Organic and Inorganic Compounds

Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds are a broad category of chemical compounds that
primarily contain the element carbon. They are the foundation of life
on Earth and are present in all living organisms, making up the
structure and function of cells. In addition to carbon, organic
compounds typically include other elements like hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur, phosphorus, and halogens (like
chlorine or fluorine).
The Carbon Atom
 The carbon atom is one of the most fundamental elements in
chemistry, biology, and material science. It is the sixth element on the
periodic table, represented by the symbol C. Carbon plays a central
role in both organic chemistry and life sciences, and its unique
properties allow it to form a vast variety of compounds, making it a key
building block of all living organisms. It’s also widely present in non-
living systems, including the atmosphere, rocks, and fossil fuels.
o Position in the Periodic Table
 Carbon belongs to Group IV-A (Group 14) of the periodic
table. This group is characterized by elements that have
four electrons in their outermost shell.
 It is a non-metal, meaning it doesn’t easily lose electrons
to form positive ions but instead shares electrons in bonds.
o Atomic Structure
 Atomic Number
 Carbon has an atomic number of 6, which means it
has 6 protons and 6 electrons.
 Electron Configuration
 The electron configuration of carbon is 1s² 2s² 2p²,
where the first two electrons fill the innermost shell,
and the remaining four electrons occupy the
outermost shell (also known as the valence shell).
o Valency of Carbon
 Carbon has four electrons in its outermost shell, which
allows it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This
property, called tetravalency, is one of the key reasons
why carbon is so versatile and capable of forming a wide
variety of stable compounds.
 The four bonds allow carbon to connect with other atoms,
including itself, forming chains, rings, and complex
structures.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

Properties of Carbon
 Catenation
o Catenation is the ability of an element to form bonds with itself
through covalent bonds to form long chains or ring structures.
This unique property allows carbon to build complex molecules,
creating the basis for many organic compounds.
o The term catenation comes from the Latin word catena, meaning
"chain." It reflects carbon’s ability to form long chains of atoms
linked together, which is central to the structure of many organic
molecules.
o Carbon is the most common element known to exhibit catenation
due to its stable and strong covalent bonds. The strength of
carbon-carbon bonds allows for the formation of a wide range of
hydrocarbon chains (like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes) and rings
(such as benzene), which serve as the backbone of organic
molecules.
 Tetravalency
o Tetravalency refers to the ability of a carbon atom to form four
covalent bonds with other atoms. Carbon has four electrons in its
outermost shell (valence shell), and it achieves a stable
configuration (an octet) by sharing these electrons with other
atoms, forming four covalent bonds.
o To complete its octet (a stable arrangement of eight electrons),
carbon needs to form four bonds. These bonds can be formed
with a variety of atoms, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and other carbon atoms.
 A single bond involves one pair of shared electrons (e.g.,
between two carbon atoms in ethane, C₂H₆).
 A double bond involves two pairs of shared electrons (e.g.,
in ethene, C₂H₄).
 A triple bond involves three pairs of shared electrons (e.g.,
in acetylene, C₂H₂).
 Ground State Electron Configuration and Excitation
o In the ground state, the electron configuration of carbon is 1s²
2s² 2p², meaning that two electrons are in the first energy level
(1s²), and four are in the second energy level (2s² 2p²). However,
carbon’s ability to form four covalent bonds is best explained
through a concept known as hybridization.
o When carbon forms bonds, one of its electrons from the 2s orbital
gets "promoted" to the empty 2p orbital. This creates four
unpaired electrons (one in each of the 2s, 2pₓ, 2pᵧ, and 2p𝓏
orbitals), allowing carbon to form four covalent bonds.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

o This rearrangement allows carbon to hybridize and form different

types of bonds
 sp³ Hybridization (as in methane, CH₄, where carbon forms
four single bonds).
 sp² Hybridization (as in ethene, C₂H₄, where carbon forms a
double bond).
 sp Hybridization (as in acetylene, C₂H₂, where carbon forms
a triple bond).
 Isomerism
o Isomerism refers to the phenomenon where compounds have the
same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms
within the molecule, leading to distinct physical and chemical
properties. These different forms of a compound are known as
isomers.
o Isomers differ in the connectivity of atoms. For example, butane
and isobutane both have the chemical formula C₄H₁₀, but in
butane, the carbon atoms form a straight chain, while in
isobutane, the carbon chain is branched.
o Isomers have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in the
spatial arrangement of atoms. An example includes cis-trans
isomerism in alkenes (e.g., cis-2-butene vs trans-2-butene),
where the arrangement of substituent groups around the double
bond differs.
 Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds
o Definition and Composition
 Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds are primarily defined as
compounds that contain carbon atoms as the central
elements in their structure. They often include other
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and phosphorus.
o A classic example of an organic compound is
glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), which is a simple sugar
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. It
is essential for energy metabolism in living
organisms.
 Inorganic Compounds
 Inorganic compounds typically do not contain carbon
in their structure (with some exceptions, such as
carbonates and certain metal carbon complexes).
These compounds often include a variety of minerals
and salts and are usually associated with ionic bonds.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

