tion

Good communication skills are essential to effective business communications. At its core, the
aim of communication is to transmit information from one person to another so that
the sender and receiver understand the message in the same way. The responsibility for clear
communication usually falls on the sender. But the receiver is also responsible to confirm a clear
understanding of the message. Communication is a dynamic and cyclical process.

Breaking down the communication cycle into its parts is helpful to understand the
responsibilities of both the sender and receiver of communication, as well as to identify
communication barriers.

The 5 Step Communication Process

Step
1: Idea Formation – The communication process begins when the sender has an idea to be
communicated. The idea will be influenced by complex factors surrounding the sender. The
sender must begin by clarifying the idea and purpose. What exactly does the sender want to
achieve? How is the message likely to be perceived? Knowing this information provides a
higher chance of successful communication

Step 2: Message Encoding – The idea must be encoded into words, symbols, and gestures that
will convey meaning. Because no two people interpret information in the exact same way, the
sender must be careful to choose words, symbols and gestures that are commonly understood to
reduce the chances of misunderstanding. Therefore, a sender must be aware of the receiver’s
communication skills, attitudes, skills, experiences, and culture to ensure clear communication.

Step 3: Message Transmission: Choosing the medium to transmit the message is the next step
in the communication process. Messages can be transmitted in a verbal, written, or visual
manner (see Table 1). For clear communication to occur, the medium and message must match
Message Transmission Mediums

Verbal Written Visual

In-person Drawings,
Email
speech paintings

Phone Text, Photos,

conversation instant graphic
 message designs

Voice-over- Body language

Report,
internet (e.g., eye
article,
protocol contact, hand
essay
(VoIP) gestures)

Radio Letter Graphs

Podcast Memo Font types

Voicemail
Blog Semaphore
message

Intercom Tweet Architecture

Step 4: Decoding – When the message reaches the receiver, the message must be decoded into
its intended meaning. Therefore, the receiver must translate the words, symbols, and gestures as
the sender intended. Because no two people interpret information in the exact same way,
incorrectly decoding a message can lead to misunderstanding. Successful decoding is more
likely when the receiver creates a receptive environment and ignores distractions. Alert receivers
strive to understand both verbal and nonverbal cues, avoid prejudging the message, and expect to
learn from the communication.

Step 5: Feedback – A vital part of the communication process is feedback. Feedback occurs the
sender and receiver check to ensure the message was understood as intended. Feedback is a
shared responsibility between the sender and the receiver and can be verbal or non-verbal. For
example, the sender can elicit feedback by asking, “Do you have any questions?” The sender can
also improve the feedback process by only providing as much information as the receiver can
handle. Receivers can encourage clear communication by providing clear, timely, descriptive,
and non-judgmental feedback. For example, the receiver can shake his/her head up and down to
confirm “yes” I have a question.

MODES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of sharing information between individuals using a set of common
rules, behaviours, symbols, and signs. Thus, there are five modes of communication:
 • Interpretative Communication
• Presentational Communication
• Interpersonal Communication
• Verbal Communication
• Non-Verbal Communication
Before we delve deep into the topic, let us first understand the importance of different modes of
communication.
• Maintains the flow of conveying information
• Helps in devising plans and strategies for reaching a goal
• Builds cordial relations and soft skills
• Decision-making becomes more effective and less time-consuming
• Problem-solving and conflict management become easier

1. Interpretive Communication
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dit: Pinterest
Also referred to as “one-way communication”, in this mode, the information conveyed by the
sender is interpreted by the receiver in its original form. The target has to understand the message
in both written and spoken form keeping various aspects in mind. For example, in a class, the
learners may not understand every word said by the teacher but are expected to understand the
main crux of the topic. Some of the main highlights of Interpretative Communication are:
• Learners understand, interpret, and analyze what is heard, read, or viewed on a variety of
topics.
• This mode of communication involves interpreting the author or producer’s intent.
• There is no alternative to the active negotiation of meaning with the writer, the speaker,
or the producer.

2. Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information through

verbal and nonverbal messages. It is an unmediated mode of communication that occurs when
we interact and attempt to mutually influence each other, simultaneously, in order to manage
relationships. Although interpersonal communication can encompass oral, written, and non-
verbal forms of communication, the term is usually applied to spoken communication that takes
place between two or more individuals on a personal or face-to-face level. Examples of
Interpersonal Communication include:
• Personal Interview
• Telephonic Conversations
 • Interactive Sessions
• Debates
• E-mails
• Text Messages
Models of Communication
Bachelor of Mass Communication

3. Presentational Communication
C
redit: SlideShare
Presentational Communication is another type of one-way communication, which facilitates
interpretation by members of another group where no direct opportunity for the active
negotiation of meaning between members of the two groups exists. With this mode of
communication, a person is speaking to an audience that can be rehearsed, pre-prepared, or
scripted. Some of the main highlights of Presentational Communication have been given a
rundown below.
• To ensure the intended audience is successful in its interpretation, the “presenter” needs
knowledge of the audience’s language and culture.
• No direct opportunity for engaging with a larger audience exists in this form of
communication.

MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION
What is a medium in communication?
A medium in communication is a system or channel through which a speaker or writer addresses
their audience. It's an outlet that a sender uses to express meaning to their audience, and it can
include written, verbal or nonverbal elements.
A communication medium can either be virtual or physical. It may contain more than one
element or communication type, and it may address either an individual or a group of people.
Some communication mediums may emphasize directness, while others may be more flexible
and allow audiences to derive their own interpretations from the speaker's message.

1. Face-to-face communication
One of the most common types of communication in the workplace is face-to-face
communication. This involves direct communication between two or more people, usually in
conversation with one another. It can also include nonconversational, in-person communication,
like a speaker presenting at a conference with an audience of professionals.
An in-person, face-to-face communication medium typically uses both verbal and nonverbal
expressions to communicate a message. Speakers state their message and may use gestures and
other nonverbal cues to emphasize their meaning and intent. Listeners receive and process the
message as the speaker delivers it, and they may respond immediately with their own thoughts
and questions.
The benefit of this style of communication is its immediacy. In a conversation, all parties can
participate. This allows for an equal exchange of ideas without the need to wait for a response.
In-person communication may allow for more use of nonverbal cues than other types of
communication as well. It can be easier, for example, to see and interpret nonverbal cues from a
conversation partner when speaking face-to-face in a physical setting rather than through a
virtual channel like a video conference.

2. Virtual remote communication

Remote communication typically involves the use of technology to send a message to someone
operating in another location. There are several types of remote communication methods,
including those that involve written, verbal and visual communication styles.
For example, one common type of workplace remote communication is email. Emailing a client
or another member of your organization is a simple and quick method of contacting someone
remotely. Other remote communication options include conducting a video conference or phone
call, sending a text or instant message or using a pager or intercom.
Remote communication is a great way to contact those working in a different location from your
own. This form of communication is often less formal than a face-to-face meeting, though some
may use video conferencing in place of face-to-face meetings for more formal conversations that
require remote communication.
For example, an employer may establish a videoconference with a job candidate to conduct a
remote interview in place of an in-person one.

3. Written communication
Although less common due to technological advancements, written communication can still play
an important role in the workplace. This form of communication involves physically written
notes, letters and memos. Written communication may either be formal or informal, depending
on its context.
For example, leaving a handwritten note as a reminder to a coworker can be an informal style of
communication. An example of formal written correspondence may be a handwritten card
written to thank a coworker for their support. Similar to virtual remote communication, written
communication involves less immediacy than face-to-face communication.

4. Social media communication

Social media communication in the workplace is more commonly used to promote messages to
external consumers rather than internal employees. Many companies use social media to connect
with their target consumers through advertisements and promotions.
Social media can be a great way for companies to attract the attention of customers, and it can
combine various communication mediums. For example, some platforms support visual content
like pictures, while others emphasize video communication. Most platforms allow users to
interact in private or public chat messages, which can allow for communication between two or
more participants.
Some companies or work teams may use social media for internal purposes. For example, your
work team might use an instant messaging platform to quickly send messages to coworkers.
Others may use professional social media platforms to conduct outreach with potential business
partners. Although social media messaging is typically less formal than other types of messaging,
it can be a convenient way to communicate with an audience.

5. Nonverbal communication
In addition to spoken and written communication, nonverbal cues can help you express your
message to your audience. Being aware of how nonverbal cues like tone and gestures affect your
communication can help you use these elements to better express yourself to your listeners.
Often, people give nonverbal cues subconsciously when they speak to another person, but
learning about these cues and how they express your ideas and feelings can help you use them to
enhance your communication.
Since nonverbal cues rely on gestures and expressions, such as smiling, they can be difficult to
express through some mediums. When talking on the phone or sending written correspondence,
you may need to account for the lack of nonverbal cues so you can ensure your audience
understands your message clearly.
When speaking to someone in person or face-to-face, be conscious of your nonverbal cues and
use them to improve the clarity of your communication or make the right impression on your
audience.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING A CHANNEL OF COMMUNICATION

• Nature of Message:
The means of communication depends upon the nature of the message. Urgent, confidential,

private and important messages should be distinguished from ordinary, routine, open and less

important messages and the means of communication are to be chosen accordingly.

• Cost:
The cost of sending a message is also to be considered while selecting a mode of

communication. The result obtained should justify the expenditure.

