in the Archives of Anatomy,

Physiology, and Scientific Medicine.[6] A year later, Fuhlrott published a
Treatise on Human Remains from a Rock Grotto of the Düssel Valley in
the journal of the Natural History Society of the Prussian Rhineland and
Westphalia.[7] In this essay, Fuhlrott cautiously suggested that the bones
likely originated from "prehistoric times, probably from the diluvial
period, and therefore belonged to an archetypal individual of our race."
Reflecting on the geological context, he speculated that the remains might Hermann Schaaffhausen
be "ante-diluvial" (pre-dating the biblical flood), representing fossilized
humans.

Fuhlrott’s and Schaaffhausen’s interpretations, although ultimately correct, were not initially taken
seriously by many scholars. When Fuhlrott published his treatise in 1859, the editorial committee of the
Natural History Society of the Prussian Rhineland and Westphalia added a dismissive postscript, noting
that he had "put forward views that cannot be shared."

Historical background
In 1758, Carl Linnaeus published the 10th edition of his work,
Systema Naturae. The name Homo sapiens was introduced as a
species designation, but without a detailed diagnosis or precise
description of the species-specific characteristics.[8]

In 1833, the Dutch physician and naturalist Philippe-Charles

Schmerling described a fossil skull and several other bones
discovered in 1829 in a cave near the Belgian municipality of
Fossil finds of 1829 Engis 2
Engis. He deduced their age by comparing them with animal
fossils and stone tools found in the same strata, associating them
[9]
with the Pleistocene. However, this first scientifically described Neanderthal fossil was misunderstood
by his contemporaries as "modern." It lacked the criteria to clearly differentiate fossil species of the genus
Homo from Homo sapiens. Furthermore, many of Schmerling's colleagues referenced the Bible (Genesis
1), arguing that fossils of such antiquity could not be reliably identified.

Even Thomas Henry Huxley, a supporter of Darwin's theory of evolution, viewed the Engis find as
representing a "man of low degree of civilization." Huxley also interpreted the Neandertal find as falling
within the range of variation observed in modern humans.[10] Gibraltar 1, a relatively well-preserved
skull discovered in 1848 at the Forbes limestone quarry in Gibraltar, was only decades later recognized as
tens of thousands of years old and established as a representative of Homo neanderthalensis.
Like Huxley, anthropologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries often classified the increasingly
numerous hominid fossils as representatives of early "races" of modern humans.

Subject of scholarly debate

The fossil of the Neanderthal was discovered in 1856, three years before
the publication of Darwin's seminal work, On the Origin of Species.
However, the scientific debate over whether species are immutable or
mutable had already been ongoing for a considerable time. In an 1853
treatise on the durability and transformation of species, Hermann
Schaaffhausen suggested:

...that species were not immortal, that they have, just like the
life of an individual, a beginning, a time of flourishing, and a
period of decline—albeit over much longer time intervals.
Furthermore, the various life forms differ greatly in their
lifespan.[11]

Thomas Henry Huxley,

Schaaffhausen, who also emphasized the anatomical and physiological Evidence as to Man's Place
similarities between humans and anthropoid apes, concluded in his in Nature, London, 1863
summary:

...the immutability of species, which most researchers

consider a law of nature, has not yet been proven.

However, Schaaffhausen was not a significant scientific authority in mid-

19th-century Germany, where the biological sciences were dominated by
Rudolf Virchow. Virchow, often called "...the father of modern cell
biology," opposed evolutionary thought for political reasons. Virchow
championed socialist ideals and advocated for a society where an
individual’s future was determined by their skills, not their origins. To
him, the theory of evolution represented a form of elitism incompatible
with these ideals.[12]

Virchow first saw the Neanderthal bones in person in 1872. Until then, he Charles Lyell
had left their study to Bonn anatomist and ophthalmologist August Franz
Josef Karl Mayer, a staunch supporter of the traditional Christian belief in
creationism.[13] Mayer, who missed the initial evaluation of the fossils during the winter of 1856/57 due
to illness, later published his interpretations:

He attributed the Neanderthal's "rickety" bone changes to pathological development. Mayer

argued that the thigh and pelvic bones were shaped like those of someone who had spent
their life on horseback. The individual’s poorly healed broken right arm and permanent
 worry lines, caused by enduring pain, explained the pronounced brow ridges. Mayer
speculated that the skeleton belonged to a mounted Russian Cossack who had roamed the
area during the wars of liberation against Napoleon.[14]

Mayer's interpretations, published in 1864 in the Archive of Anatomy,[15] dismissed the signs of Rickets
(weakened bones) despite the Neanderthal's remarkably strong bone structure. Nevertheless, Virchow
largely agreed with Mayer's anatomical findings, describing the bones as a "remarkable individual
phenomenon" and a "plausible individual formation."[14] Consequently, for years in German-speaking
countries, the Neanderthal fossils were regarded as pathological variations of modern human skeletons.

