EEC238

Telecommunication II (Electrical Engineering Course)

LECTURE NOTE
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RADIO TRANSMITTER

Radio is a broad general term applied to any form of wireless communication from one point to
another. Radio makes use of electromagnetic spectrum where signals are communicated from
one point to another by converting them into electric and magnetic field that propagate readily
over a long distance.

Transmitter is a collection of electronic component and circuits designed to convert the

information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.

Radio transmitter takes the information to be communicated and converts it into an

electromagnetic signal compatible with the communication medium. This process involves
carrier generation, modulation and amplification.

Transmitter itself generates radio waves (Radio frequency alternating current) which are
transmitted to the receiver wirelessly (as a radio wave) with the help of an antenna. Transmitters
are one of the electronic component parts of all electronic devices that communicate wirelessly
(by radio), such as radio and television broadcasting stations, cell phones, walkie-talkies,
wireless computer networks, Bluetooth enabled devices, garage door openers, two-way radios in
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, radar set and navigational beacons etc.

A typical transmitter

PRE-AMPLIFER: This is an electronic circuit that increases the strength of a weak electric
signal. It is often used to amplify signals from microphones, pickups, and other analog sensors.

MODULATOR: This is a device or circuit that changes a carrier signal to encode information
for transmission. Modulation is the process of changing the properties of a carrier signal to
represent information.

How It Works:

a) A modulator superimposes a low-frequency information signal on-to a high-frequency

carrier signal

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b) The modulator changes the carrier signals amplitude, frequency, or phase to represent the
information being sent.
c) The modulated signal is then transmitted over a communication channel

Examples of Modulation

a) Amplitude Modulation (AM): The strength of carrier wave is changed by the modulation
signal.
b) Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave is change by the
modulation signal.

Uses of Modulation

a) Wireless Communication: Modulation allows signals to be transmitted over long

distances without the need for wires. This made phones and wireless communication
possible.
b) Television: Modulators were used to send signals from early video game consoles, DVD
players, and VCRs to televisions.
(VCR: Video Cassette Recording: An electromechanical device that records analogue
audio and video respectively from broadcast television or other AV sources and can play
back the recording after rewinding.

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POWER AMPLIFIER: This is an electronic device that takes a low-power electrical signal and
increases its power level to a higher output allowing it to drive a load like speaker, producing a
significantly louder sound. It amplifies the power of a signal to a level suitable for driving a
device that requires high power output.

Functions

To increase the power of an input signal, allowing it to drive devices like speakers or other
higher-power application.

Applications:

It is commonly used in audio systems to amplify sound signals for speakers, as well as in radio
transmitters to boost the power of radio waves.

Classification By Frequency Range

a) Audio frequency power amplifiers: it is used for audible sound frequencies.

b) Radio frequency power amplifiers: it is used for high frequency radio signals.

RF OSCILLATOR: This is an electronic circuit that generates a periodic, oscillating signal

within radio signal (RF) range, typically between 100KHz and 100GHz, converting a DC power
supply into an alternating current signal used in applications, stable radio frequency wave used
as reference signal in various electronic devices.

Functions

They generate a stable, periodic RF signal, often a sine wave by utilizing a feedback loop within
the circuit.

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FREQUENCY RANGE: RF signals fall within the radio frequency spectrum, encompassing a
wide range of frequency above the audible range.

Application

It is used in a various electronic devices like radios, transmitters, receivers and communication
systems where precise RF signals are needed.

AMPLITUDE MODULATED TRANSMITTER

An amplitude modulation simply means the combination of the low frequency modulating signal
with high frequency carrier wave (signal) to cause the resultant amplitude of the carrier wave to
vary in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

AM TRANSMITTER: takes the signal to be transmitted (audio signal) as an input and delivers
amplitude modulated wave to the antenna as an output to be transmitted.

The audio signal from the output of the microphone is first pre-amplified to boosts the level of
the information signal (modulating signal). The radio frequency oscillator generates the carrier
signal which will be modified by an information signal in the modulator. Both the modulating
and carrier signal is sent to a circuit called an AM modulator for amplitude modulation.

The output of the modulator (amplitude modulated signal) is applied to a power amplifier circuit
to increase the power level of AM signal. This signal finally passed to the antenna to be
transmitted.

These transmitters are used in both medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands
AM radio broadcasting stations. The medium wave (MW) operates in a frequency range of 550
KHz – 1650 KHz while short waves (SW) operate in a frequency range of 3MHz – 30MHz.

There are two types of AM transmitters, they are: High level and Low level AM transmitters.
Their difference is based on their transmitting powers. In broadcast transmitters, where the
transmitting powers may be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is employed. In low
power transmitters, where only a few watts of transmitting power are required, low level
modulation is used. In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier and modulating signals
are amplified before applying them to the AM modulator stage as shown in figure (a). In the low-
level modulation, the powers of carrier and modulating signal are not amplified before applying
them to AM modulator as shown in figure (b). The required transmitting power is obtained from
the last stage of the transmitter by class B power amplifier.