• Record:
If the record of the communication is important it should be written, otherwise oral

communication is sufficient.
 • Distance:
Distance is another factor for consideration. The mode of communication to be chosen depends

on whether the message is to be sent to a nearby place or somewhere at a long distance.

• Scale of Organisation:
Means of communication in large-scale business is different from that in the small-scale. In small

business most communication is oral while in large business it is written.

• Supporting Technology:
Both the sender and the receiver must have supporting technological communication tool to

make communication through a particular medium. Suppose, A sends an e-mail to B. To get the

e-mail B should have a personal computer.

Again, to get a fax message one should possess a fax machine. Therefore, while selecting a

means of communication one has to consider whether supporting technological tool is available

at the other end.

• Urgency:
Selection of the means of communication is to be made keeping in view the urgency of the

communication. Time available is the main factor here. Higher cost may be justified for sending

the message in time.

• Secrecy:
If the message to be communicated is secret or confidential, such means are required to be

adopted that can maintain secrecy. A telephone call can be overheard, an e-mail or fax may not

be appropriate, and an office memo may be less confidential. In such cases, face-to-face talking

may solve the problem.

• Safety:
The sender has to be careful about the safety of the message. He/She has to decide whether the
message would be sent by ordinary post or by registered post; through courier or messenger, etc.

• Relationship:
The relationship between the sender and recipient may be a decisive factor in the choice of the

means of communication. Message of private nature may require personal contact whereas

formal relationship demands official and conventional mode of communication.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about
understanding the emotion and intentions behind the information. As well as being able to clearly
convey a message, you need to also listen in a way that gains the full meaning of what's being
said and makes the other person feel heard and understood.

Effective communication sounds like it should be instinctive. But all too often, when we try to
communicate with others something goes astray. We say one thing, the other person hears
something else, and misunderstandings, frustration, and conflicts ensue. This can cause problems
in your home, school, and work relationships.

For many of us, communicating more clearly and effectively requires learning some important
skills. Whether you’re trying to improve communication with your spouse, kids, boss, or
coworkers, learning these skills can deepen your connections to others, build greater trust and
respect, and improve teamwork, problem solving, and your overall social and emotional health.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (7Cs OF COMMUNICATION)

• Clear
(Clarity) Be clear about the goal of your message and the purpose of the message. Present one
idea at a time making it easier for the recipient to understand. Don’t leave them guessing what
the message is about and having to fill in the gaps themselves.
Set a goal or outcome for what you want to communicate and work towards that.
• Concise
(Conciseness) Keep to the point and keep it short and simple. Don’t use unnecessary words (use
two words where one will do or 6 sentences when 3 will do). Don’t repeat the same point in
different ways.
This will also make any communication more engaging and easier to understand.
 • Concrete
(Concreteness) Be clear, not fuzzy. Ensure there is enough detail to get the message across but
not too much so that the recipient will be lost and that the message is factual.
Adding too much ‘noise’ around your main points can mean these are missed. Make sure your
main points and any conclusions are clear to the recipient.
• Correct
(Correctness) Check the information you are providing is accurate and, in written
communication, ensure it is free from grammatical and spelling errors. Check the technical parts
of your content are understandable by the person receiving the information.
Preparation will help here to make sure you can be sure about what you are communicating or a
chance to read what you have written.
• Coherent
Make sure your message flows well and is laid out logically. The points you make should all be
linked to the main topic and should help you to deliver the objective you originally set out to
achieve. Make sure the tone of the message is the same throughout.
Consider using a structure for your communication to help here.
• Complete
(Completeness) Ensure the recipient has everything they need to understand your message and
take action if needed. If action is needed, ensure your message includes a ‘call to action’. Also,
ensure that any specific details are clear and included. Don’t leave the recipient with lots of
questions to ask.
Think about how you will check for understanding. For example, you could ask questions to
check their understanding.
• Courteous
(Courtesy) Your message should be polite, friendly, professional, open and honest. Think about
your message from the recipient’s point of view and you are empathetic towards their needs. This
will help you to deliver the message in a way that’s easy to understand and buy into.

BARRIERS TO EEFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

CASED BY THE SENDER

• Badly Expressed Message

Not being well versed in the topic under discussion can create problems of this nature. The
sender may not be able to structure his ideas accurately and efficiently. What he wishes to say
and what he finally imparts may not be the same. The discrepancy emerges as soon as the words
are uttered. One of the important criteria at the time of initializing a piece of communication is
that ideas should be concrete and the message should be well structured.

The receiver should not feel that the interaction is a waste of time. The moment this feeling crops
up, the listener switches off and thus ceases the process of effective communication.

• Lost in Transmission

This is a very minor issue but one that gains in magnitude when it leads to an inability in
transmitting the actual message. Once again, if the choice of the channel or medium is not right,
the impact of the message is lost. This is mostly a physical noise.

However, the responsibility lies with the sender, as he should ensure that all channels are free of
noise before commencing communication.
 • Semantic Problem

High and big sounding words look and sound impressive. But if the receiver is not able to
comprehend the impact of these words, or if they sound ‘Greek’ or ‘Latin’ to him, the entire
exercise proves futile.

This problem could arise in the interpretation of the words or overall meaning of the message it
is also related to the understanding of the intention behind a particular statement.

For the receiver, e.g., the sanctity associated with the word “white” might be violated when the
receiver uses it carelessly. The idiosyncrasies of the receiver should be well understood by the
sender if he does not wish these barriers to crop up at the time of communication. The look on
the face of the listener should be sufficient to warn the sender that he has overstepped his limits
or he has been misunderstood.

• Over/Under Communication

The quantum of communication should be just right. Neither should there be excess information
nor should it be too scanty. Excess information may confuse the receiver as he has to figure out
the exact import of the message, and scanty information would make him grope for the actual
intent of the message.

The sender should, as far as possible try to get the profile of the receiver so that at the time of
communication he knows how much material is needed and how much can be done away with.

Suppose he starts with some information that the receiver already possesses, the latter might lose
interests it is merely a repetition of what he already knows. So by the time he arrives at the core
of the matter, he had already lost the attention of the receiver.

• ‘I’ -Attitude

Imagine a piece of communication that begins and ends with the pronoun “I”. How tedious it is
going to be for the listener to sit through the entire piece of interaction. If the sender starts every
sentence with “I”, it gradually leads to what is referred to as the I-syndrome.

He would not be receptive to changes if suggested by the receiver; as such, changes would go
against his formulation of certain views.

• Prejudices

Starting any piece of communication with a bias or know-it-all attitude can prove to be quite
detrimental to the growth of the communication process. Though it is easier said than done, still,
when communication commences, all sorts of prejudices should be done away with, and the
mind should be free of bias.

This would enable the sender to formulate his message, Mind, free of keeping only the receiver
and his needs in mind. Thoughts like “Last time he said this… ” Or “Last time he did this…” or
“He belongs to this group…” can warp the formulation of the message. This barrier can also be
extended to the receiver.

If the respondent starts with prejudices in mind, he too would be unable to listen to the intent of
the message. His understanding of the message is going to be warped. The messages are going to
be understood about the prejudices that a receiver harbors against the sender.

RECEIVERS BARRIERS

• Poor Retention

Retention is extremely important during the interaction. If the receiver has poor retention
capability, he would probably get lost in the course of the proceedings. There would be no
connection between what was said initially and what is being said now. He might counter
statements instead of seeking clarifications that might lead to clamping on the part of the sender.
If the decoder feels that his retention capacities are not good, a judicious strategy for him would
be to jot down points. It does not portray him in a poor light. On the contrary, it shows how
conscientious he is to get the message right.

• Inattentive Listening

The mind has its way of functioning. It is very difficult to exercise control over one’s mind.
Listening is more of an exercise in controlling the mind and exercising it to assimilate messages.
The errors in listening arise primarily because the receiver is either not interested in what is
being said, or has other things to concentrate on. The art of listening is an exercise in
concentration.

• Tendency to Evaluate

Being judgmental and evaluative are both the starting points for miscommunication. Remember,
one mind cannot perform two activities at the same time. If it is evaluating, listening cannot take
place. Evaluation should always be a sequel to the listening process. It cannot be done
simultaneously by listening. The minute sender opens his mouth if the listener starts mentally
pronouncing judgments concerning his style or content, he has missed out on a major part of
what has been said. His responses naturally are then going to be incorrect or expose his
misunderstanding.

• Interests and Attitudes

“I am not interested in what you are saying” or “My interest lies in other areas”. Starting any
piece of communication with this kind of indifference can thwart any attempts at
communication. Fixed notions of this kind should be dispensed with. It is not possible to be
interested in all that is being said. But to start any communication with this notion is hazardous.

• Conflicting Information

The dichotomy in the information that the receiver possesses and that which is being transmitted
can create confusion and result in miscommunication. The conflict between the existing
information and fresh one results in the elimination of the latter unless and until the receiver is
cautious and verifies with the sender the reliability and validity of the message. The sender
should convince the receiver that whatever is now being said is correct and relevant to further
proceedings.

• Differing Status and Position

Position in the organizational hierarchy is no criterion to determine the strength of ideas and
issues. Rejecting the proposal of a subordinate or harboring a misconception that a junior cannot
come up with a “eureka” concept is not right. Many companies have started encouraging
youngsters to come up with ideas/ solutions to a particular problem. These ideas are then
discussed among the senior managers and their validity is ascertained keeping the workings and
the constraints of the company in mind.

