Downloaded from www.clastify.

com by awmath

MATHEMATICS ANALYSIS AND APPROACHES HL

om
The usage of complex numbers in analyzing
l.c
ai
Alternating Current (AC) Resistor-Inductor-
gm

Capacitor (RLC) circuits to find impedance

@
h8

and phase angle

at
ym
ac
y
tif
as
Cl

Candidate code: jcd435

Session: May 2023

Page count: 20
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 1

Table of Contents

Introduction and Aim ........................................................................................................ 2

Contextualizing Physical Aspects ...................................................................................... 3

AC Circuit Analysis without Complex Numbers: The Need for Complex Numbers ............ 5

Defining Euler’s Form and Complex Numbers ................................................................. 6

Impedance of a Resistor .................................................................................................... 8

Impedance of an Inductor ................................................................................................. 8

om
Impedance of a Capacitor ............................................................................................... 10

l.c
ai
Combining Impedance, Visual Representations, and Phase Angle................................... 11
gm
@

Applying Knowledge: Example Problem & Parallel Circuits ........................................... 14

h8
at

Comparison to Experimental Value ................................................................................. 18

ym
ac

Conclusion, Limitations, and Extensions to Study ........................................................... 20

y
tif

Works Cited List .............................................................................................................. 22

as
Cl
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 2

Introduction and Aim

The exploration aim is to explore mathematical methodologies used to analyze AC

circuits, and to demonstrate that mathematical methods using complex numbers may be more

efficient than those using only real numbers, even for real-life applications of mathematics.

Findings shall be verified experimentally to determine whether the theoretical methods used

are accurate. The focus is on impedance and phase angle for resistors, inductors, and capacitors

connected to an AC power supply. This analysis explores a multitude of topics from the IB AA

HL curriculum, including Euler’s form of complex numbers, Maclaurin series, Argand

om
diagrams, vectors and phasors, trigonometric functions because of AC’s periodic motion,

l.c
differentiation, integration, as well as differential equations to highlight the need for complex
ai
gm

numbers in AC circuit analysis. This investigation will first introduce the mathematical physics
@

required, then why complex numbers should be used, the impedances of the three individual
h8
at

circuit components, their combined impedance represented visually, a worked example

ym

problem using our findings, and finally, an experimental verification.

ac
y

I chose this exploration because I have a passion for Physics, especially for the
tif
as

electromagnetism topic. I have a keen interest in circuit building and have always wanted to
Cl

know more about the electronic devices we use in our daily lives. Personally, I find it

fascinating how imaginary numbers may make real life applications of mathematics easier,

especially in circuits which is arguably more focused on the experimental as opposed to the

theoretical part of physics. To see whether this seemingly contradictory idea of using imaginary

numbers in real-life applications is valid, I will build my own circuit to compare the

experimental value to my manually-calculated value.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 3

Contextualizing Physical Aspects

To thoroughly understand the mathematics applied in circuits, the physics behind it

must briefly be established in the context of mathematics. Alternating current (AC) is current,

or moving charges, that changes direction periodically (Tsokos). AC is sinusoidal (Figure 1)

as electrons oscillate with a frequency, which means instantaneous voltage V and current i can

be defined with trigonometric equations using angular frequency. Angular frequency is defined

by 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓, where 𝜔 has the unit rads-1, and f is the frequency in Hertz (Tsokos). Voltage,

also known as potential difference, is defined as the electrical potential energy transferred from

om
an electron during its movement from one point in the circuit to another, and is measured in

l.c
Volts (Tsokos). Current is defined as the rate of change of charge q, is measured in Amperes,
ai
gm
∆" $"
and can be algebraically represented through Equation 1: 𝑖 = ∆#
= $#
where t is the time
@
h8

interval in which charge flows (Tsokos). Chosen values of i and f in Figure 1 are examples.
at

We have established that voltage and current are sinusoidal as AC is sinusoidal. In the standard
ym
ac

sine function form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 sin(𝑏𝑥 − 𝑑) + 𝐾, a is the amplitude, hence we can say the
y
tif

following where V0 and i0 are the maximum/peak voltage and current, respectively:
as

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉% sin(𝜔𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖% sin(𝜔𝑡)

Cl

Figure 1: Sinusoidal current in AC-powered circuits. Graphed on Desmos

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 4

Resistors are circuit components which resist, or oppose, the flow of charges, and

resistance is measured in ohms and denoted by R (Tsokos). Ohm’s Law relates resistance,
&
voltage, and current: 𝑅 = ' . Inductors are circuit components which oppose change in charge

through storing inductance, which is measured in Henry and denoted by L (Electronics