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Figure (a) High-level AM Transmitter

Figure (b) Low-level AM Transmitter

Carrier oscillator: its main purpose in the circuit is for carrier generation and frequency stability
of the entire system. The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal (high frequency signals),
which lies in the radio frequency range (RF). Since frequency stability is difficult to obtain at
higher frequency, a crystal oscillator can be used in this stage to generate a low frequency carrier
signal with high frequency stability. The frequency multiplier circuit is now used to increase the
frequency of the carrier signal to its required value.

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Buffer Amplifier: in this system, the buffer amplifier serves two purposes. First they are used as
impedance matching tool between the local oscillator and frequency multiplier. It makes sure that
the output impedance of the oscillator, matches the input impedance of the frequency multiplier
for maximum transfer of power from local oscillator circuit to frequency multiplier.

Secondly, it isolates the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier so that the multiplier does not
draw more than required current from the carrier oscillator. If this occurs, the frequency stability
of the carrier oscillator will be destabilized

Frequency multiplier: the purpose of this circuit is to generate higher harmonics of the carrier
frequency. The frequency multiplier is a tuned circuit that can be turned to the requisite carrier
frequency that is to be transmitted.

Power amplifier: this circuit amplifies the power of the carrier signal. This is the basic
requirement of a higher level AM transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives higher power
current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.

Audio section: microphones provide the audio signal to be transmitted as shown fig (a) above.

This audio signal is first amplified by audio driver amplifier to increase its voltage to a voltage
necessary to drive the audio power amplifier. A class A or class B power amplifier is used to
amplify the audio signal.

Antenna: the output of the modulated class C power amplifier is applied to the transmitting
antenna whose function is to transmit the signal as a radio wave (wirelessly) using free space as
its medium.

Am modulator/ Class C amplifier: this is the output stage of the transmitter. The amplified
signals from both audio section and carrier section are amplitude modulated in this stage. Since
is a high-level AM transmitter, the class C amplifier is also used to amplify the AM modulated
output signal to the wanted output power level before passing it finally to the antenna for onward
transmission into space as a radio wave.

The low-level AM transmitter block diagram shown in figure (b) is similar to that of a high-level
transmitter. The difference is that the lower-level transmitter does not require large audio and
carrier frequency modulation power, which makes its circuit very simple when compared with
high-level transmitter circuit. Secondly, its overall efficiency is very much lower when compared
with high-level transmitter because class B amplifiers are used in place of class C.

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FREQUENCY MODULATED TRANSMITTER

A frequency modulation simply means the combination of the low frequency modulating signal
with high frequency carrier wave (signal) to cause the resultant frequency of the carrier wave to
vary in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal.

FM TRANSMITTER is another mode of sending information over a radio signal. It takes the
signal to be transmitted (audio signal) as an input and delivers frequency modulated wave to the
antenna as an output to be transmitted.

FM is normally associated with very high frequency (VHF) portion of the radio spectrum. Its
frequency of operations ranges from 88MHz – 108MHz. Figure below shows a block diagram of
FM Transmitter.

Frequency modulation Transmitter

The building blocks of any radio transmitter comprises of similar circuits. Local oscillators to
generate the carrier frequency; a modulator to impose the useful signal (data or audio) on a
carrier; a power amplify to provide the radiant power for antenna; Antenna matching to
efficiently drive the antenna feeder; an Antenna feeder to couple the transmitter to the antenna;
and the antenna to radiate the signal into the space.

The audio from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-emphasis circuit.

Pre-emphasis circuit: despite the fact that FM signals has superior noise rejection than AM
signals, noise still interferes with its signals. Noise contains a considerable number of harmonics

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and other high frequency components. This high frequency content of noise at times have larger
amplitude than the high frequency content of the modulating signal and this causes a form of
frequency distortion that renders intelligent signal unintelligible.

To prevent this problem, most FM systems use a circuit known as PRE-AMPHASIS circuit
which helps offset high frequency noise interferences by increases the energy content of the
modulating signals, so that they tend to become stronger than the high frequency noise
components. This offsets noise from the system and improves the signal-to-noise ratio of the
system.

Frequency multiplier: the frequency deviation of the modulated FM signal is always low and
therefore must be increased by several stages of frequency multipliers to attain the FM standard
deviation, which is ±75KHz. Thus frequency multiplier helps the FM systems to attain its
acceptable standard deviation.

TELEVISION TRANSMITTER

Television is a two separate word bring together to form a new different word. Tele you know
means long distance while vision mean to perceive object visually. Thus television is used to see
a picture (object) telecast from long distance.

The television transmitter consists of two different portions (the video or picture and sound
portion) transmitted together via one antenna as a single signal. Figure () below show the block
diagram of simplified TV transmitter

Simplified TV transmitter

A TV transmitter is actually two separate transmitters combined together without any of the
signals interfering with each other with the help of a circuit called Diplexer. Thus these two
signals are transmitted as a single signal using one antenna.

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The audio portion of the transmitter is an FM transmitter very similar to broadcasting FM radio
and the video portion is an AM transmitter. The sound portion of the TV transmitter is still a high
fidelity since the same 30Hz – 15KHz audio range is transmitted.

The main difference between broadcast FM and TV transmitter audio FM is that TV uses a
±25KHz deviation while FM radio stations uses ±75KHz deviation.

A TYPICAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TV TRANSMITTER (monochrome TV)

From the block diagram above, the TV transmitter is broadly divided into two sections, an
amplitude modulated transmitter section (the video section) and frequency modulated transmitter
section (the audio section).

In monochrome TV transmission, the synchronizing and scanning circuit produces sets of pulses
for providing synchronizing pulses for proper functioning of the TV system. The output signal of
the camera tube corresponding to the image to be televised is amplified through a number video
amplifier stages. The signal together with the synchronizing and blanking pulses are raised to a
level suitable for modulating the RF carrier wave generated by the crystal oscillator. Its output is
given a large amplification before feeding to the power amplifier. In the modulator, its amplitude
is made to vary in accordance with the modulating signal received from the modulating
amplifier.

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The microphone as a transducer, converts the sound energy associated with the picture being
televised into proportionate electrical signal (electrical energy). The audio signal from the
microphone after amplification is frequency modulated by a carrier generated by crystal
oscillator.

The output of the sound FM transmitter is finally combined with the AM picture transmitter
output, through a combine network called a diplexer. The output is fed to a common antenna for
onward radiation as a radio wave (electromagnetic waves).

The TV camera: is a light transducer that converts optical image or scene signal into an
electrical signal. At the receiving end, the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) is a transducer that converts
the electrical energy back to light energy that human eye understand.

Video amplifier: it amplifies the video signal.

AM modulating amplifier: the video signal from the camera is amplified in this circuit before
amplitude modulating a carrier.

FM modulating amplifier: the sound signal from audio amplifier is frequency modulated by
FM modulator before feeding it the diplexer.

Synchronization circuit: this circuit of the transmitter must send synchronizing pulse between
every of the video signal so that perfect transmitter-receiver synchronization is maintained.

Video amplifier: this circuit is to provide adequate resolution (resolution we mean the ability to
resolve detailed picture elements).

Power amplifier: this stage powers the modulated video signal to level necessary to derive the
next stage which is the diplexer.

Frequency multiplier: this circuit provides the frequency multiplication of both the carrier and
deviation frequency so as to achieve the required FM transmitter frequency standard which is
±75KHz.

Diplexer circuit: this circuit ensures that neither of the both signals is fed back into the other
transmitter.

An Antenna or Aerial is a transducer that receives the electrical energy and transmits them out
as electromagnetic wave energy that is compatible with the atmosphere.

RADIO SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation
frequencies. The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum frequencies ranges
from 30Hz to 300GHz. Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio waves, are
used in modern technology, particularly in telecommunication. To prevent unnecessary

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interferences between different users, the generation and transmission of the radio waves is
strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).

The spectrum is divided into different frequency bands, and each band has been allocated for
specific application ranging from aeronautical and maritime communication to AM and FM radio
stations. The table below provides the names for the various frequency ranges in the radio
spectrum and there uses.

FREQUENCY DESGNATION ABBREVIATION USES

Communication
30Hz – 300Hz Extremely low ELF between navy deep
Frequency submarines, Frequency
of AC power grid.

Communication in
300Hz – 3KHz Voice Frequency VF mines as it can
penetrate the earth.
Communication
3KHz – 30KHz Very Low Frequency VLF between navy
submarines near the
surface.
Long wave AM
30KHz – 300KHz Low Frequency LF broadcast services,
aircraft beacon and
navigations etc.
Medium wave AM
300KHz – 3MHz Medium Frequency MF broadcast band

International short
3MHz – 30MHz High Frequency HF wave broadcasting,
used for data
communication.
FM radio broadcast,
TV broadcast, land
mobile stations,
30MHz – 300MHz Very High Frequency VHF Amateur Radio, Air
traffic control

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communication, etc.
TV broadcasting, two
(microwaves) way Radio
communication
(walky-talky), GPS,
300MHz – 3GHz Ultra High Frequency UHF mobile phone
transceiver, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth (2.4GHz),
RFID Tags, Radar etc.
IEEE 802.11a wireless
LAN, Satellite
3GHz – 30GHz Super High Frequency SHF Uplinks/ Downlinks,
Terrestrial high speed
data link (backhaul)
etc.
Radio astronomy and
30GHz – 300GHz Extremely High EHF remote sensing
Frequency (scientific research),
point-point,
intersatellite link and
point
to multiple point
communication
(Telecommunication),
Active Denial
System(ADS weapon)
TV remote control,
300GHz – 300THz Infra-Red IR some cordless
computer keyboards
and computer mice.
Used for Astronomy

300THz – 3,000THz Visible Light LASER (RED)

Used for breaking of

3,000THz – chemical bonds. (eg
30,000THz Ultra-Violet Light UVL sunburn)

Medicine and
30,000THz – industries
300,000THz X-Ray X-Ray

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Useful in Astronomers
Gamma Rays in the study of high
energy objects or
regions

Generally, Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field,
radiating (propagating) through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. The
electromagnetic radiation, which are the combination (synchronization) of electric field
oscillation and magnetic field oscillation. In a vacuum (ie a linear media), electromagnetic waves
travel at a speed of light, denoted by c (3×10 8 ms-1). In nonlinear media such as some crystals,
however, an interaction called refraction will occur according to Faraday Effect. In refraction, a
wave crossing from one medium to another of different density alters its speed and direction
upon entering the new medium while its frequency remains the same (constant).