The basic purpose of this upward traversing of ideas is that fresh and innovative minds can come
up with unique solutions. If an individual has been working in a particular company for some
years, it is natural that his mind gets conditioned in a particular manner. Challenging newcomers
to innovate, as a part of company policy takes care of ego problems that may arise if this is not
an accepted norm.

• Resistance to Change

Fixed ideas, coupled with an unwillingness to change or discuss, hampers listening and results in
miscommunication. Novae concepts that require discussion before they can materialize, if
rebuked, fall flat. The onus lies directly on the receiver who is unperceptive and unwilling to
change. People with dogmatic opinions and views prove to be very poor communicators and
erect a maximum number of barriers.

• Refutations and Arguments

Refutations and arguments are negative. Trying to communicate with the sender on the premise
that refutations and arguments can yield fruitful results would prove to be futile. Communication
is a process in which the sender and the healthy receiver are at the same level. The minute
refutations or discussions arguments begin; there is a shift in the balance between the two
participants, after which the receiver moves to a conceived higher position and the sender
remains at the same level. In case some contradictions need to be resolved, the discussion is the
right way to approach.

BARRIRS CASED BY EXTERNAL FACTORS Ass

• Noise

• Physical distance

• Too many steps in the communication Process

• Environment/ Climatic conditions e.g rain

• Email not working

• Bad phone connections

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION

Communication within a business can involve different types of employees and different
functional parts of an organization. These patterns of communication are called flows, and they
are commonly classified according to the direction of interaction: downward, upward, horizontal,
diagonal, external.
Lateral communication

It involves two methods; Upward communication & downword communication

• Downward Communication

When leaders and managers share information with lower-level employees, it’s
called downward, or top-down communication. In other words, communication from superiors
to subordinates in a chain of command is a downward communication. This communication flow
is used by the managers to transmit work-related information to the employees at lower levels.
Ensuring effective downward communication isn’t always easy. Differences in experience,
knowledge, levels of authority, and status make it possible that the sender and recipient do not
share the same assumptions or understanding of context, which can result in messages being
misunderstood or misinterpreted. Creating clearly worded, unambiguous communications and
maintaining a respectful tone can facilitate effective downward communication.

• Upward Communication

Upward communication is the transmission of information from lower levels of an organization

to higher ones; the most common situation is employees communicating with managers.
Managers who encourage upward communication foster cooperation, gain support, and reduce
frustration among their employees. The content of such communication can include requests,
estimations, proposals, complaints, appeals, reports, and any other information directed from
subordinates to superiors. Upward communication is often made in response to downward
communication; for instance, when employees answer a question from their manager. In this
respect, upward communication is a good measure of whether a company’s downward
communication is effective.
The availability of communication channels affects employees’ overall satisfaction with upward
communication. For example, an open-door policy sends the signal to employees that the
manager welcomes impromptu conversations and other communication. This is likely to make
employees feel satisfied with their level of access to channels of upward communication and less
apprehensive about communicating with their superiors. For management, upward
communication is an important source of information that can inform business decisions. It helps
to alert management of new developments, levels of performance, and other issues that may
require their attention.

Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication, also called lateral communication, involves the flow of messages
between individuals and groups on the same level of an organization, as opposed to up or down.
Sharing information, solving problems, and collaborating horizontally is often more
timely, direct, and efficient than up or down communication, since it occurs directly between
people working in the same environment. Communication within a team is an example of
horizontal communication; members coordinate tasks, work together, and resolve conflicts.
Horizontal communication occurs formally in meetings, presentations, and formal electronic
communication, and informally in other, more casual exchanges within the office.
When there are differences in style, personality, or roles among coworkers, horizontal
communication may not run smoothly. According to Professor Michael Papa, horizontal
communication problems can occur because of territoriality, rivalry, specialization, and simple
lack of motivation. Territoriality occurs when members of an organization regard other people’s
involvement in their area as inappropriate or unwelcome. Rivalry between individuals or teams
can make people reluctant to cooperate and share information. Specialization is a problem that
occurs when there is a lack of uniform knowledge or vocabulary within or between departments.
Finally, horizontal communication often fails simply because organization members are
unwilling to expend the additional effort needed to reach out beyond their immediate team.

Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication is the sharing of information among different structural levels within
a business. This kind of communication flow is increasingly the norm in organizations (in the
same way that cross-functional teams are becoming more common), since it can maximize the
efficiency of information exchange. The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
Diagonal communication routes are the straight lines that speed communications directly to their
recipients, at the moment communication is necessary. Communications that zigzag along
horizontal and vertical routes, on the other hand, are vulnerable to the schedules and availability
of the individuals who reside at each level.

External Communication

Another type of communication flow is external, when an organization communicates with

people or organizations outside the business. Recipients of external communication include
customers, lawmakers, suppliers, and other community stakeholders. External communication is
often handled by marketing and sales. Annual reports, press releases, product promotions,
financial reports are all examples of external communication.

INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
In comparison, informal communication refers to communication which is multi-dimensional.
Informal communication moves freely within the organization and is not bound by pre-defined
channels and communication routes. Informal communication is particularly quick. Informal
communication is far more relational than formal communication and is by nature, a very natural
form of communication as people interact with each other freely and can talk about a diverse
range of topics, often extending outside of their work duties. Due to the inherent nature of
informal communication, it moves a lot faster and does not have a paper trail.
Informal communication in the workplace is often called the ‘grapevine’ and generally begins
with employees through social relations i.e. informal discussions about payroll. In many cases
informal communications can turn to formal communication if they are added in to the formal
communication information flow of a company.
Informal communication is considered effective as employees can discuss work-related issues
which saves the organization time and money. It also helps to build more productive and healthy
relationships in the workforce.

Types of informal communication

Below we provide a comprehensive list pertaining to the types of informal communication:

• Gossip

• Grapevine-from a rumour
 • Single Strand – a form of informal communication wherein each person communicates
with the next in a single sequence.

• Cluster - a very common form of informal communication, in cluster networks a person

will receive information and choose to pass it on to their cluster network or keep the
information to themselves. Each individual will pass on the information to the next
cluster network

• Probability Chain – each individual randomly tells another individual the same piece of
information.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL FLOW OF COMMUNICATION
Reliability: Formal communication is the more reliable form, as there is a paper trail. Compared
to informal communication which has comparatively less reliability, and is very unlikely to have
a paper trail.
Speed: Formal communication is slower, sometimes feeling unbearably slow due to bureaucracy.
On the other hand, informal communication is very quick, often being instantaneous.
Time-Consuming: Formal communication requires a number of different processes before the
whole communication flow is complete, whereas informal communication requires very little
process time.
Information Flow: Information through formal communication is only through predefined
channels, whereas information through informal communication moves freely.
Secrecy: Secrecy is maintained with formal communication, whereas informal communication
makes it hard to maintain full secrecy due to its reliance on individuals.

WORKPLACE ETIQETTE

Workplace etiquette is the code of ethical behavior regarding professional practice or action
among the members of a profession in their dealings with each other. Utilizing etiquette in the
workplace can ensure that everyone feels comfortable while being productive.

• Dress appropriately

• Respect Co-workers

• Avoid gossip

• Arrive on time

• Communication is key

• Be mindful of others

• Keep the workplace clean

• Respect personal space

 • Be punctual

PHONE ETIQUETTE

What is phone etiquette? Phone etiquette is the way you represent yourself and your business to
customers and coworkers through telephone communication. This includes the way you greet a
customer, your body language, tone of voice, word choice and how you close a call.
The 8 Rules of Phone Etiquette at Work (Follow these 8 rules for good phone etiquette on the
job.)
• Be prepared. Get familiar with your phone, and learn how to transfer calls.
• Answer right away. Answer within three rings.
• Announce yourself. "Thanks for calling Company Name".
• Be an active listener. Let the caller finish, and ask relevant follow up questions.
• Consider your tone. Be friendly and smile.
• Don't use speakerphone. Opt for a headset, or do a conference call.
• Summarize before hanging up. Reiterate the conclusion/next steps for the caller.
• End on a professional note. Thank the caller for their time or business.

ETHICAL WORKPLACE ETIQUETTE IN HANDLING COMMUNICATION

Ethical practice is the application of ethical values to organisational behaviour. It applies in all
aspects of organisational conduct, including corporate governance, employment practices, sales
techniques, stakeholder relations, accounting practices, and issues of product and corporate
responsibility.

Honesty

Fellow staffs understanding

Respect

Privacy and confidentiality

Choosing the right time and place

Accountability

Fairness

Inclusiveness

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

• Employees
 • Customers feedback

• Organization documents

• Internal records

• books

• Social media platforms

• Surveys

• Websites

• Mainstream media/ mass media

• Expert opinions

• Opinion leaders etc

ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES

An organizational policy is set of rules, responsibilities, processes and timelines that govern the
behavior of various entities connected with an organization like the employees, management,
partners, suppliers, etc. There are lots of policies needed to run a company.
• Personnel Policies – Clearly state business hours, code of conduct, terms of employment
(hiring and termination), wages or salary (and bonuses, if any), insurance and health
benefits, paid vs. unpaid vacation days, sick leave, and retirement.