Tutorials Editors. “The”). Inductance is defined by the following equation with VL being the
∆' $'
induced voltage of the inductor, Equation 2: 𝑉( = 𝐿 ∆# = 𝐿 $# . A negative sign sometimes

accompanies this equation to represent the opposition of motion. This explains why induced
)
current lags voltage by a phase difference of * , because the derivative of a negative sinusoidal

om
i is a negative cosine graph, meaning a cosine graph reflected over the x-axis (Figure 2).

l.c
Capacitors are circuit components which can store charge across parallel plates, where
ai
gm

capacitance is measured in Farad and denoted by C (Tsokos). Ohm’s Law for a capacitor states
@

$&!
the following, with 𝑉+ being the induced voltage of the capacitor, 𝑖 = 𝐶
h8

$#
(All About Circuits
at

,
ym

Editors), leading to Equation 3: 𝑉+ = + ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡, as capacitance is constant in a given circuit.

ac

)
This relation explains that the induced current leads voltage by * because the derivative of the
y
tif

sinusoidal i is cosine (Figure 3). The chosen values of current and voltage are examples. These
as
Cl

components’ circuit symbols are depicted below in a series RLC circuit diagram (Figure 4).

)
Figure 2: current (green) lags 𝑉( (red) by * . Graphed on Desmos
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 5

)
Figure 3: current (blue) leads 𝑉+ (red) by * . Graphed on Desmos

om
l.c
ai
gm
@
h8
at

Figure 4: RLC circuit with an AC power supply (bottom)

ym

Impedance, denoted by Z and measured in ohms, is similar to resistance as it is also a

ac

&"
y

measure of opposition of flow of charge and can hence be defined as 𝑍 = . However, it also
tif

'"
as

has complex components from the capacitor and inductor (Analog Devices Editors). The
Cl

complex characteristic of capacitors and inductors shall be proven later, however, in short, they

are complex because voltage and current are defined by 𝜔, making them frequency-dependent.

Impedance is made up of resistance and reactance, the latter of which is denoted by X and is

essentially the resistance arising in capacitors and inductors when supplied by AC power rather

than Direct Current (DC) (TechTarget Contributor). To find the value of impedance in circuit

analysis, we must find the magnitude of impedance, |𝑍|.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 6

AC Circuit Analysis without Complex Numbers: The Need for

Complex Numbers

AC circuits may be analyzed without complex numbers as well; however, this becomes

unnecessarily elaborate as it involves complicated calculus, which shall be demonstrated.

By Kirchhoff’s Second Law, 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉- + 𝑉( + 𝑉+ (Tsokos), where 𝑉- is the resistor’s voltage.

By Ohm’s Law and the established sinusoidal characteristic of voltage,

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡) × 𝑅 = 𝑉% sin(𝜔𝑡)

𝑉- = 𝑉% = 𝑖𝑅 as the voltage of the resistor is frequency-independent.

$'
From Equation 2: 𝑉( = 𝐿 $#

om
l.c
, .
From Equation 3: 𝑉+ = + ∫% 𝑖 𝑑𝑡, where 𝜏 represents the time interval being considered.
ai
gm

Combining these to find combined voltage 𝑉(𝑡), which is required to find impedance:
@
h8

𝑑𝑖 1 .
𝑉% sin(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + ? 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 %
at
ym

We want to find combined voltage in terms of current, so we attempt to get rid of the integral:
ac

/
𝑑𝑖 / 1 .
y
tif

(𝑉% sin(𝜔𝑡))/ = (𝑖𝑅)/ + @𝐿 A + B ? 𝑖 𝑑𝑡C

𝑑𝑡 𝐶 %
as
Cl

From the chain rule and standard derivatives, differentiating with respect to t gives us:

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 * 1
𝜔𝑉% cos(𝜔𝑡) = 𝑅 +𝐿 * + 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑡 𝐶

Clearly, with second-order differential equations, circuit analysis becomes a bit tangled for our

syllabus. Hence, the usage of complex numbers is necessary to simplify these operations.

Defining Euler’s Form and Complex Numbers

Now that the need for complex numbers has been established, we can detail how they

shall be utilized within this exploration. As seen above, the variable i has been used to represent
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 7

current. Hence, 𝑗 = √−1 shall be used to represent complex numbers. It is extremely valuable

that this is considered a constant as it is numerical, rather than another variable.