The position of electromagnetic waves within the electromagnetic spectrum can be classified by
either its frequency or its wavelength. Electromagnetic waves of different frequency are called by
different names as listed in the table above, since they have different sources and effects on
matter.

In the order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength these are: radio wave,
microwaves, infra-red radiation, visible light region we perceive as light, ultraviolet radiation,
Xrays and gamma rays.

The effect of EMR upon chemical compound and biological organisms, depend both upon the
radiations power and its frequency. The EMR of visible or low frequency signals (i.e. radio wave,
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light region we perceive as light) is called nonionizing
radiation, because its photons do not individually have energy to ionize atoms or molecules or
break chemical bonds. The effect of this radiation on chemical systems and living tissue are
caused primarily by heating effect from the combined energy transfer of many photons while
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation, since individual
photons of such frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules and break chemical bonds.
This radiation has the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells and can be
hazardous to human health.

Radio frequency: these are signals of frequencies ranging from Extremely low frequency (30Hz
– 300Hz) to a Very high frequency (30MHz – 300MHz). These frequencies are utilized by
antennas of appropriate size, with wavelength ranging from hundreds of meters to about one
millimeter. Radio wave frequencies because of their long wavelengths can diffract around the
hill, follow the earth’s surface as a ground wave, or reflect from the ionosphere. This made it
possible for use on long distance communications. They are used for transmission of data via

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modulation. Televisions, mobile phones, wireless networking, amateur radios all uses radio
frequency.

Microwaves frequency: these are signals of frequencies ranging from Ultra High frequency
(300MHz – 3GHz) to Extremely High frequency (30GHz – 300GHz). They are forms of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelength ranging from about one meter to one millimeter.
Frequencies in the microwave ranges are often referred to by IEEE radar band designations:

Letter Designation Frequency range

L band 1 to 2GHz
S band 2 to 4GHz
C band 4 to 8GHz
X band 8 to 12GHz
Ku band 12 to 18GHz
K band 18 to 26.5GHz
Ka band 26.5 to 40GHz

The prefix micro indicates that microwaves are small (having short wavelengths), compared to
the radio waves used prior to microwave technology. Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike
low frequency radio waves they do not diffract, follow the earth surface or reflect by the
ionosphere, so their coverage link are limited by the visual horizontal to about 40 miles (64Km).

At the high end of the band, they are absorbed by the atmosphere limiting practical
communication distance to about a kilometer. They are used in modern technology for example
in point-to-point communication, wireless networks, radar, satellite and air craft communication,
garage door opener, microwave ovens etc.

Infrared Radiation or Infrared Light: these are signals of frequencies ranging from (300GHz
– 300THz), and its wavelengths ranges from 1000 micrometers () to 760 nanometers (nm). IR is
a type of radiant energy that’s invisible to human eyes but that can be feeling as heat (e.g. sun
and fire). IR is one of the three ways of heat transfer from one point to another (apart from
conduction and convection). Everything with temperature above 5 degree Kelvin emits IR
radiation. Household appliances such as heat lamps and toasters uses IR to transmit heat, so also
industrial heaters used for drying and curing materials. Even our incandescent bulbs converts
only 10% of the electrical energy input as visible light, while the other 90% is converted to
infrared radiation, according to Environmental protection Agency. Infrared laser can be used for
point-to-point communications over distances of few hundred meters or yards. TV remote control
shoots out pulses of IR energy from the LED to an IR receiver in the TV, according to how stuff

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works. The receiver converts the light pulses to electrical signals that instruct a microprocessor
to carry out the programmed command.

Visible Light Radiation: these are signals of frequencies ranging from (300THz – 3,000THz),
and its wavelengths ranges from 740 nanometers (nm) to 380 nanometers. This is portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. This is the range in which the sun and
stars emits most of their radiations. Anything that glows or gives off light makes waves of what
we call visible light (e.g. the sun, light bulb candles, fire etc.). Visible light comes in all colors of
the rainbow. Each color has its own special frequency and wavelength. When all the colors are
mix together, they make the normal WHITE light that we see.

Ultraviolet light or Radiation: these are signals of frequencies ranging from (3,000THz –
30,000THz), and its wavelengths ranges from 400 nanometers (nm) (1 nanometer (nm) is 10 -9
meters) on the visible-light side and about 10 nanometers on the X-ray side, though some authors
extends it to 4nm. Ultraviolet light radiation being very energetic can break chemical bonds,
making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them, in general changing their mutual
behavior. Unlike X-rays, UV radiation has a low penetration power; therefore, its direct effect on
the human body is limited to the skin surface. Sunburn, for example is the disruptive effect of
UV radiation on the skin cells, which can cause skin cancer if the radiation damages the complex
DNA molecule in the cells. Tanning is a natural body defense relying on melanin to help protect
the skin from further injury.

Melanin is a chemical pigment in the skin that absorbs UV radiation and limits its penetration
into tissues. Persons of light skin or complexion have less melanin pigment than dark
complexion person. UV radiation also has good effect on human body; it stimulates the
production of Vitamin D in the skin and can be used as a therapeutic agent for such disease as
psoriasis. Because of its bactericidal capabilities at 260 – 280nm wavelength, UV radiation is
useful as both a research tool and a sterilizing technique. Fluorescent Lamps exploit the ability
of UV radiation to interact with materials known as phosphors that emits visible light; compared
with incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps are a more energy-efficient form of artificial
lighting.