• Disciplinary Action Policies – Address issues of honesty, performance, safety, and

misconduct, and determine what constitutes a violation of company policy, as well as
how employees will be disciplined if they violate certain rules.

• Safety Policies– Use industry best practices and relevant local, state, and federal laws as
guidelines to create rules detailing what safe behavior at work looks like, how to use
safety equipment, how to report safety hazards, etc.

• Technology Policies – Establish what’s acceptable and what’s not in regards to the
Internet, email, and social media usage for personal purposes at work.

• Privacy Policies– Protect employees, the company, and your customers by establishing a
policy that encourages transparency and trust with your customers.

• Payment Policies – Determine the terms for customers and vendors to do business with
 your company. Set an acceptable amount of time for payment, and establish
consequences when payment is overdue or not received.

• Confidentiality Policies – Protect sensitive information, and be sure to cover

relationships with vendors, customers, and other suppliers.

• Whistleblower Policy – Make sure to have a no-retaliation policy to protect your

employees and the company.

• Employee Performance Policies – Define the role of every employee, including their
level of responsibility, amount of authority for decision-making, overarching goals and
specific tasks. Identify clear methods for monitoring performance and developing
employees through training.

• Document and Records Retention Policies– Create structured policies for document
retention and storage based on local, state, and federal requirements.

UNIT 2: APPLY WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Written communication is a form of verbal communication where exchange of information,
ideas, or messages is done through written language in the form of letters, emails, notes, and
more (Use of written words to communicate). Our ability to write has transformed over time.
TYPES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
• Email
• Text messages
• Blog posts
 • Business letters Eg. Cover letters.
Circular letters
Appointment letters
Letters of recommendation.
Interview follow-up letters.
Offer letters.
Sales letters.
Letters of commendation.
Letters of resignation.
Thank you letters.
• Reports
• Contracts
• Job descriptions
• Employee manuals
• Memos
• Bulletins
• Postcards
• Faxes
• Advertisements
• Brochures
• News releases

ELEMENTS/CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

• Comprehensive: Includes all the relevant details

• Accurate: All detail are correct

• Appropriate: Has the right tone and level of formality

• Composition: Has correct spelling and grammar

• Clear: Is understandable
Format of a memo

A memorandum, or memo, is a document shared with a group of people to disperse information

on a task, project, event, or other. The purpose of a memo is to bring immediate attention to that
information in a quick and brief manner.

MEMORANDUM

To: All employees of the Marketing Department

From: HOD, marketing department

Date: dd/mm/yyyy

SUBJECT: ANNUALLY TRAINING SESSION

This is to inform all employees of the marketing department, that the Annual Training Session
will be held on 31st August 2024 in the Building Workshop at 10.00 am.

Kindly, let’s observe time.

Patrick M.S

HOD, marketing Department

Format of an Official/Business Letter.

Your address: Should be clearly written at the left hand corner of an A4 size paper to be
sure that the reader can respond even if the envelop is discarded as often
happens.

The Date: Should follow, a space below your address and is best written in full. E.g.
15th May 2024

Receiver’s Address: Leave a space before it.

The salutation: It should be followed by a colon. If you do not know the gender of the
receiver, you may use, “Dear Sir/Madam”.

The Subject: It should be as short as possible and is usually written in capital letters.

The Body: Uses paragraphs. Information is divided into three main parts,
introduction, main content/body and conclusion.
The complimentary close: It tells the reader that your letter is coming to an end e.g,

Yours sincerely- when you know the name and title of the receiver

Yours faithfully- Used when you do not know the person’s name. In this
case, you can also use, “yours truly”.

The Signature: Start by signing, your name and the your designation/title/department.
Should be written on the left hand side.

Other parts that apply to some letters

Enclosures: Refers to any document you may want to send to your reader. These
maybe e.g. copies of your certificates, the CV etc. it is abbreviated as
‘Encl’.

Copies: Copies indicate, to whom else you would want to share the information
with the main recipient of your letter. It is abbreviated as ‘cc’.

Format of a written Report

Its main goal is to inform, convince, or suggest actions, which makes it a crucial ability in a
variety of professional domains. A well-written report usually has a concise conclusion, a well-
thought-out analysis, a clear introduction, a thorough methodology, and a presentation of the
findings.
Title page
This page should include:
• the report title, which states the report’s purpose
• your name and the name of the person receiving the report (place in the bottom right-hand
corner)
• the submission date.

Executive summary
An executive summary is a paragraph that provides the reader with a quick overview of the
entire report, including its purpose, context, methods, major findings, conclusions and
recommendations. It is often easier to write the executive summary once the report has been
completed.
This is placed on a separate page between the title page and the table of contents. This may often
be the only part of the report that is actually read.

Table of contents
The table of contents lists the main sections (headings) of the report, and the page on which each
begins. If your report includes tables, diagrams or illustrations, these are listed separately on the
page after the table of contents.

Introduction
The introduction should:
• discuss the importance or significance of the research or problem to be reported
• define the purpose of the report
• outline the issues to be discussed (scope)
• Inform the reader of any limitations to the report, or any assumptions made.

Discussion or body
This contains the main substance of the report, organized into sections with headings and
subheadings rather than paragraphs. The body of a report can include the following:
• A description of the issue or situation which is being reported on. This may include a
literature review of the research on that issue.
• The method of data collection, if applicable - this should include what you did and why, such
as a survey or interview, and the size and selection criteria of the study sample.
• A discussion and analysis of the data collected - this should comment on the reliability and
accuracy of the data and relate the findings to your report’s purpose and current literature.

Conclusion
This summarizes the key findings from the discussion section and may be numbered here for
clarity. Relate your conclusion to the objectives of the report and arrange your points logically so
that major conclusions are presented first. Some reports may require a discussion of
recommendations, rather than a conclusion.

Recommendations
These are subjective opinions about what action you think could be followed. They must be
realistic, achievable and clearly relate to the conclusion of the report.

Reference list
This must contain all the material cited in the report. It must be accurate and consistent with a
standard referencing style.

Appendices
These contain extra supporting information that is put at the end of the report so as not to distract
the reader from the main issues. They contain detailed information, such as questionnaires,
tables, graphs and diagrams. Appendices should be clearly set out and numbered in the order
they are mentioned in the text.
Title Page
Executive summary
Table of contents

1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose of the report

1.2 Issues to be discussed and their significance

1.3 Research methods

1.4 Limitations and assumptions

2. Discussion
2.1 Literature review
2.1.1 Issue 1

2.1.2 Issue 2

2.1.3 Issue 3

2.2 Method
2.2.1 Procedures

2.2.2 Sample size

2.2.3 Selection criteria

2.3 Discussion and analysis of data

2.3.1 Issue 1

2.3.2 Issue 2

2.3.3 Issue 3
2.3.4 Reliability and accuracy of data

3. Conclusions
4. Recommendations
4.1 Recommendation 1

4.2 Recommendation 2
5. References
6. Appendices

UNIT 3: APPLY ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Oral communication is a specific form of Verbal communication where information is exchanged
and ideas are transmitted through words of moth (spoken words) from one person or group to
another. Oral communication can be formal and they are used most often in this manner during
business meetings, classroom lectures, or political speeches.

• Casual Conversation: Engage in friendly chats, fostering connections through relaxed