Expressing physical quantities such as complex impedance which requires

multiplication and division of variables becomes much easier with Euler’s form. Euler’s form

can be found through the Maclaurin Expansion of 𝑒 0 , where e is Euler’s number 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828,

which is detailed below:

0# 0$ 0%
The Maclaurin series states 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 0 = ∑3
14% 1! = 1 + 𝑥 + *!
+ 5!
+⋯

If 𝑥 = 𝑗𝜃, 𝜃 being the angle between the positive real axis and the imaginary axis for

the complex number in an Argand diagram, as shall be discussed later, then:

om
3

l.c
67
(𝑗𝜃)1 (𝑗𝜃)* (𝑗𝜃)5
𝑓(𝑗𝜃) = 𝑒 =P = 1 + 𝑗𝜃 + + +⋯ ai
𝑘! 2! 3!
gm
14%
@

As 𝑗 * = −1, 𝑓(𝑗𝜃) =
h8

7$ 7& 7'
at

=1− *!
+ 8!
− 9!
+⋯ This is the Maclaurin series for cos 𝜃
ym

7% 7( 7)
ac

+ 𝑗(𝜃 − 5!
+ :!
− ;!
+ ⋯ ) Maclaurin series for sin 𝜃 multiplied by j
y
tif

Hence, 𝑒 67 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃 and 𝑟𝑒 67 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃) = 𝑟cis𝜃, where 𝑟𝑒 67 is

as
Cl

Euler’s form, r is the modulus of x, and 𝜃 is the argument of x. This reinforces that

𝑅𝑒(𝑗) = 𝑟 cos 𝜃. The real component of voltage is 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉% cos(𝜔𝑡) if we use 𝑉% = 𝑟 and

𝜔𝑡 = 𝜃.

Originally, I was confused by why instantaneous voltage and current, previously

defined to be sinusoidal, may be defined using cosine when calculating impedance. However,

by exploring this derivation of Euler’s form, I was able to understand why cosine is used for

calculations of impedance – to find the real component of voltage. The imaginary component

of voltage cannot be compared to experimental values, so this finding was critical.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 8

In Euler’s form, we express voltage as Equation 4: 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑉% 𝑒 6<# . This shall be used

for most calculations further on. There are also two other forms of complex numbers; if x is a

complex number, in Cartesian form it is expressed as 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, and in polar form it is

expressed as 𝑥 = 𝑟cis(𝜃) = 𝑟 cos(𝜃) + 𝑗𝑟 sin(𝜃). r is calculated through 𝑟 = √𝑎* + 𝑏 * when

converting from Cartesian into polar form or Euler’s form. 𝜃 can be calculated through

>
𝜃 = tan=, X?Y when converting from Cartesian form.

As it shall be proven, 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋, where 𝑅𝑒(𝑍) = 𝑅, and 𝐼𝑚(𝑍) = 𝑋 where X is

comprised of XL and XC found in inductors and capacitors, respectively.

om
Impedance of a Resistor

l.c
ai
gm
From Equation 4 we know as 𝑉- = 𝑉% 𝑒 6<# .
@

&* &" @ +,-

h8

From Ohm’s Law and Equation 4, 𝑖- = -

= -
.
at

&* &" @ +,- ,

ym

From Ohm’s Law for impedance, 𝑍- = '*

= ." /+,-
= 0 = 𝑅.
*
ac

*
y

Hence, 𝑍- = 𝑅. This reinforces that resistance is an only real component.

tif
as
Cl

Impedance of an Inductor

We assume no internal resistance of the inductor itself, as the focus of this exploration

is on the imaginary component, reactance.

We know 𝑉( = 𝑉% cos(𝜔𝑡) when we take the real component of voltage in polar form.

We now have the voltage, and must find the current. From Equation 2, we also know:

$' &1 $' &" ABC(<#)

$#
= (
and hence $#
= (
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 9

To find the current iL from this formula, we must integrate both sides of this equation

with indefinite integrals with respect to t:

𝑑𝑖 𝑉%
? = ? @ cos(𝜔𝑡)A 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

The integral of cos(𝑥) is positive sin(𝑥), and from the ‘reverse chain rule’, the equation

must be divided by 𝜔 when we take 𝑉% , 𝐿, and 𝜔 as constants:

𝑉%
𝑖( = sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐷
𝐿𝜔

The integrating factor D can be calculated by substituting time 𝑡 = 0, where 𝑖 is also 0

because charge cannot instantaneously flow when no time has passed. This means:

om
&
When 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑖 = 0, 0 = (<" sin(𝜔 × 0) + 𝐷

l.c
ai &
As sin 0 = 0, we can say 𝐷 = 0, so 𝑖( = (<" sin(𝜔𝑡)
gm
@

Sine and cosine are cofunctions, so trigonometric equations using sine may also be
h8
at