X-rays or X-radiation: these are signals of frequencies ranging from (30,000THz –

300,000THz), and its wavelengths ranges from 10 -8 meters to 10-12 meters. X-rays is the
penetrating form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation. X-radiation is referred to as Rontgen
radiation, after the German scientist Wilhelm Rontgen, who discovered it on November 8, 1895.
He named it X-radiation to signify an unknown type of radiation. X-rays are used for seeing
through some things and not others, as well as for high-energy physic and astronomy. However,
the passage of X-rays through materials, like biological tissue, can be recorded with
photographic films and other detectors which make it useful in medicine and industry. When
passing through living tissue, X-rays can cause harmful biochemical changes in genes,

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chromosomes and other cell components. X-ray radiation therapies takes advantage of these
effects to combat the growth of malignant tumors.

PRINCIPLES OF ANTENNAS

An Antenna may be defined as a conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating
electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electrical energy from the
transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by an antenna and radiated into the space.
On the receiving end, electromagnetic is converted back into electrical energy by an antenna and
fed into the receiver. The electromagnetic radiation from an antenna is made up of two
components, the E-field (Electrical field) and H-field (magnetic field). The total energy in the
radiated wave remains constant in space except for some absorption of energy the earth.
However, as the wave advances, the energy spreads out over a greater area. This causes the
amount of energy in a giving area to decrease as the distance from source increases. As indicated
earlier, an antenna is some form of electrical conductor; it may be a length of wire or metal rod
or a piece of tubing. Many different sizes and shapes are used. The length of the conductor is
dependent upon the frequency of transmission. An antenna radiates most effectively when their
length is directly related to the wavelength of the transmitted signal. The most common length
are one-half and one-quarter wave lengths. Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into
two basic classifications, HERTZ ANTENNAS (half-wave) and MARCONI (quarter-wave)
ANTENNAS. Hertz antennas are generally installed some distance above the ground and are
position to radiate either vertically or horizontally. Marconi antennas are operate with one end
grounded and are mounted perpendicular to the earth or a surface acting as a ground.

The Hertz antenna, also known as a dipole are generally used for operating frequencies of 2MHz
and above, while Marconi antennas are used for operating frequencies below 2MHz. all antennas
regardless of their shape or size, have four basic characteristics; reciprocity, directivity, gain and
polarization.

Reciprocity: it is the ability to use the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving of radio
signals.

Directivity: the directivity of an antenna or array is the measure of the antennas ability to focus
the energy in one or more directions. You can determine antennas directivity by looking at its
radiation pattern.

Gain: as we mentioned earlier, some antennas are highly directional. That is, they propagate
more energy in certain direction than in others. The ratio between the amounts of energy
propagated in these directions and the energy that would be propagated if the antenna were not
directional is known as antenna Gain. The gain of an antenna is constant, whether the antenna is
used for transmitting or receiving. Gain = Energy in a specific direction / Energy transmitted in
all direction.

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Polarization: polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the

geometrical orientation of the oscillation. Energy from an antenna is radiated in the form of an
expanding sphere. A small section of this sphere is called a wave front, positioned perpendicular
to the direction of the radiation field. Within this wave front, all energy is in phase. Usually, all
points on the wave front are an equal distance from the antenna. The farther from the antenna the
wave is, the less curved it appears. At a considerable distance, the wave front can be considered
as a plane surface at right angle to the direction of propagation. The radiation field is made up of
magnetic and electric lines of force that are always at the right angles to each other.

Polarization is important in wireless communication systems. The physical orientation of a

wireless antenna corresponds to the polarization of the radio wave received or transmitted by an
antenna. Thus, a vertical antenna received and emits vertically polarized wave, and the horizontal
antenna received and emits horizontally polarized waves. The best short-range communications
is obtained when the transmitting and receiving antennas have the same polarization. The least
efficient is when the transmitting and receiving antennas are at right angles ( i.e one is horizontal
and one is vertical). Over long distances, the atmosphere can cause the polarization of a radio
wave to fluctuate, so the distinction between horizontal and vertical becomes less significant.
Some wireless antennas transmit and receive EM waves whose polarization rotates 360 degrees
with each complete wave cycle. This type of polarization is called elliptical or circular
polarization can be either clockwise or anticlockwise.

Radiation of electromagnetic energy

Various factors in the antenna circuit affect the radiation of electromagnetic energy. In figure 23,
for example, if an alternating current is applied to the A end of wire antenna AB, the wave will
travel along the wire until it reaches the B end. Since the B end is free, an open circuit exists and
the wave cannot travel further. This is a point of high impedance. The wave bounces back
(reflects) from this point of high impedance and travels toward the starting point, where it is
again reflected. Theoretically, the energy of the wave should be gradually dissipated by the
resistance of the wire during back and forth motion (oscillation). However, each time the wave
reaches the starting point, it is reinforced by an impulse of energy sufficient to replace the energy
lost during its travels along the wire. This results in continuous oscillations of energy along the
wire and a high voltage at the A ends of the wire. These oscillations move along the antenna at a
rate equal to the frequency of RF voltage and are sustained by properly timed impulses at point
A. the rate at which the wave travels along the wire is constant at approximately 3×10 8 m/s. the
length of the antenna must be such that a wave will travel from one end to the other and back
again during the period of 1 cycle of the RF voltage. The distance the wave travels during one
period of 1 cycle is known as wavelength. ƛ=C/F.