and informal dialogue.
• Interview Dialogues: Navigate structured Q&A sessions, showcasing skills and
qualifications with confidence.
• Debates and Argumentation: Present and defend opinions persuasively in organized
discussions.
• Phone Conversations: Convey messages verbally over the phone, ensuring clear and
effective communication.
• Public Speaking: Address an audience confidently, delivering impactful speeches on
diverse topics.
• Group Discussions: Collaborate with others, sharing ideas and perspectives in a
collective setting.
• Lectures and Educational Talks: Conduct informative talks, imparting knowledge to an
audience.
• Podcast Presentations: Broadcast spoken content digitally, engaging listeners on various
subjects.
• Voice Messages: Send recorded spoken messages, adding a personal touch to digital
communication.
• Storytelling Narratives: Convey narratives with vivid language, captivating listeners
through compelling tales.
• Conference Calls: Participate in telephonic discussions with multiple participants,
facilitating remote collaboration.
• Panel Discussions: Engage in group conversations, providing insights on specific topics
as an expert.
• Intercom Announcements: Utilize intercom systems for internal communication within
specific environments.
• Town Hall Meetings: Address large gatherings for community discussions, updates, and
collaboration.
• Vocal Music Performances: Express emotions and stories through sung lyrics,
connecting with audiences.
• Radio Broadcasting: Disseminate information and entertainment through spoken
content on airwaves.
 • Elevator Pitches: Deliver concise and impactful presentations within a short timeframe.
• Video Conferencing: Conduct virtual meetings with a and visual components, enhancing
remote interactions.
• Town Crier Announcements: Historical method of public communication in town
squares or gathering places.
• Face-to-Face Interviews: Engage in personal interviews, showcasing interpersonal
communication skills.
• Boardroom Presentations: Conduct formal presentations in corporate settings,
conveying information to stakeholders.
• Client Meetings: Foster positive client relationships through structured and client-
focused conversations.
• Team Collaboration Discussions: Exchange ideas and plan strategies collaboratively in
team settings.
• Press Conferences: Handle media inquiries with professionalism, ensuring clear and
accurate communication.
• Legal Consultations: Navigate legal discussions with precision and articulate
argumentation.
• Public Address Systems: Use a amplification to address large audiences in public
spaces.
• Group Therapy Sessions: Conduct therapeutic conversations in group settings for
collective support.
• International Business Discussions: Navigate cross-cultural conversations in global
business scenarios.
• Scientific Research Presentations: Present research findings formally, simplifying
complex information for diverse audiences.
• Human Resources Interviews: Conduct HR interviews with professionalism and
adherence to organizational policies.
Types of Oral Communication Examples for Students
• Classroom Discussions: Participate actively in class discussions, sharing insights and
perspectives with classmates.
• Group Projects: Collaborate with peers on group projects, exchanging ideas and
coordinating tasks for successful outcomes.
• Oral Presentations: Deliver informative speeches or presentations, enhancing
communication and presentation skills.
• Debates: Engage in structured debates, articulating arguments and counterarguments
with clarity.
• Student Meetings: Contribute to student council or club meetings, expressing opinions
on relevant matters.
 • Study Group Dialogues: Discuss academic topics within study groups, fostering a
collaborative learning environment.
• Virtual Learning Interactions: Participate actively in online classes, utilizing verbal
communication for virtual education.
• Peer-to-Peer Communication: Interact with classmates for study-related discussions,
creating a supportive learning network.
• Informal Conversations: Build friendships through casual conversations, strengthening
social bonds among students.
• Faculty Interactions: Communicate with instructors for clarification on coursework or
academic guidance.
OFFICIAL TYPES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
• Boardroom Negotiations: Participate in negotiations during boardroom meetings,
ensuring successful outcomes for the organization.
• Client Presentations: Conduct formal presentations to clients, showcasing products,
services, and business solutions.
• Team Briefings: Communicate project updates and strategies during team briefings,
ensuring alignment among team members.
• Sales Pitches: Deliver persuasive sales pitches to potential clients, emphasizing the
benefits of products or services.
• Conference Calls: Participate in telephonic discussions with remote teams or clients,
ensuring effective communication.
• Email Correspondence: Craft clear and concise emails for professional communication
within and outside the organization.
• Performance Reviews: Engage in performance discussions, providing feedback and
setting goals for employee growth.
• Leadership Presentations: Conduct presentations as a leader, inspiring and aligning
teams with organizational goals.
• Business Networking: Build professional connections through formal conversations
during networking events.
• Crisis Management Communication: Navigate crisis situations by communicating
effectively with stakeholders and the public.
TYPES OF UN-OFFICIAL ORAL COMMUNICATIONS
• Family Meetings: Conduct family meetings to discuss important matters, fostering open
communication within the household.
• Parent-Teacher Conferences: Engage in discussions with teachers about a child’s
academic progress and development.
• Sibling Interactions: Communicate with siblings to resolve conflicts, share experiences,
and build strong bonds.
 • Casual Family Dinners: Engage in light-hearted conversations during family dinners,
strengthening familial connections.
• Vacation Planning: Coordinate family vacations through effective communication,
considering preferences and logistics.
• Household Chores Delegation: Assign and discuss household chores, ensuring a shared
understanding of responsibilities.
• Celebration Planning: Coordinate and plan celebrations through family discussions,
ensuring everyone’s involvement.
• Decision-Making Dialogues: Involve family members in decision-making processes,
encouraging open communication.
• Expressing Gratitude: Verbalize appreciation and gratitude within the family,
reinforcing positive communication.
• Daily Check-ins: Engage in daily check-ins with family members, fostering
communication about individual experiences and concerns.
ACTIVE LISTENING
Active listening requires you to listen attentively to a speaker, understand what they're saying,
respond and reflect on what's being said, and retain the information for later. This keeps both
listener and speaker actively engaged in the conversation.
TIPS TO ACTIVE LISTENING

1. Face the speaker and have eye contact

Eye contact is an important part of face to face conversation. Too much eye contact can be
intimidating, though, so adapt this to the situation you’re in. Try breaking eye contact every five
seconds or so, or to show you’re listening attentively, look at one eye for five seconds, then
another eye for five seconds, then switch to looking at their mouth. When you look away,
looking to the side or up is better than looking down, which can seem like you want to close the
conversation. Check your posture and make sure it’s open – avoid crossed arms or crossed legs,
which can make you look ‘closed’ or defensive. Leaning slightly forward or sideways whilst
sitting can show that you’re listening – as can a slight tilt of your head or resting your head on
your hand.

2. “Listen” to non-verbal cues too

Pay attention to what the other person is saying with their body language
Facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures can tell you just as much as what is being said in
words. Pay attention to what the other person is saying with their body language - are they
smiling, for example, or are their arms crossed defensively, or are they rubbing their eyes as if
they're tired or upset. Even on the phone, you can learn a lot from the other person’s voice, which
might sound subdued or upbeat.

3. Do not interrupt
Being interrupted is frustrating for the other person – it gives the impression that you think
you’re more important, or that you do not have time for what they have to say. If you are
naturally a quicker thinker or speaker, force yourself to slow down so that the other person can
express themselves. Remember, a pause or a few seconds of silence doesn’t mean that you have
to jump in. Letting the other person speak will make it easier for you to understand their
message, too. Even interruptions that respond to something that they’ve said can be distracting if
it means the conversation gets sidetracked from what they were trying to tell you about. If this
does happen, steer the conversation back to “So, you were telling me about…”.

4. Listen without judging, or jumping to conclusions

If you start reacting emotionally to what’s being said, then it can get in the way of listening to
what is said next. Try to focus on listening. Equally, do not assume that you know what’s going
to be said next.

5. Do not start planning what to say next

You can’t listen and prepare at the same time.

6. Show that you’re listening

Nod your head, smile and make small noises like “yes” and “uh huh”, to show that you’re
listening and encourage the speaker to continue. Do not look at your watch, fidget or play with
your hair or fingernails.

7. Do not impose your opinions or solutions

It’s not always easy, but lending a listening, supportive ear can be much more rewarding than
telling someone what they should do. When a loved one has health problems is a time when they
probably want to tell you how they’re feeling, and get things off their chest, rather than have lots
of advice about what they should be doing. In other areas of life too, most people prefer to come
to their own solutions. If you really must share your brilliant solution, ask first if they want to
hear it – say something like “Would you like to hear my suggestions?”

8. Stay focused
If you're finding it difficult to focus on what someone is saying, try repeating their words in your
head as they say them – this will reinforce what they’re saying and help you to concentrate. Try
to shut out distractions like other conversations going on in the room. And definitely do not look
at your phone.

9. Ask questions
Asking relevant questions can show that you’ve been listening and help clarify what has been
said. If you’re not sure if you’ve understood correctly, wait until the speaker pauses and then say
something like “Did you mean that x…” Or “I’m not sure if I understood what you were saying
about…” You should also use open questions where you can, like “How did that make you feel?”
“What did you do next?”

10. Paraphrase and summarise

Repeating what has been said really shows you’ve been paying attention, and allows the speaker
to correct you if you haven’t understood. Sometimes called reflecting, this is repeating what has
been said to show that you understand it. This may seem awkward at first, but really shows
you’ve been paying attention, and allows the speaker to correct you if you haven’t understood
correctly. If you’re not sure how to do this, try starting a sentence with: "Sounds like you are
saying…”

QUALITIES OF A GOOD ORAL COMMUNICATOR

Active listener:
Active listeners listen, not just hear, what the other person is saying. They pay full attention to
whoever they are speaking with to give an appropriate response. They do not get sidetracked by
the activities happening around them. Most importantly, they listen to others, not to reply, but to
add value to the communication. It is one of the most crucial qualities of a good communicator.
You must be patient and give yourself ample time to become an active listener.
Confident:
If you sound confident, you can improve your credibility as a professional. If you are unsure
about something, you must pause to collect your thoughts and speak clearly. You must work on
expanding your vocabulary pool and adding pauses wherever necessary while conversing with
other people.
Respectful:
Nobody likes a person who does not let others speak/finish or is abusive. A respectful person is
someone who is polite and does not use vulgar language. You must put your judgements aside
and patiently let other people complete what they have to say. You must also keep an open mind
while communicating with others. It will help you listen to them better and grasp what the other
person is trying to convey.
Polite:
Politeness is not just saying nice things to others. It is also about being considerate of other
people. It is a very crucial virtue you must master. Politeness will help you improve your
relationship with others. It will also help you improve your image as a person and make you
more approachable to other people. If you are polite and respectful to everyone around you, they
will do the same with you.
Appreciative:
Being appreciative of others can boost their confidence and improve their skills. It also pushes
them to become better people. That is because appreciation makes people feel valued. However,
if people feel they are not appreciated, they become lousy listeners. That might also affect their
quality of work and self-confidence. Therefore, you must be appreciative of others around you.
You must provide people with honest, constructive feedback with some appreciation for what
they have done correctly.
Honest:
One of the best qualities of a good communicator is that they are honest. Honesty makes
people more reliable and creates a positive image of a person. That is why you must always try to
be honest!
Friendly:
Nobody is going to approach you if you are not friendly. So, if you want to start more
conversations with other people, make yourself friendly! Try to speak or write in a friendly
manner. You must also greet people whenever you meet them or send them a message or an
email. Keep a smile on your face and place all your attention when someone is talking to you.
Don’t forget to be polite and respectful to the person you are conversing with.
Keen-eyed:
To become a better communicator, you need to read the non-verbal cues. The body language of a
person can tell you a lot about what they are feeling. These non-verbal cues such as posture,
facial expressions, and eye contact can help you figure out if the other person is anxious,
dissatisfied or full of enthusiasm. Becoming keen-eyed is a long process as it requires a lot of
time and effort. But once mastered, it will make you more empathetic and a great learner.
Calm:
If you are calm, you will be able to focus on your work properly. It will also improve your
quality of work and get things done quickly. Calmness is very infectious. If you learn to stay
calm, even in high-stress situations, others around you will also feel it and try to do the same.
That, in turn, will help everyone become mindful and deal with things in the best possible
manner.
Concise:
As an effective communicator, you must be concise and deliver your message effectively and
simply. You must avoid using any complicated jargon or difficult words. Instead, you should
write or convey the message in a way that can be understood by a wider audience. While
communicating with others, you must also consider their time. If they appear busy, concisely
conveying your message will be effective and show them you respect their schedule.