Even the accurate assessment of geologist Charles Lyell in 1863, which

confirmed the antiquity of the fossils after his visit to Fuhlrott and the
Neandertal site, did not shift prevailing views.[16] However, with
hindsight, the turning point toward recognizing the Neanderthal fossil as
distinct occurred in 1863/64.

In 1864, Irish geologist William King published a detailed description of

the Neanderthal fossil, emphasizing its ape-like characteristics due to the
lack of comparative evidence.[17] At the conclusion of his essay, King
formally proposed the name "Homo Neanderthalensis" in a footnote,
marking the fossil as distinct from modern humans. This casual
designation later became the species' official name under the international
William King
rules for zoological nomenclature.

In 1863, British paleontologist George Busk, who had translated

Schaaffhausen's treatise into English in 1861, acquired the Gibraltar 1 skull discovered in 1848 in the
Forbes' Quarry. Noting its similarity to Neandertal 1, he remarked that even Mayer would struggle to
argue "that a rickety Cossack of 1814 would have holed up in the clefts of the rock of Gibraltar."[18]

Final recognition of Neanderthal man as a distinct species separate from Homo sapiens came only after
1886, following the discovery of two nearly complete Neanderthal skeletons in the Spy Cave in
Belgium.[19]

Anthropological analysis
The 19th-century discussion initially focused on reconciling the anthropological findings with the
characteristics of Homo sapiens. Johann Carl Fuhlrott first observed the unusual massiveness of the
bones, noting prominent bumps, ridges, and ledges that indicated the attachment of highly developed
muscles.[20] He also identified a healed injury on one of the humerus bones.

William King similarly highlighted the exceptional thickness of the skeletal remains and agreed with
Hermann Schaaffhausen's observations, which included the strongly rounded shape of the ribs, suggesting
an unusual thorax structure for a human.[21] King's primary focus, however, was on the preserved skull
bones. He described the skull as "stretched oval" in shape and approximately an inch longer than that of a
contemporary British person. While the skull's width was comparable to that of modern humans, the
forehead region appeared unusually flat and receding, with "excessively developed" bone ridges above
the eyes.

In summarizing these deviations from modern human anatomy, King wrote:

In these general characters, the Neanderthal skull is at once observed to be singularly

different from all others which admittedly belong to the human species; and they
undoubtedly invest it with a close resemblance to that of a young Chimpanzee.

Intravital injuries and illnesses

At the beginning of the 21st century, Göttingen pathologist Michael Schultz devoted his research to
investigating the health of the Neanderthal holotype, Neanderthal 1.[22][23] Schultz diagnosed several
pathological conditions, including muscle tendon processes, a fracture of the left arm near the elbow
joint, and a resulting deformity of the bone. The fracture left a permanent impairment, rendering the arm
unusable even after it had healed.

The frontal bone of Neanderthal 1 exhibits a healed injury attributed to a fall onto a sharp stone.
Additionally, evidence suggests that Neanderthal 1 experienced a traumatic event leading to a healed
bleeding in a circulatory brain vessel. Extensive inflammation of the paranasal sinuses was also observed,
with both frontal sinuses showing deformities, hump-like features, and small vascular traces consistent
with chronic inflammation.

In advanced age, Neanderthal 1 suffered from a serious condition previously unrecorded in Neanderthals:
a metastatic, bone-destroying disease of unknown origin.[23] His age at death has been estimated at 40 to
42 years.

Postmortem changes of the skeleton

In 1992, alleged cut marks on the skeletal remains were reported, particularly at the edges of the skull,
which may suggest a specific burial rite.[24] Given the rudimentary state of conservation of the skeleton
(16 of 203 bones), it is also possible that tooth scratches caused by carnivores contributed to these marks.
However, considering the superficial and non-scientific recovery of the bones, the issue of disarticulation
(the dispersion of skeletal remains by predators) remains difficult to resolve.

Excavations of 1997 and 2000

From 1991 onward, the Neanderthal bones were re-analyzed by an international team of researchers.
Radiocarbon dating yielded an age of 39,900 ± 620 years, suggesting that these individuals belonged to
the last populations of Neanderthals in Europe.[25] In 1997, the research team succeeded in extracting
mitochondrial DNA from the humerus of the type specimen, marking the first sample of Neanderthal
mtDNA ever obtained. However, the results were interpreted cautiously in the initial analysis. Despite
this, the evidence led to the conclusion that Neanderthals were genetically distinct from anatomically
modern humans. The title of the Cell journal issue read: "Neanderthals were not our ancestors." The
subsequent decoding of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 tempered this conclusion (see section below).
In 1997, excavations at the Neander Valley identified and
reconstructed the precise location of the former "Little Feldhofer
Grotto".[26] Beneath layers of residue, loam fillings, and blasting
rubble from the limestone quarry, a number of stone tools and over
20 Neanderthal bone fragments were discovered.[27] Prior to this,
no stone tools had been found in the cave. Excavations continued
in 2000, and a further 40 human teeth and bone fragments were
uncovered, including a piece of the temporal bone and the
zygomatic bone, which fit precisely into the Neanderthal 1 skull.
Another bone fragment was matched to the left femur.
Neanderthal 1, lateral view,
Particular attention was given to the discovery of a third humerus: front/left: the pieces of the temporal
two humeri had been known since 1856. The third humerus and zygomatic bone discovered in
belonged to a second, more delicately built individual. At least 2000
three other bone fragments were also found in duplicate. This
individual, referred to as Neandertal 2, was dated at 39,240 ± 670
years, exactly the same age as Neanderthal 1. Additionally, a milk tooth was recovered and attributed to
an adolescent Neanderthal.[28] In 2004, it was stolen from the Neanderthal Museum in Erkrath, but was
returned shortly thereafter.[29] Based on the state of abrasion and the partially dissolved dental roots, it
was concluded that the tooth belonged to a juvenile aged 11 to 14 years.[30]