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RADIATION TYPES AND PATTERNS

A logical assumption is that energy leaving an antenna radiates equally(in all directions) over 360
degrees. This is not the case for every antenna. The energy radiated from an antenna forms a field
having a definite RADIATION PATTERN. The radiation pattern for any given antenna is
determine by measuring the radiated energy at various angles at constant distances from the
antenna and then plotting the energy values on the graph. The shape of the pattern depends on the
type of antenna being used. Some antenna radiates energy equally in all directions. The radiation
of this type is known as ISOTROPIC ANTENNA. The sun is a typical example of this type of
radiation. If you are to measure the amount of radiated energy around the sun circumference, the
readings would be fairly equal in all directions. Most radiators emits (radiates) energy more
strongly in one direction than in another. These radiators are called ANISOTROPIC
RADIATORS. A flashlight is a good example of an anisotropic radiator. The beam of a flashlight
lights only a portion of the space surrounding it. The area behind the flashlight remains unlit,
while the area in the front and either sides is illuminated.

MAJOR AND MINOR LOBES

The pattern shown in figure (), has radiation concentrated in two lobes. The radiation intensity in
one lobe is considerably stronger than the other. The lobe towards point X is called the MAJOR
LOBE; the other is the MINOR LOBE. Thus, major lobes are those in which the greater amount
of radiation occurs. Minor lobes are those in which the least amount of radiation occurs.

ANTENNA LOADING

There will be times when you will wants to use one antenna system to transmit on different
frequencies. Since the antenna must always be in resonance with the applied frequency, you must
either lengthen it or shorten it to produce the required resonance. Changing the antenna
dimension physically is impractical, but changing them electrically is relatively simple. To
change the electrical length of an antenna, you can insert either an inductor or a capacitor in
series with the antenna. Changing the electrical length by this method is known as
LUMPEDIMPEDANCE TUNING OR LAODING. If the antenna is too short for the wavelength
being used, it will be resonance at a higher frequency. Therefore, it offers a capacitive reactance
at the excited frequency. This capacitive reactance can be compensated for by introducing a
lumped inductive reactance. Similarly, if the antenna is too long for the wavelength being used, it
will be resonance at a lower frequency and offers an inductive reactance at the excited frequency.
This inductive reactance can be compensated for by introducing a lumped capacitive reactance.

High-frequency (hf) radio antenna systems are used to support many different types of circuits,
including ship-to-shore, point-to-point, and ground-to-air broadcast. These diverse applications
require the use of various numbers and types of antenna that we will review below

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YAGI ANTENNA

Typical Yagi Antenna

a yagi or yagi-uda antenna is a directional antenna that made up of a driven element, reflector
and one or more directors that improves radiation in a single direction and such radiation can be
either transmission or reception of energy. This aerial is commonly used for reception of TV
UHF and VHF broadcast signal in our homes. The aerial is also used in VHF point-to-point radio
telephone systems for both transmission and reception. The yagi aerial is made up of a dipole and
a number of parasitic elements.

A ƛ/2 dipole is conductor whose electrical length at the desired frequency of operation is
centerfed (i.e.) it is simply a piece of wire, rod or tubing that is one-half wave-length at the
operating frequency. The length of the conductor depends upon the frequency of the
transmission. You know that antenna radiates most effectively when their length is directly
related to the wavelength of the transmitted signal.

One type of parasitic elements is known as a reflector. It is typically about 5% longer than the
driven element (half-wave dipole). The reflector is spaced from the driven element by a distance
of 0.15 to 0.25 wavelengths. When the signal radiated from the dipole signal reaches the
reflector, it will induce a voltage into the reflector. The reflector will produce some radiation of
its own. Because of the spacing, the reflector radiation will mostly in phase with the driven
element radiation. As a result the reflected signal will add to the dipole signal and creat a
stronger, more highly focused beam. The reflector minimizes the radiation to the rear of the
driven-element and reinforced the radiation to the front of the driven-element.

Another kind of parasitic element is called a director. It is approximately 4% shorter than the
half-wave element. The directors are placed in front of the driven-element and space by some
distance between approximately 0.1 to 0.2 of wave-length from the driven-element. The signal

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from the dipole will be induced into the director. The signal radiated by the director will the add
in phase to that from the driven, the result is increased focusing of the signal narrow beam width
and a higher antenna gain.

Put simply, a yagi antenna work through the interaction of four essential pieces:

Driven element: the driven element of a yagi is the point where the feed line is attached from the
transmitter to the yagi to perform the transfer of power from the transmitter to the antenna.

Line: the spine of the antenna used to hold the directors and reflectors and connect to the driven
element.

Reflector: used to reject signal outside its range as well as amplify what’s inside – think of a
mirror reflecting light.