Others will include;

Accuracy

Clarity

Empathy

Voice manipulation/modulation

UNIT 4: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Nonverbal communication is a silent form of communication that transmits messages or signals
through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact (oculesics), body language (kinesics), social
distance (proxemics), touch (haptics), voice (paralanguage), physical environments/appearance,
and use of objects.

Nonverbal communication goes well beyond arm crossing and head nodding. It encompasses
everything from how loudly and quickly we speak to the way we dress and present ourselves.
While sign language uses different expressions and gestures, it’s important to note that it’s not
considered a form of nonverbal communication. Instead, it’s a nonvocal form of verbal
communication since signing can be translated into specific words.

Kinesics/Body Movements

Kinesics refers to body movements including gestures, head movements and facial expressions,
notes research from the University of Minnesota[2]. “They reflect our perception of ourselves and
others and the situation and topic,” explains Wood. But while you can clearly see a person smile
when they laugh or pose for a photo, for instance, there’s a wide range of expressions that we
don’t always recognize so consciously. Tilting your head, tossing your hair, crossing your legs,
tapping your foot and winking all count as body movement cues.

In fact, according to Coulter-Kern, we are more likely to believe someone’s facial expression
than their words.

Chronemics

Chronemics is how time affects communication. More specifically, Wood says it’s the use of
time to reflect personal or cultural identity, power or status. For example, arriving on time—or
showing up late—as well as responding to a call or text in a timely fashion are forms of
chronemics.

Proxemics/space and Distance

This type of nonverbal communication has to do with physical space and distance. “We are
drawn toward what we like and are repelled by what we don’t,” adds Wood.

There are four proxemic zones of personal space: intimate, personal, social and public (or
professional). Interestingly, Wood explains that our personal space bubbles have shifted over
time. For instance, she says intimate space has grown from 12 inches in the 1990s to up to 1.5
feet now.

In either setting, the amount of space we decide to set between ourselves and others boils down
to comfort level. “People often position themselves closer to those they are comfortable with and
farther away from those they distrust,” says Coulter-Kern.

Haptics/ Touch

We also use touch to convey emotions and communicate. Haptic includes hugging, kissing,
shaking hands and other forms of embracing. “Research shows that touch is the first sense to
develop, and it plays an essential role in well-being,” says Wood.
Physical Appearance

“Physical characteristics such as skin color, height, weight, facial features, facial and body
symmetry and attractiveness influence how people perceive us—and vice versa,” says Wood. We
can alter our physical appearance with items like makeup, tattoos and jewelry. Aspects of our
physical appearance, chosen or not, communicate meaning to the people around us, research
shows.

Data backs the idea that our appearance can influence other people’s perceptions of us even
before we have a chance to talk to them. “People often perceive trustworthiness, introversion or
extroversion, maturity and friendliness by someone’s looks—sometimes incorrectly,” says Wood.

Vocalics/ paralinguistics

It is also called paralanguage, this type of nonverbal communication spans all the nuances of a
person’s voice, including their pitch, volume, rate and vocal quality. It also includes breathing,
laughing or using verbal filler like “uh” or “um.” Vocalics comprise the vocalized — but not
verbal — components of nonverbal communication.

Wood says this subcategory of nonverbal communication helps us assess other peoples’
personalities, emotional intensity and humor, and provides us with cues to regulate the flow of
conversation. “Many experts consider paralanguage to be the most honest nonverbal
communication and the best way to assess deceit,” says Wood.
UNIT 5: APPLY GROUP DISCUSSION COMMUNICATION SKILLS

• IDENTIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION NEEDS

Ways of Identifying Communication Needs

**1. Assess the Group’s Purpose and Objectives

• Define Goals: Clearly outline the specific goals and objectives of the communication.
• Identify Desired Outcomes: Determine what successful communication would achieve.
Example: For a project update meeting, the goal might be to inform team members of
progress, identify any issues, and plan next steps.
**2. Conduct Audience Analysis
 • Demographics: Gather information on the participants' age, gender, cultural
background, and language proficiency.
• Roles and Expertise: Understand the roles, responsibilities, and expertise
levels of the participants.
Example: If the audience includes both technical and non-technical staff, ensure that
explanations are understandable to all participants.
**3. Evaluate Current Communication Methods

• Survey Feedback: Use surveys or questionnaires to gather feedback on existing

communication methods and their effectiveness.
• Review Past Communications: Analyze past meetings, emails, and reports to
identify strengths and weaknesses in communication.
Example: Send a survey asking team members how they prefer to receive updates
and what improvements they suggest.
**4. Identify Barriers to Effective Communication

• Language and Cultural Differences: Recognize and address any language

barriers or cultural differences that may impact communication.
• Technological Barriers: Ensure that all participants have access to and are
comfortable using the required technology.
Example: In a global team, provide materials in multiple languages or offer translation
services if necessary.
**5. Determine Preferred Communication Styles

Interviews and Discussions: Conduct one-on-one interviews or group discussions to

understand individual communication preferences.
• Observation: Observe interactions in meetings or other settings to identify how
participants prefer to communicate.
Example: Notice if team members respond better to visual aids (like slides) or detailed written
reports.
**6. Analyze Communication Channels

• Channel Suitability: Evaluate whether the current communication channels (email,

meetings, instant messaging) are suitable for the group's needs.
• Channel Effectiveness: Determine which channels are most effective for
different types of communication (e.g., urgent updates vs. detailed reports).
Example: If urgent updates are often missed via email, consider using instant messaging or
phone calls instead.
**7. Consider the Nature of the Information
 • Complexity: Identify how complex the information is and the best way to
convey it (e.g., detailed written documents for complex data).
• Sensitivity: Consider the sensitivity of the information and choose appropriate
channels to ensure confidentiality.
Example: For sensitive HR matters, face-to-face meetings might be more appropriate than
emails.
**8. Gather Feedback Continuously

• Regular Check-Ins: Have regular check-ins with team members to get

feedback on how communication is working.
• Adjust as Needed: Be flexible and willing to adjust communication
strategies based on feedback.
Example: After a major project milestone, hold a feedback session to discuss what
communication methods worked well and what could be improved.
**9. Use Formal Assessment Tools

• Communication Audits: Conduct a formal audit of communication practices to

identify gaps and areas for improvement.
• SWOT Analysis: Perform a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities,
Threats) analysis specifically for communication strategies.
Example: A communication audit might reveal that internal emails are too lengthy and often
go unread, suggesting a need for more concise messaging.
**10. Monitor Engagement and Participation

• Participation Rates: Track attendance and participation in meetings or

responses to communications.
• Engagement Levels: Measure engagement levels through metrics such as email
open rates, response times, and participation in discussions.
Example: If meeting attendance is low, investigate the reasons (timing, relevance) and
adjust the schedule or format accordingly.