)
expressed through cosine as cos X * − 𝑥Y = sin 𝑥. From Figure 2 we also know that current lags
ym

)
ac

behind voltage with a phase difference of * . As cosine is an even function, cos(∅) = cos(−∅).
y
tif

)
We can hence also express 𝑖( as the following, where ∅ = * − 𝑥, and 𝑥 = 𝜔𝑡:
as
Cl

𝑉% 𝜋 𝑉% 𝜋
𝑖( = cos B− X − 𝜔𝑡YC = cos(𝜔𝑡 − )
𝐿𝜔 2 𝐿𝜔 2
)
By the Fourier transform, a phase difference of *
and the fact that current is frequency-

dependent implies that the reactance of an inductor must be an imaginary quantity (Schleider).

At first, I was a little hesitant on how to continue to find 𝑍( as voltage 𝑉( was in Euler’s form,

while current 𝑖( was in polar form. However, I took some time to reflect and realized that rather

than converting from polar form to Euler’s form by calculating the modulus and argument, it

would be easier to simply redo the integration using Equation 4, which gave the voltage

expressed in Euler’s form as seen below.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 10

𝑑𝑖 𝑉%
? = ? @ 𝑒 6<# A 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

From the reverse chain rule, where j is also a constant,

𝑉% 6<#
𝑖= 𝑒
𝑗𝐿𝜔

&1
As 𝑍( = '1
, we can use the derived values for voltage and current:

𝑉% 𝑒 6<# 1
𝑍( = = = 𝑗𝐿𝜔
𝑉% 6<# 1
𝑗𝐿𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝐿𝜔

Hence, 𝑍( = 𝑗𝐿𝜔. This reinforces that inductive reactance is an imaginary component.

om
Impedance of a Capacitor

l.c
ai
gm

Once again, we assume no internal resistance of the capacitor itself.

@

From Equation 4 we know as 𝑉+ = 𝑉% 𝑒 6<# .

h8
at

Rather than integration, which was used to calculate the impedance of an inductor, we must
ym

use differentiation to find the impedance of a capacitor.

ac
y

∆"
From Equations 1 and 3 we know, as 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 and 𝑖 = ,
tif

∆#
as

𝑑𝑞 𝑑
Cl

𝑖+ = = a𝐶𝑉% 𝑒 6<# b
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

From the chain rule and derivative of e, 𝑖+ = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉% 𝑒 6<# .

)
Expressed in polar form, the real component is 𝑖+ = 𝜔𝐶𝑉% cos X𝜔𝑡 + * Y. The presence

)
of 𝜔𝑡 proves that current depends on angular frequency. The addition of *
is justified by

)
Figure 3, as current is depicted to lead the voltage by a phase difference of *
. By the Fourier

)
transform, a phase difference of *
implies that this must be an imaginary quantity (Schleider).
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 11

&!
As 𝑍+ = '!
, we can combine our findings of VC and iC to give:

𝑉% 𝑒 6<# 1
𝑍+ = 6<#
=
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉% 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝐶

Here, the denominator is complex because of j. This makes it difficult to work with as

we are unable to separate the real and imaginary components of 𝑍+ . In the Cartesian form of

complex numbers, if 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is a complex number, the conjugate will be 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏. However, in

this case, there is no purely real component as a is zero, hence the conjugate will simply be

−𝑗𝑏, where b is 𝜔𝐶. This means we multiply both the numerator and denominator on the right-

=6<+
hand side of the equation by −𝑗𝜔𝐶, giving =6<+ which can simplify to 1 on the left-hand side:

om
1 −𝑗𝜔𝐶 −𝑗𝜔𝐶

l.c
𝑍+ = × = * * *
𝑗𝜔𝐶 −𝑗𝜔𝐶 −𝑗 𝜔 𝐶 ai
gm

6
Hence, 𝑍+ = − <+ by 𝑗 * = −1. This reinforces that capacitive reactance is an imaginary
@
h8

component.
at
ym

Combining Impedance, Visual Representations, and Phase Angle

ac
y
tif

We can say that total impedance of the circuit is equal to the sum of impedances of individual
as
Cl

components, or 𝑍#F# = 𝑍- + 𝑍( + 𝑍+ .