LOG-PERIODIC ANTENNA

Typical log-periodic Antenna

Here the lengths of the driven element vary from long to short and are related logarithmically.
The longest element has a length of one-half wavelength at the lowest frequency to be covered,
and the shortest element is one-half wavelength at the highest frequency. Each element is fed
with a special short transmission line segment to properly phase the signal sent to each element.
The result is a highly directional antenna with excellent gain.

Log-periodic aerial use the same basic mechanism (of director + dipole+ reflector) as a yagi but
instead of having one dipole (onto which all RF is focused) they use all the elements as

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potential dipoles. I say potential because for any particular frequency only one of them will be
resonant e.i. producing significant signal down the cable. At this particular frequency, the
element in the front will act as a director and the one behind as a reflector

The fact that one of the dipole can be resonant for any part of the broadcast band means that
logperiodic have a pretty flat signal gain curve. They also have a tight polar response (e.i. they
are less likely to pick signals you don’t want).

The entire antenna described in here will operate effectively at their designed frequency. They
can be used in the 500Hz to 1GHz ranges. The higher the frequency, the shorter the antenna. At
frequency above 1GHz (microwaves), different types of antennas are used. Eg parabolic, horn
and helix.

THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE

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The earth’s atmospheres are divided into three separate regions or layers; they are the
Troposphere, Stratosphere, and the Ionosphere.

The atmosphere of earth is the layer of gases commonly known as air, retained by the earth’s
gravity, surrounding the planet earth and forming its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of
earth protects life on earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the earth’s
surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention and
reducing temperature extremes through day and night.

The Troposphere: it is that portion of the earth’s atmosphere extending from the surface of the
earth to a height of approximately 16Km above sea level. Almost all the weather phenomena
takes place in the troposphere. The temperature in this region decreases rapidly with altitude.

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Most clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of water vapor in the atmosphere is found in the
troposphere. Air pressure drops, and temperature gets colder as you climb higher in the
troposphere.

The Stratosphere: this is the next layer up the troposphere. The stratosphere extends from the
top of the troposphere to about 50km above the ground. The temperature throughout this region
is considered to be almost constant and little water vapor is present. Unlike the troposphere, the
stratosphere actually gets warmer the higher you go! That trend of rising temperatures with
altitude means that air in the stratosphere lacks the turbulence and updraft of the troposphere
beneath. Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere partly because this less
turbulent layer provides a smoother ride.

Ionosphere: the ionosphere extends upward from about 50km to a height approximately 464km.
it is the part a region where high energy radiation from the sun has knocked electrons loose from
their parent atoms and molecules that are formed in this way are called ions, giving the
ionosphere its name. It contains four cloudlike layers of electrically charged ions which enable
radio waves to be propagated to greater distance around the earth. This is the most important
regions of the atmosphere for long distance point-to-point communication.

In ionization, high-energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun periodically enter the ionosphere,
strike neutral gas atoms and knock one or more electrons free from each atom. When the
electrons are free, the atoms become positively charged (positive ions) and remain in space,
along with the negatively charged free electrons. The free electrons absorb some and form an
ionized layer. An important factor in determining the density of these ionized layers is the
elevation angle of the sun. Since this angle changes frequently, the height and thickness of the
ionized layer vary, depending on the time of the day and season of the year. Another important
factor in determining layer density is known as recombination.

Recombination is the reverse process of ionization. It occurs when free electrons and positive
ions collide, combine and returned the positive ions to their original neutral state. Like the
ionization, the recombination process depends on the time and day. Between early morning and
late afternoon, the rate of ionization is greater the rate recombination. During this period, the
ionized layers reach their greatest density and exert maximum influence on radio waves.
However, during the late afternoon and early morning, the reverse being the case and this causes
the density of the layer to decrease. Throughout the night, the density continues to decrease
reaching the lowest point just before sunrise.

The structure of the ionosphere

High-energy X-rays and ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun are constantly colliding with gas
molecules and atoms in the earth’s upper atmosphere. Some of these collisions knock electrons
free from the atoms and molecules, creating electrically charged ions (atoms or molecules with
missing electrons) and free electrons.

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These electrically charged ions and electrons move and behave differently than normal
electrically neutral atoms and molecules. Regions with higher concentrations of ions and free
electrons occur at different altitudes and are known as a group as the ionosphere.

The ionosphere is composed of three distinct layers, designated from the lowest level to the
height level as shown in the diagram below. These are the D-layer, the E-layer and the F-layer. In
addition, the F-layer is further divided into two layers designated as the F1 (the lower level) and
F2 (the higher level). These regions do not have sharp boundaries and the altitudes at which they
occur vary with the position of the sun and from season to season.

The D-layer region: the D region is the lowest of the four layers of the ionosphere and it lies
between 50 or 60km (37 miles) to about 90km (56miles) above the earth’s surface. Ionization in
the D-layer is not very intense when compared with other layers. The ionization in the D-layers
peaks around local noon and then decreases as the ultraviolet light wave from the sun decreases
in intensity. The D-layer disappears around sunset and recombination is rapid.