• DYNAMICS OF GROUPS

Understanding the dynamics of groups is essential for effective group facilitation and
achieving collective goals. Group dynamics refer to the interactions and behaviors
between members within a group. Here are key aspects of group dynamics:
**1. Stages of Group Development

• Forming: This initial stage involves group members getting to know each other and
establishing ground rules. There is usually a high dependence on the leader for
 direction.
• Storming: In this stage, conflicts and competition arise as group members assert
their opinions and challenge the leader's authority.
• Norming: Group members start to resolve conflicts, establish norms, and develop
stronger relationships. Collaboration and cooperation increase.
• Performing: The group reaches a stage where it operates efficiently towards
achieving its goals. Roles are clear, and processes are well-established.
• Adjourning: The group disbands after achieving its objectives. Members may
experience a sense of loss or accomplishment.
Example: A project team goes through these stages from initial formation to successful
project completion and eventual disbanding.
**2. Roles within Groups

• Task Roles: Focused on achieving the group's objectives, such as initiator,

information seeker, and coordinator.
• Maintenance Roles: Focused on maintaining the group’s social cohesion, such as
encourager,
harmonizer, and gatekeeper.
• Individual Roles: Often focused on personal needs and can sometimes detract
from group progress, such as aggressor, blocker, or recognition seeker.
Example: In a team meeting, the coordinator might ensure the agenda is followed, while the
harmonizer addresses interpersonal conflicts.
**3. Group Norms

• Explicit Norms: Clearly stated rules and guidelines for group behavior.
• Implicit Norms: Unwritten and often unspoken rules that influence group behavior.
• Norm Enforcement: Groups enforce norms through rewards and punishments to
maintain order and coherence.
Example: A team may have an explicit norm that meetings start on time, while an implicit
norm could be that everyone speaks respectfully to one another.
**4. Group Cohesion

• Definition: The degree to which group members are attracted to each other and
motivated to stay in the group.
• Factors Influencing Cohesion: Shared goals, personal attraction, group size,
and success in achieving goals.
• Effects of Cohesion: High cohesion can lead to increased satisfaction and
 productivity, but may also result in groupthink if critical thinking is suppressed.
Example: A sports team with high cohesion is likely to perform better and have higher team
spirit, but might also overlook critical flaws in their strategy due to strong in-group loyalty.
**5. Communication Patterns

• Centralized Networks: One or a few members control most of the communication

(e.g., wheel, chain). Efficient for simple tasks but may limit creativity.
• Decentralized Networks: All members have relatively equal communication
opportunities (e.g., all-channel network). Promotes creativity and satisfaction but can
be less efficient for decision- making.
Example: A centralized network might be useful in a military operation for quick decision-
making, while a decentralized network is better for a research team brainstorming session.
**6. Leadership Styles

• Autocratic Leadership: Leader makes decisions unilaterally. Effective in urgent

situations but may reduce group member satisfaction.
• Democratic Leadership: Leader involves group members in decision-
making. Enhances commitment and creativity but may slow down the
process.
• Laissez-faire Leadership: Leader provides minimal direction. Can be effective with
highly skilled and motivated teams but may lead to lack of direction.
Example: A democratic leader might involve team members in setting goals for a new
project, fostering a sense of ownership and engagement.
**7. Conflict in Groups

• Types of Conflict: Task conflict (disagreements about the work), relationship

conflict (personal incompatibilities), and process conflict (disagreements on how
work should be done).
• Conflict Resolution Strategies: Avoidance, accommodation, compromise,
collaboration, and competition.
• Impact of Conflict: Properly managed conflict can lead to better decisions and
innovation, while poorly managed conflict can harm group cohesion and productivity.
Example: A task conflict about project priorities can be resolved through collaboration to find
a mutually beneficial solution.
**8. Decision-Making Processes

• Unanimous: All members agree on the decision. Ensures full support but
can be time- consuming.
• Majority: Decision is made based on the majority vote. Efficient but may leave
 some members dissatisfied.
• Consensus: All members contribute to and support the decision, even if it is not
their first choice. Balances efficiency and member satisfaction.
Example: A team decides on a new marketing strategy through consensus, ensuring that all
members feel heard and committed to the decision.
Understanding these aspects of group dynamics can help facilitate more effective and
cohesive group interactions, leading to better outcomes and a more positive group
experience.

• STYLES OF GROUP LEADERSHIP

Understanding different styles of group leadership is crucial for effectively guiding and
managing a team. Each leadership style has its own characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages. Here are the main styles of group leadership:
**1. Autocratic Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Leader makes decisions unilaterally without consulting group members.
• Emphasis on control and authority.
• Clear direction and expectations are provided.
• Advantages:
• Efficient and fast decision-making, especially in crisis situations.
• Clear chain of command and responsibility.
• Disadvantages:

• Can lead to low morale and motivation among group members.

• Limited creativity and innovation due to lack of input from others.
• Example: A military commander making quick, strategic decisions during combat.
**2. Democratic Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Leader involves group members in decision-making processes.
• Encourages participation, feedback, and collaboration.
• Decisions are made based on group consensus or majority vote.
• Advantages:
• Higher member satisfaction and morale due to involvement in decisions.
 • Increased creativity and innovation from diverse input.
• Disadvantages:
• Decision-making can be time-consuming and slow.
• May lead to conflicts or indecisiveness if there is no clear consensus.
• Example: A project manager involving the team in setting project goals and strategies.
**3. Laissez-faire Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Leader provides minimal direction and allows group members to take charge.
• High level of autonomy and freedom for members.
• Leader acts as a facilitator rather than a director.
• Advantages:
• Encourages independent thinking and problem-solving.
• High motivation and satisfaction for self-driven, skilled members.
• Disadvantages:
• Can lead to lack of direction and inefficiency if members are not self-motivated.
• Potential for uneven workload distribution and missed deadlines.
• Example: A research team with highly skilled scientists working independently
on different aspects of a project.
**4. Transformational Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Leader inspires and motivates group members through a shared vision.
• Focus on personal development and group progress.
• High levels of communication and encouragement.
• Advantages:
• High morale, motivation, and commitment from group members.
• Encourages innovation and long-term growth.
• Disadvantages:
• Can be demanding on the leader to constantly inspire and motivate.
• Potential for burnout if group members are constantly pushed to exceed limits.
• Example: A CEO who inspires employees with a compelling vision for the company’s
 future.
**5. Transactional Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Focus on structured tasks, clear goals, and rewards/punishments.
• Emphasizes routine and adherence to established processes.
• Leader monitors and controls group performance.
• Advantages:
• Clear structure and expectations lead to consistent performance.
• Effective in achieving short-term goals and tasks.
• Disadvantages:
• Limited focus on personal growth and innovation.
• May lead to dependence on rewards and punishments rather than intrinsic
motivation.
• Example: A sales manager setting clear sales targets and providing bonuses for meeting
them.
**6. Servant Leadership

• Characteristics:
• Leader prioritizes the needs and development of group members.
• Focus on empathy, support, and serving others.
• Leader facilitates rather than directs, aiming to empower members.
• Advantages:

• High levels of trust and cooperation within the group.

• Encourages personal and professional growth.
• Disadvantages:
• Can be less effective in crisis situations requiring quick decisions.
• Potential for leader to be taken advantage of if boundaries are not maintained.
• Example: A team leader who actively supports and mentors each team member,
focusing on their individual development.
**7. Charismatic Leadership

• Characteristics:
 • Leader uses personal charm and charisma to influence and inspire group
members.
• High levels of enthusiasm and energy.
• Strong emotional connection with group members.
• Advantages:
• Can quickly build a strong, committed, and enthusiastic following.
• Effective in driving change and overcoming resistance.
• Disadvantages:
• Reliance on the leader’s personal appeal can create dependency.
• May lack sustainability if the leader’s presence is removed.
• Example: A political leader who inspires large groups of followers with their vision and
charisma.

• PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

Effective presentation of information is crucial for clear communication and ensuring that the
audience understands and retains the message. Here are key aspects to consider:
**1. Clarity and Conciseness

• Simplify Complex Information: Break down complex concepts into simpler parts.
• Avoid Jargon: Use plain language and avoid unnecessary technical terms.
• Be Brief: Focus on the essential points and avoid overloading with information.
Example: Use bullet points to list key points in a business proposal instead of lengthy
paragraphs.
**2. Structure and Organization

• Introduction: Start with an engaging introduction that outlines the purpose and
objectives.
• Body: Present the main content in a logical order, using headings and subheadings to
organize information.
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and provide a clear conclusion or call to action.
Example: In a sales presentation, begin with an overview of the product, then discuss its
features and benefits, and conclude with a strong call to action.
**3. Visual Aids

• Use Graphics and Charts: Enhance understanding with visual aids such as charts,
 graphs, and diagrams.
• Consistency: Maintain a consistent style and format for visual aids to avoid confusion.
• Simplicity: Ensure visuals are simple and not cluttered with too much information.
Example: Use a pie chart to show market share distribution instead of listing percentages in
text form.
**4. Engagement and Interaction

• Ask Questions: Engage the audience by asking questions and encouraging participation.
• Interactive Elements: Use polls, quizzes, or other interactive elements to keep the
audience engaged.
• Storytelling: Use stories and examples to make the information relatable and
memorable.
Example: In a training session, use a quick poll to gather opinions on a topic before
diving into the details.
**5. Tone and Delivery

• Appropriate Tone: Adjust your tone to suit the audience and the context (e.g.,
formal for a business meeting, informal for a team briefing).
• Pace and Volume: Speak at a comfortable pace and ensure your volume is
appropriate for the setting.
• Body Language: Use positive body language, such as eye contact and gestures, to
reinforce your message.
Example: For a keynote speech, maintain an enthusiastic tone and make eye contact with
different sections of the audience to keep them engaged.
**6. Use of Technology

• Presentation Software: Utilize tools like PowerPoint, Prezi, or Keynote to create

professional presentations.
• Multimedia Elements: Incorporate videos, audio clips, and animations to add
variety and interest.