To reiterate, the individual impedances are:

6
𝑍- = 𝑅, 𝑍( = 𝑗𝐿𝜔, and 𝑍+ = − <+ where 𝑍( + 𝑍+ = 𝑋 , 𝑍( = 𝑗𝑋( and 𝑍+ = 𝑗𝑋+

Expressing this in a single equation,

𝑗
𝑍#F# = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐿𝜔 + (− )
𝜔𝐶
,
Equation 5: 𝑍#F# = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝐿𝜔 − <+ )

This proves that, as aforementioned, impedance is a complex quantity whereby 𝑅𝑒(𝑍) = 𝑅

and 𝐼𝑚(𝑍) = 𝑋( − 𝑋+ .
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 12

We may also visually represent this on an Argand diagram with phasors to simplify

problem-solving for equations. An Argand diagram allows plotting of complex numbers. The

x-axis from a Cartesian plane is the real axis, and the y-axis from a Cartesian plane represents

the imaginary axis on an Argand diagram. For example, the complex number 𝑥 = 4 + 5𝑗 may

be represented as shown in Figure 5 below.

om
l.c
ai
gm
@
h8
at
ym

Figure 5: Example of plotting on an Argand diagram. Graphed on Desmos

ac

Phasors are essentially vectors made specifically for AC quantities and have similar
y
tif

characteristics to vectors. However, it is important to note that the modulus, or magnitude, of

as
Cl

phasors refers to the root-mean-squared (rms) values of voltage and current, whereas vectors

use the peak values of voltage and current (Electronics Tutorials Editors. “Phasor”). rms values

are the equivalent DC values when regarding power-dissipation in AC and DC (Tsokos).

To represent impedance, we can plot R on the real axis, and 𝑋( − 𝑋+ on the imaginary

axis. As 𝑋( is positive and 𝑋+ is negative, we can say 𝑋+ is the negative part of the imaginary

axis and plot the value of 𝑋+ on the negative imaginary axis (Figure 6). Let us use an example

to highlight how one may calculate impedance from an Argand diagram. Say 𝑋( = 7 ohms,

and 𝑋+ = 2 ohms. By phasor addition, we can conclude that the resultant phasor is 5 units

upwards in the positive imaginary axis direction (green on Figure 6). Say 𝑅 = 4 ohms (blue on
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 13

Figure 6). We may plot these two phasors on an Argand diagram and use the tip-to-tail method

of phasors to find the resultant phasor (red on Figure 6). Impedance is the modulus, or

magnitude of the resultant phasor. This is represented algebraically by the following:

,
Equation 6: |𝑍| = e𝑅* + (𝑋( − 𝑋+ )* = f𝑅* + (𝐿𝜔 − )*
<+

In this example, we can conclude |𝑍| = √4* + 5* ≈ 6.403 ohms.

We can also use an Argand diagram to find the phase angle of our circuit. This is solved through

> :
𝜃 = tan=, X?Y. In this example, we can conclude 𝜃 = tan=, X8Y ≈ 0.896 rad.

om
l.c
ai
gm
@
h8
at
ym
ac
y
tif
as
Cl

Figure 6: Impedance plotted on an Argand diagram. Graphed on Desmos

Before exploring impedances of individual components and then combining them

algebraically, I had briefly looked into visual representations of finding impedance. However,

investigation into these visual representations had left me confused as to why XC was in the

negative part of the imaginary axis of the Argand diagram. Hence, algebraically deriving these

impedances was essential in clarifying to me why it was negative on diagrams. We can now

use this method to easily solve problems involving impedance.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 14

Applying Knowledge: Example Problem & Parallel Circuits

After deriving the impedance and phase angle for a series circuit, I started wondering

how one may analyze a parallel circuit using these concepts with real values. As it is difficult

to experimentally determine phase angle, for the following sections there will be an emphasis

on impedance only. In a series circuit, impedance is rather easy to find: substitute the values in

the equation we have derived, Equation 6, using the fact that current is equal for all components

in a series circuit. I remembered that voltage is constant through a parallel circuit, but that

current is divided into ‘branches’, and that the total current must be equal to the sum of the
, ,

om
currents of each branch (Tsokos). For parallel circuits, --2-34
= ∑1G4, - , so the reciprocal of
5

l.c
the total resistance equals the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances of individual components
ai
gm

(Tsokos). As impedance is complex resistance, we can say:

@
h8

, , , , ,
H-2-
=H +H +H and so 𝑍#F# = 0 0 0
I I
at

* 1 !
6* 61 6!
ym

,
Replacing this with the individual component impedances, we can say: 𝑍#F# = 0 0
ac

I6( =<+)
* ,1
y
tif

We now multiply by the conjugate to find a real denominator:

as

1 1
Cl

1 𝑅 − 𝑗 X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
𝑍#F# = ×
1 1 1 1
𝑅 + 𝑗 X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y 𝑅 − 𝑗 X 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y