During the day, the D-layer acts as a reflecting surface for very low frequency (VLF) waves. This
is due to the long wavelength of VLF waves in compares with the thickness of the layer. A radio
wave may be reflected instead of refracted by a thin ionized layer, provided that the layer is not
thicker than one-wavelength of the radio wave. As the frequency is increased to low frequency
(LF) and medium frequency (MD), the wavelength becomes shorter and they penetrate the D-
layers to some depth before being refracted back to the earth. High frequency waves are normally
above the critical frequency of the D-layer and pass through it.

The E-layer: this is the second highest layer, is located between 90 or 100km (56 or 62 miles) to
120 or 150km (75 or 93 miles). The height of the E-layer varies with the seasons. Variations in
this layer are regular and predictable. The density of the ionization of the E-layer varies with the
angle of the sun. the layer attain its maximum density at about noon, the decreases as the
radiation from the sun decreases in intensity. After sunset, ionization is at such weak level that
the E-layer is practically useless as an aid to high frequency radio communication. During the
day time, the ionization density in the E-layer is usually great enough to refract radio waves back
to earth at frequencies as high as 20MHz (around high frequency). The height of the E-layer
enables the radio waves to be propagated to distance in the range of 1900km.

The F-layer: this is the most important region in the ionosphere for long distance HF radio
communication. It is located between 155km to 400km above the earth surface. During the day
light hours, especially when the sun is high and during the summer months, the F-layer splits into
two distinct layers to form the F1 and F2 layers as shown in the diagram below; the lower one
being the F1 region and the higher one, the F2 region.

Typically, the F1 layer is found at around an altitude of 300km with the F2 layer above it at
around 400km. shortly after sunset, the combined F layer may then be centered around 250km to
300km.

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The F1-layer: this layer is occasionally the refraction region for the HF waves. Normally, radio
waves that pass through E-layer will also pass through F1-layer and be refracted by the F2-layer.
The main effect of F1-layer is the introduction of additional absorption to such waves.

The F2-layer: this is the most highly ionized of all layers and is by far the most important layer
for long distant communications in HF range. Unfortunately, this layer is also the most variable.
Its height and density charge with the time of the day, season of the year and sunspot activity.

During the night time, the F1 and F2 layer emerges. Sufficient ionization is present in the Fregion
to permit long distance refraction of radio waves. In fact, at night time, signal strength are
generally quite strong due to minimal ionization at lower level and consequently, a lesser degree
of absorption of radio waves of these heights.

RADIO FREQUENCY WAVE PROPAGATION

Radio frequency (RF) propagation simply means the way in which radio signals travel or
propagate when they are transmitted by an antenna from one point to another and they are
affected by the medium through which the radio wave travels and various up circles (objects)
that may appear in the path. Once a radio signal has been radiated by an antenna, it will travel or
propagate through the space and will ultimately reach the receiving antenna. As electromagnetic
signal, the energy level of the signal decreases rapidly as the distance of propagation increases.
Electromagnetic signal can take one or more of several different paths to the receiving antenna.
The path that the radio signal takes depend upon many factors including the signal frequency,
atmospheric conditions, geographical height, different geographical locations, and change in time
(day, night, season, year). To understand radio wave propagation, you must have the basic
understanding of earth’s atmosphere. The three basic paths that radio signal can take through
space are ground wave, the sky wave and space wave.

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION:

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The ground or surface wave leaves the antenna and remains close to the earth. See fig. 1.1 below.
The ground wave will actually follow the curvature of the earth and can, therefore, travel at
distance beyond the horizon. The ground-wave propagation is strongest at the low and medium
frequency ranges. That is, ground waves are the main signal path for signals in the 30 KHz to
3MHz range. Amplitude modulation broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground
waves. At the higher frequency beyond 3MHz, the earth begins to attenuate the radio signals.
Objects on the earth terrain feature become the same order of magnitude in sizes as the
wavelength of the signal and will therefore absorb and otherwise effect the signal. For this
reason, the ground wave propagation of signals above 3MHz is insignificant except within
several miles of the antenna.

SKY WAVE PROPAGATION:

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a sky wave signals is one that is radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere where it is
bent or reflected back to earth. This bending of the signal is caused by a region in the upper
atmosphere known as the ionosphere. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes the upper
atmosphere to ionize, that is, to become electrically charged.

(The atoms take on extra electrons or lose electrons to become positive or negative ions
respectively). Free electrons are also present. This results in a relatively thick but invisible layer
that exists above the earth. The ionosphere is illustrated in figure below.

At its lowest point, the ionosphere is approximately 30miles above the earth and extends to as
much as 250miles above the earth. The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into
three basic layers, designated the D layer, the E layer and F layer.

SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION:

The third method of radio signal propagation is by direct or space waves. A direct wave travels in
a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. You will often hear
direct wave radio signaling referred to as line-of-sight communication.
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Direct or space-waves are not refracted nor do they follow the curvature of the earth. Because of
the straight-line nature, direct wave will at some point be blocked because of the curvature of the
earth. The signal will travel, horizontally from the antenna until they reach the horizon at which
point they are blocked. This is illustrated in diagram below.

If the signal is received beyond the horizon, then the antenna must be high enough to intercept
the straight-line radio waves.

Obviously, the transmitting distance with direct wave is limited to relatively short distances and
strictly a function of the height of the transmitting and receiving antenna.

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