• Technical Preparedness: Ensure all equipment works properly and have backups
in case of technical issues.
Example: Use a short video clip to introduce a new product in a launch event, followed by a
live demo.
**7. Audience Analysis

• Know Your Audience: Understand the audience’s background, interests, and level of
 knowledge
on the topic.
• Tailor Content: Customize the content to meet the specific needs and
expectations of the audience.
• Feedback and Adaptation: Be prepared to adapt your presentation based on audience
reactions and feedback.
Example: For a mixed audience of experts and novices, start with a broad overview and
progressively delve into more technical details.
**8. Reinforcement and Repetition

• Key Points: Reinforce key points throughout the presentation to ensure they are
remembered.
• Summarize Frequently: Provide brief summaries at the end of each section.
• Handouts and Materials: Distribute handouts or materials for reference and further
reading.
Example: In a financial presentation, repeat important figures and use handouts with
detailed data for the audience to review later.
**9. Feedback and Improvement

• Solicit Feedback: Gather feedback from the audience through surveys or direct
questions.
• Reflect and Improve: Use the feedback to identify areas for improvement and
refine future presentations.
• Continuous Learning: Stay updated on new presentation techniques and technologies.
Example: After a workshop, ask participants to fill out a feedback form rating different aspects
of the presentation.
By focusing on these aspects, you can create and deliver presentations that are clear,
engaging, and effective, ensuring that your message is well understood and retained by
your audience.

• ENCOURAGING GROUP MEMBERS' PARTICIPATION

Encouraging participation in group settings is vital for leveraging diverse perspectives,

enhancing group cohesion, and achieving collective goals. Here are strategies to encourage
active participation from all group members:

**1. Create a Supportive Environment

 • Foster Inclusivity: Ensure that all group members feel valued and respected. Encourage
a
culture where everyone’s opinion is important.
• Set Ground Rules: Establish ground rules that promote respectful listening and
discourage interruptions.
Example: Start meetings by reminding participants that all ideas are welcome and that it’s
important to
listen without interrupting.
**2. Set Clear Objectives

• Define Goals: Clearly outline the goals and purpose of the discussion or activity.
• Explain Expectations: Make sure everyone understands what is expected from them
during the session.
Example: At the beginning of a brainstorming session, state that the goal is to generate as
many ideas as possible, without evaluating them initially.
**3. Use Effective Facilitation Techniques

• Rotate Leadership: Allow different members to lead parts of the discussion

to increase engagement.
• Small Group Breakouts: Divide the group into smaller subgroups to discuss
specific topics before reconvening to share insights.
Example: For a large team meeting, break into smaller groups to discuss particular issues,
then have each group present their findings.
**4. Ask Open-Ended Questions

• Encourage Dialogue: Use open-ended questions that cannot be answered with a

simple yes or no to stimulate discussion.
• Follow-Up Questions: Ask follow-up questions to delve deeper into participants’ initial
responses.
Example: Instead of asking, “Do you agree with this plan?” ask, “What are your thoughts on
this plan,
and how do you think it could be improved?”

**5. Acknowledge and Validate Contributions

Positive Reinforcement: Acknowledge all contributions positively, regardless of whether

you agree with them.
Summarize Points: Summarize and reflect on contributions to show that they have been
heard and considered. Example: Say, “That’s a great point, thank you for bringing it up. Does
anyone else have thoughts on this?”

**6. Provide Multiple Participation Channels

• Verbal and Written Input: Allow for both verbal and written contributions. Use
tools like chat functions in virtual meetings or suggestion boxes in physical settings.
• Anonymous Contributions: Enable anonymous contributions to make it easier
for shy or hesitant members to participate.
Example: In virtual meetings, use polling and Q&A features to collect input from those
who might be less comfortable speaking up.
**7. Create Engaging Activities

• Interactive Exercises: Use interactive activities like role-playing, simulations, or

problem-solving tasks.
• Icebreakers: Start sessions with icebreaker activities to build rapport and ease
participants into the discussion.
Example: Use a quick team-building exercise at the start of a meeting to energize
participants and encourage interaction.
**8. Ensure Equal Participation

• Monitor Dynamics: Pay attention to who is speaking and who is not. Actively
invite quieter members to share their thoughts.
• Set Speaking Limits: Limit the time each person can speak to prevent
domination by a few members.
Example: Say, “We haven’t heard from [Name] yet, what are your thoughts on this topic?”
**9. Follow-Up on Suggestions

• Action Items: Ensure that suggestions and ideas are followed up with actionable steps.
• Provide Feedback: Give feedback on how contributions have influenced decisions or
outcomes.
Example: After a meeting, send a summary of discussed points and next steps, highlighting
how
participants’ input will be used.
**10. Training and Development

• Skills Training: Provide training sessions on effective communication and group

participation skills.
• Encourage Growth: Foster an environment where continuous learning and
development are encouraged.
 Example: Offer workshops on public speaking or active listening to help members become
more confident in participating.

By implementing these strategies, group leaders can create an environment that

encourages active participation, leading to more dynamic and productive group
interactions.

Conflict resolution
The term conflict is used to refer to a situation in which people or groups are involved in serious
disagreements, or disputes. Prolonged conflict may occasionally lead to violence. Conflict
resolution therefore refers to the process of settling a dispute when it occurs. In any society,
conflicts may occur between individuals or groups. When conflicts occur, ways and means of
solving them must be sought.
Peace is an important ingredient in the development of nation, and in maintaining national unity.
There are various types of issues that cause conflicts.
Economic issues
Economy refers to industry and the accumulation of wealth. An economic conflict therefore
would arise when any number of parties have a dispute on matters that affect the development of
trade, industry and wealth. A good example of this form of conflict is a dispute between an
employer and an employee. Employees may see themselves as being underpaid and therefore try
to convince the employer to give them better pay. This may be done through negotiations among
other methods as we shall see below.
Social issues
Social refers to that which concerns people, groups and communities and their relationship with
each other. When people in a group fail to agree on matters concerning their life, this is referred
to as social conflict. An example of a social conflict is when there is a family dispute. In these
instances, village elders are called in to solve the conflict. Sometimes the disagreement may be
between more than one family member. They could be disputes between clans or tribes.
Political issues
Political refers to that which is of a nation or a state. Political affairs refer to matters of a
government and of the general public. Conflicts between political parties are good examples of
political conflicts.

Levels of conflict
Individual versus individual
Two people may disagree for a variety of reasons. They may differ for political, social or
economic reasons.
Group versus group conflict
This is a conflict which involves one group against another. The reasons for this kind of conflict
range from political, economic, to social.
Individual versus state conflict
An individual may have a conflict with the state. In most cases this type of conflict is political,
e.g. where an individual feels that their rights are being violated by the state.
Group versus state
A conflict may occur between a group and the state. This may be caused by various reasons, e.g.
a trade union demanding the improvement of the terms and conditions of service of its members.
The stand-off between the government and the Kenya National Union of Teachers (IGVUT) that
culminated into a countrywide strike in 1997 and in 2002, is a case in point.
State versus state
This is a type of conflict where a state is in disagreement with another state. This may be caused
by boundary claims as happened in the 1970s when President Amin of Uganda claimed that parts
of. Kenya belonged to Uganda. This caused serious conflict which almost turned violent.

Peaceful methods of conflict resolution

Negotiation
The term negotiation refers to discussions between people who are trying to reach an agreement
over a dispute. Negotiation in solving conflicts takes on three important steps; finding out the
facts, discussion and agreement. The three are necessary if a solution to the conflict is to be
found. .
1. Fact finding
Negotiation begins with finding out all the facts about the conflict that is going to be solved. It is
important to understand the items that the parties in a conflict care about most. As the interests of
the parties are looked at, the laws or guidelines that will tie in operation are also addressed in
preparation for the next stage.
2. Discussion
Here, a friendly environment must be cultivated during the discussion and possible solutions
worked out. It should be a give-and- take situation.
3. Reaching an agreement
Each party must show willingness to compromise for any negotiation to succeed. The points of
agreement reached should be fair to both parties and they should both feel they have benefited
from the process.

Arbitration
This refers to a situation where a disagreement is solved by a neutral person. The person, who is
chosen to resolve the dispute, is called an arbitrator. He listens to the two sides involved in a
conflict and helps them to reach an acceptable decision. .
Procedure to follow when arbitrating
(a) Both sides involved in the conflict should be ready to present their case as
they know it.
(b) After listening to the complainant’s side of the story, the arbitrator then asks questions to
clarify some aspects of the story. The other group to the conflict will also ask questions.
(c) The second group should then respond to the story by the first group through a representative
and then the arbitrator should ask questions for clarification.
(d) On the grounds of the applicable rules, the arbitrator should consider the facts and then make
a “decision.
Many companies prefer the method because it is cheaper and helps them avoid negative
publicity.

Mediation
Mediation refers to a situation where a person who is not involved in a dispute tries to help two
conflicting groups or individuals reach an amicable agreement. They do this by talking to them
with a view to helping them reach some sort of settlement.
The parties involved must be willing to listen and come up with good ideas that can help them
settle -the disagreement. There is need to focus on the way forward and avoid blaming each other
Steps towards mediation
(a) In way of introduction, the mediator should explain the rules. The mediator is supposed to
help the two parties reach an agreement and not to impose a decision on them.
(b) The two parties that are involved in the conflict should explain in their own words what the
problem is. The complainant should explain first and then the other party. Neither party should
interrupt the other.
(c) After listening to each party the mediator summarizes the stories from each party and also
idcntifies the facts
(d) Solutions are suggested by the mediator and the parties are invited to give their opinions of
the solutions proposed
(e) Depending on the two parties reaction, the solutions may be looked at afresh and then an
acceptable solution.
(f) An acceptable agreement is then by both parties The agreement written down Each party must
be committed to it.

Learning guide prepared by; James N. Muruga @2024