1 1
𝑍#F# = 𝑅 − 𝑗 X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
*
1 * 1
X𝑅Y − B𝑗 X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶YC

As 𝑗 * = −1,

1 1
− 𝑗 X 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
𝑍#F# = 𝑅 *
1 1
+ X 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
𝑅*
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 15

1 1
X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
𝑍#F# = 𝑅
* −𝑗 *
1 1 1 1
+ X𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y + X 𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶Y
𝑅* 𝑅*

To find the impedance, we may find the modulus of this expression:

0 * 0 *
M =<+N
Equation 7: i𝑍J?K?LL@L i = jB 0 0
*
$ C + B− 0
,1
0 $ C
IM,1=<+N IM,1=<+N
*$ *$

To avoid further complicating this expression, we will not expand this and hence leave

it in this form for further calculations using real values. In our example problem giving a

numerical answer, I will be using the following values which were chosen based on feasibility

in experimentally verifying findings:

om
• 𝑅 = 20 ohms
l.c
ai
• 𝐶 = 0.10 F
gm
@

• 𝐿=5H
h8
at

• 𝑓 = 1 Hz
ym

Before substituting in values to find the impedance, the calculation of angular frequency
ac
y

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 is required:
tif
as

𝜔 = 2𝜋(1) = 2𝜋 in exact value

Cl

Now we can substitute these values to find the impedance:

i𝑍J?K?LL@L i

* *
1 1
@ − (2𝜋)(0.10)A
20 (2𝜋 )(5)
= k⎛ *
⎞ + ⎛−
*
⎞
1 1 1 1
+ @(2𝜋 )(5) − (2𝜋)(0.10)A + @(2𝜋 )(5) − (2𝜋)(0.10)A
⎝ 20* ⎠ ⎝ 20* ⎠

|𝑍#F# | = 1.67062 ohms

I also decided to explore a different method of deriving the parallel impedance, using

rules of operations with complex numbers and algebraic manipulation.

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 16

, , , , ,
For parallel circuits, H-2-
= H + H + H + ⋯+ H
0 $ % 5

, , , , H1 H! IH* H! IH* H1
For our purposes, H-2-
=H +H +H = H* H1 H!
* 1 !

H* H1 H!
Which gives us Equation 8: 𝑍#F# = H
1 H! IH* H! IH* H1

Replacing these variables with previously-derived expressions,

1 𝜔𝐿𝑅
(𝑅)(𝑗𝜔𝐿) X−𝑗
Y −𝑗 * 𝜔𝐶
𝑍#F# = 𝜔𝐶 =
1 1 𝜔𝐿 𝑅
X𝑗𝜔𝐿 × −𝑗 𝜔𝐶 Y + X𝑅 × −𝑗 𝜔𝐶 Y + (𝑅 × 𝑗𝜔𝐿) −𝑗 * 𝜔𝐶 − 𝑗 𝜔𝐶 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝑅

We know 𝑗 * = −1, so:

𝐿𝑅
𝐶

om
𝑍#F# =
𝐿 1
𝐶 − 𝑗𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y
l.c
ai
At first, I was confused as to why we now have 𝑋+ − 𝑋( which differed from Equation
gm
@

6 stating 𝑋( − 𝑋+ , so I took some time to explore how reciprocals of complex numbers are
h8
at

represented on an Argand diagram, as highlighted below in Figure 7. While the magnitude is

ym

the same, the direction of the reciprocal is as though reflected over the x-axis. Using
ac

information from Figure 6, we know the negative imaginary axis is −𝑋+ and the positive
y
tif
as

imaginary axis is 𝑋( . This means on the phasor diagram for parallel circuits, the expression
Cl

𝑋( − 𝑋+ becomes −(𝑋( − 𝑋+ ), resulting in 𝑋+ − 𝑋( . The argument, or phase angle, is the

opposite of the same impedance as in a series circuit, where arg(𝑧) = 2𝜋 − 𝜃 = −𝜃.