The site was transformed into an archaeological garden, with installations symbolizing the eventful
history of the area. The park is part of the neighboring Neanderthal Museum, which showcases a
chronological overview of human evolution.

Relation to modern man

A 2008 study by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig suggested that
Neanderthals probably did not interbreed with anatomically modern humans,[31][32] while the
Neanderthal genome project published in 2010 and 2014 suggests that Neanderthals did contribute to the
DNA of modern humans, including most non-Africans and a few African populations, through
interbreeding, likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago.[33]

See also
Evolutionary
biology portal
Science portal

Dawn of Humanity (2015 PBS documentary)

Engis 2
Gibraltar 1
List of fossil sites (with link directory)
List of human evolution fossils (with images)
Mauer 1
 Neanderthal
Neanderthals of Gibraltar
Origins of Us (2011 BBC documentary)
Prehistoric Autopsy (2012 BBC documentary)
The Incredible Human Journey (2009 BBC documentary)

References
1. Die Schreibung des Lemmas Neandertal 1 folgt: Wilhelm Gieseler: Germany. In: Kenneth P.
Oakley et al. (Hrsg.): Catalogue of Fossil Hominids: Europe Pt. 2. Smithsonian Institution
Proceedings, 1971, pp. 198–199. – Following the Orthographic Conference of 1901, the
spelling of Thal was changed to Tal, which adjusted the archive name. The International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature prohibits changing valid genus and species names, so the
Latin designation remains Homo neanderthalensis.
2. William King: The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal. In: Quarterly Journal of Science.
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3. Gerd-Christian Weniger: Mettmann – Fundort Neandertal. In: Heinz Günter Horn (Hrsg.):
Neandertaler + Co. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein 2006, S. 183, ISBN 978-3-
8053-3603-1. – Pieper und Beckershoff waren Mitglieder in dem von Fuhlrott gegründeten
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Rheinische Landesmuseum Bonn. Band 2, 1992, pp. 17–19.
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8053-3603-1
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es-neandertalers-30271973.html) vom 9. September 2002: Auf den Spuren des
Neandertalers. Oberarmknochen sowie ein Milchzahn komplettieren die Funde aus dem
Neandertal.
29. rp-online.de (http://www.rp-online.de/region-duesseldorf/duesseldorf/nachrichten/neandertal
er-zaehne-wieder-da-1.1119039) vom 8. April 2004: Aufatmen in Erkrather Museum:
Neandertaler-Zähne wieder da.
30. Ralf W. Schmitz, D. Serre, G. Bonani, S. Feine, F. Hillgruber, H. Krainitzki, S. Pääbo, F. H.
Smith: The Neandertal type site revisited. Interdisciplinary investigations of skeletal remains
from the Neander Valley, Germany. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA,
99,20 (2002) 13342–13347, here: S. 13344.
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MC1635020). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (48): 18178–83.
Bibcode:2006PNAS..10318178E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..10318178
E). doi:10.1073/pnas.0606966103 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0606966103).
PMC 1635020 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1635020). PMID 17090677
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17090677).
32. Evans PD, Gilbert SL, Mekel-Bobrov N, Vallender EJ, Anderson JR, Vaez-Azizi LM, Tishkoff
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Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1717E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...309.1717E).
doi:10.1126/science.1113722 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1113722).
PMID 16151009 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16151009). S2CID 85864492 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85864492).
33. Brahic, Catherine. "Humanity's forgotten return to Africa revealed in DNA" (https://www.news
cientist.com/article/dn24988-humanitys-forgotten-return-to-africa-revealed-in-dna.html#.VZy
0CvkmNOI), The New Scientist (February 3, 2014).

External links
"Homo neanderthalensis" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101023093713/http://www.mnsu.e
du/emuseum/biology/humanevolution/neanderthalensis.html) at the Wayback Machine
(archived October 23, 2010) from the Minnesota State University, Mankato
"Homo neanderthalensis" (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo
-neanderthalensis). Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. Retrieved 11 May
2015.
Human Timeline (Interactive) (http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline
-interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

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