Figure 7: Reciprocals represented on an Argand diagram. Graphed on Desmos

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 17

Continuing from above, to have a real denominator, we multiply by the conjugate:

𝐿𝑅 𝐿 1
𝐶 + 𝑗𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y
𝑍#F# = 𝐶 ×
𝐿 1 𝐿 1
𝐶 − 𝑗𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y 𝐶 + 𝑗𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y

𝐿𝑅 𝐿 𝐿𝑅 1
𝐶 × 𝐶 + 𝐶 × 𝑗𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y
= *
𝐿* * * 1
− 𝑗 𝑅 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y
𝐶*

𝐿* 𝑅 𝐿𝑅* 1
+ 𝑗 − 𝜔𝐿Y
= 𝐶*
* 𝐶 X𝜔𝐶
*
𝐿 * X 1 − 𝜔𝐿Y
+ 𝑅 𝜔𝐶
𝐶*

Separating these into imaginary and real components, we get:

om
𝐿* 𝑅 𝐿𝑅* 1
𝐶 X𝜔𝐶 − 𝜔𝐿Y
l.c
𝑍#F# = * 𝐶* + 𝑗
𝐿 *
𝐿*
ai *
+ 𝑅 * X 1 − 𝜔𝐿Y + 𝑅 * X 1 − 𝜔𝐿Y
gm

𝐶* 𝜔𝐶 𝐶* 𝜔𝐶
@

While we could simplify this further, as the next step is simply substituting in our
h8
at

example problem values this is unnecessary. We may now find the modulus of this to have a
ym

formula for impedance:

ac
y

1$ *
* 1*$ 0
*
tif

M =<(N
!$
Equation 9: i𝑍J?K?LL@L i = jB 1$ $ C +B 1$
! ,!
$ C
as

$ 0 0
I- M,!=<(N I- $ M,!=<(N
!$ !$
Cl

This appears more complicated than our previous equation, Equation 7, however, it is

still valuable to see whether we find the same result using this equation for our example

problem:

i𝑍J?K?LL@L i

* *
5* × 20 5 × 20* 1
= ks * 0.10 *
t + s 0.10 2𝜋 × 0.10 − 2𝜋 × 5Y t
X
* *
5 *X 1 5* *X 1
+ 20 2𝜋 × 0.10 − 2𝜋 × 5Y + 20 2𝜋 × 0.10 − 2𝜋 × 5Y
0.10* 0.10*
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 18

i𝑍J?K?LL@L i = 1.67062 ohms, which is equal to the impedance we found with our previous

formula and verifies both my derivations.

I additionally wanted to explore how impedance varied between a series and parallel

circuit given the same values. Applying Equation 6, we have the answer:

*
1
|𝑍O@K'@O | = j20* + @(5)(2𝜋) − A
(2𝜋)(0.10)

|𝑍O@K'@O | = 35.9095 ohms

This allows us to conclude that impedance is significantly higher when components are

connected in series than when they are connected in parallel. This was quite surprising, as I

om
had expected the impedance for series to be high, but did not expect such a large discrepancy.

l.c
ai
This doubt prompted me to compare my findings to the experimental values of an RLC circuit.
gm
@

Comparison to Experimental Value

h8
at
ym

In order to determine the validity of my method in deriving these equations, I decided

ac

to test these circuit components with experimental values on a simulated circuit (Figure 8). I
y
tif

used the simulation software PhET Labs, which does not enable measurements of phase angle
as
Cl

so only the value of impedance will be experimentally determined. To be able to verify the

validity, I will use the same values as in the example problem. In parallel circuits, voltage is

constant across all components, while current varies (Tsokos). Hence, I had to find the current

through all components by connecting an ammeter in series with the individual components.

By recording the simulation in slow-motion on my smartphone, I was able to estimate 𝑖% and

𝑉% . These recorded measurements are below:

• For all components: 𝑉% = 20.0 V

• For resistor: 𝑖% = 1.00 A

• For inductor: 𝑖% = 1.17 A

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 19

• For capacitor: 𝑖% = 12.17 A

om
Figure 8: Experimentally testing impedance within a parallel circuit. Created with PhET Labs

l.c
&"
By using Ohm’s Law for impedance, 𝑍 = '"
, we can calculate the impedance of each
ai
gm

component individually, and then combine them with the equation for resistance in parallel
@
h8

circuits:
at
ym

*%
𝑍- = ,
= 20.0000 ohms
ac

*%
𝑍( = ,.,; = 17.0940 ohms
y
tif
as

*%
𝑍- = ,*.,; = 1.64339 ohms
Cl

Now we combine these:

1 1 1 1
= + + = 0.716998
𝑍#F# 20.0000 17.0940 1.64339
,
𝑍#F# = %.;,9QQR = 1.39470 ohms

To verify this, I decided to substitute values of impedance into Equation 8 to determine the

validity of my findings when using a different method:

20.00000 × 17.0940 × 1.64339

𝑍#F# =
17.09400 × 1.64339 + 20.00000 × 1.64339 + 20.0000 × 17.09400

= 1.39470 ohms
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 20

This is the same result I calculated from the previous equation. This confirms that both

methods yield the same result. However, this is not quite the result we determined using

Equations 7 and 9. There is a percentage error as follows:

1.67062 − 1.39470
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100% = 19.7832 %
1.39470

This is somewhat significant; however, it can be explained by the underlying aspects

of the simulation. As aforementioned, I had to estimate the value of the peak current for all

three components using slow-motion videotaping, so it is likely that there were some

inaccuracies in those areas. For example, the true value of 𝑖% for the inductor may have actually

been 12.30 ohms, but I was simply unable to determine this due to the frequency being too fast

om
l.c
for the circuit simulation technology to display, or due to insufficiently slow slow-motion
ai
technology when recording values of 𝑖% .
gm
@
h8

Conclusion, Limitations, and Extensions to Study

at
ym

To reiterate, the aim of this exploration was exploring a variety of methodologies when
ac
y

analyzing AC RLC circuits, and to emphasize the critical value that complex numbers offer us
tif
as

for real-life applications of mathematics compared to the limitations of using only real
Cl

numbers. Throughout this exploration, I have certainly achieved this aim. The contrast between

using complicated second-order differential equations when utilizing only real numbers,

compared to the linear relationships with phasors when using complex numbers, underlines

their value. Multiple methodologies have been demonstrated, for example when deriving the

formula for parallel circuits through two different methods, and then also experimentally

verifying these results in two different methods.

These experimental verifications revealed that my derivation was more or less accurate,

however, the percentage error of about 20% suggests there may have been inaccuracies when

measuring the values for peak current through individual components. This is a limitation of
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 21

my exploration, as I could have chosen different software to record the peak current, or I could

have changed the value of frequency to make it more feasible to measure the peak current and

hence have a more accurate comparison. Improving this limitation would allow me to be even

more confident in stating that I have achieved my aim in using complex numbers to accurately

analyze AC RLC circuits. Another limitation is the assumption of no internal resistance in the

inductors and capacitors; in reality, this is impossible, and slightly more complicated equations

would be required in realistic circuit analysis.

The main challenge I had throughout this exploration was being able to draw

information from essentially all domains of the Mathematics AA HL curriculum and

om
combining them in ways I was unfamiliar with. For example, I had not yet explored vectorial

l.c
representations of complex numbers in depth, so independently exploring phasors was initially
ai
gm

challenging. Another significant challenge I had was applying my knowledge of impedance in

@
h8

series circuits to parallel circuits. The confusion arose from realizing that there were quite a
at

few different methodologies that one could use for the derivation, and wondering whether they
ym
ac

would give the same result or not. This confusion was resolved by exploring multiple methods
y
tif

individually to see whether they gave the same result or not.

as

With newly gained knowledge from this IA, I can now comfortably approach
Cl

calculations regarding impedance and series and parallel circuits in my further studies, perhaps

in studying physics in university. I am delighted to conclude that despite their name, complex

numbers often make applications of mathematics less complex through their versatility in

explaining many topics.

This exploration may be extended upon by examining impedance in a series-parallel

combination circuit, or by taking away the assumption of zero internal resistance for inductors

and capacitors.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by awmath

jcd435 22

Works Cited List

Works Cited

All About Circuits Editors. "Capacitors and Calculus." All About Circuits, EE Tech Media,

www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-13/capacitors-and-calculus.

Analog Devices Editors. "Impedance." Analog, Analog Devices, www.analog.com/en/design-

center/glossary/impedance.html.

"Circuit Construction Kit: AC." PhET Labs, U of Colorado Boulder,

phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/circuit-construction-kit-ac-virtual-lab/latest/circuit-

construction-kit-ac-virtual-lab_en.html.

om
"Desmos Graphing Calculator." Desmos, Desmos Studios, PBC,

l.c
www.desmos.com/calculator.
ai
gm

Electronics Tutorials Editors. "The Inductor." Electronics Tutorials, AspenCore,

@
h8

www.electronics-tutorials.ws/inductor/inductor.html.
at
ym

---. "Phasor Diagrams and Phasor Algebra." Electronics Tutorials, AspenCore,

ac

www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phasors.html.
y
tif

Schleider, Pete. "Understanding the Basics of Fourier Transforms." Endaq Blog, 2018,
as
Cl

blog.endaq.com/fourier-transform-basics.

TechTarget Contributor. "Reactance." TechTarget, Sept. 2005,

www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/reactance.

Tsokos, K. A. Physics for the IB Diploma Coursebook. 6th ed., Cambridge, Cambridge UP,

2014.