o Sodium chloride (NaCl), commonly known as

table salt, is an inorganic compound composed
of sodium (a metal) and chloride (a non-metal),
forming an ionic bond.
o Source and Origin
 Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds are primarily the result of
biological processes. They originate from living
organisms and are involved in biological functions
and structures.
o Proteins, which are made up of amino acids,
are organic compounds that play vital roles in
the structure and function of cells in living
organisms.
 Inorganic Compounds
 In contrast, inorganic compounds do not originate
from living things; they are typically derived from
minerals and natural resources found in the earth.
o Quartz (SiO₂), a common mineral, is an
inorganic compound formed from silicon and
oxygen and is abundant in the Earth’s crust.
o Bonding Types
 Organic Compounds
 Organic compounds are characterized by covalent
bonds, which involve the sharing of electrons
between nonmetal atoms. This type of bonding
results in stable compounds.
o In ethanol (C₂H₅OH), the carbon atoms form
covalent bonds with hydrogen and oxygen,
resulting in a stable molecule.
 Inorganic Compounds
 Inorganic compounds typically exhibit ionic bonds,
which occur between metals and nonmetals. This
type of bonding involves the transfer of electrons,
leading to the formation of charged ions.
o In magnesium oxide (MgO), magnesium
donates an electron to oxygen, resulting in an
ionic bond between Mg²⁺ and O²⁻ ions.
o Reactivity and Stability
 Organic Compounds
 Due to their stable covalent bonds, organic
compounds often exhibit slower reaction rates. The
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

strong bonding means that these compounds are

generally more resistant to changes.
o Hydrocarbons (like alkanes) tend to undergo
slow reactions such as combustion or
polymerization under specific conditions.
 Inorganic Compounds
 Inorganic compounds tend to undergo rapid chemical
reactions because their ionic bonds are not as stable
as covalent bonds. This instability often leads to
quicker interactions in chemical reactions.
o Acids and bases, such as hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), react
vigorously to neutralize each other.
o Physical Properties
 Organic Compounds
 Generally have low melting and boiling points due to
weaker van der Waals forces.
 Exhibit low interaction among molecules, making
them easier to break apart.
 Many organic compounds are non-polar, making
them less soluble in water.
o Benzene (C₆H₆) has a low boiling point
(approximately 80°C) and is insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents like ethanol.
o Inorganic Compounds
 Typically have high melting and boiling points due to strong
ionic bonds.
 Show strong interactions between ions or molecules,
making them more difficult to break apart.
 Most inorganic compounds are soluble in water due
to their ionic nature.
o Calcium chloride (CaCl₂) is highly soluble in
water and has a melting point of about 772°C.
o Solubility
 Organic Compounds
 Most organic compounds do not dissolve easily in
water because they are often non-polar, while water
is a polar solvent. The principle of "like dissolves like"
indicates that polar substances tend to dissolve well
in polar solvents.
o Oil (a non-polar organic compound) does not
mix with water.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Inorganic Compounds
 In contrast, inorganic compounds generally dissolve
well in water because they are composed of ionic
bonds, which separate into ions when dissolved.
o Sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄) is highly soluble in
water, dissociating into sodium and sulfate
ions.
o Flammability
 Organic Compounds
 Many organic compounds are flammable due to their
carbon content, which can easily undergo
combustion in the presence of oxygen.
o Ethanol burns readily when ignited, producing
carbon dioxide and water.
 Inorganic Compounds
 Most inorganic compounds are relatively non-
flammable since they do not contain carbon,
although some can support combustion under certain
conditions.
o Sodium chloride does not burn, but can
conduct electricity when melted.
o Electrolytic Properties
 Organic Compounds
 Typically, organic compounds are non-electrolytes,
meaning they do not produce ions in solution and
therefore do not conduct electricity.
o Glucose in solution does not dissociate into
ions.
 Inorganic Compounds
 Inorganic compounds are often electrolytes, as they
dissociate into ions in solution, allowing them to
conduct electricity.
o Potassium nitrate (KNO₃) dissociates into
potassium and nitrate ions in water, making it
an effective electrolyte.
o Color Properties
 Organic Compounds
 Most organic compounds are colorless due to their
lack of chromophores (parts of the molecule that
absorb light).
o Alkanes like octane (C₈H₁₈) are typically
colorless liquids.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Inorganic Compounds
 Many inorganic compounds are colorful due to the
presence of transition metals or other elements that
absorb visible light, creating vibrant colors.
o Copper sulfate (CuSO₄) appears blue in its
hydrated form due to the specific electronic
transitions of copper ions.
Ionic Bond
 An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond that forms through the
transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in the
formation of charged ions. This typically occurs between metals, which
tend to lose electrons, and non-metals, which tend to gain electrons.
o Steps to Show Ionic Bonding
 Write the Lewis Symbols
 Represent the valence electrons of the selected
elements using Lewis dot structures. For example:
o Sodium (Na): •Na (1 valence electron)
o Chlorine (Cl): ••Cl•• (7 valence electrons)
 Assess Electronegativity Difference
 Determine the electronegativity difference between
the two elements. If it is greater than 1.9, a complete
transfer of electrons is likely.
 Show Electron Transfer
 Use an arrow to indicate the transfer of electrons
from the metal to the non-metal. For example:
o Na → Cl (the arrow shows that Na loses its
electron).
 Indicate Ion Formation
 Label the resulting ions
o Na⁺ (cation) and Cl⁻ (anion).
 Write the Ionic Compound Formula
 Combine the ions to form the ionic compound:
o Na⁺ + Cl⁻ → NaCl (sodium chloride).
 Isoelectronic Configuration
 After bonding, both ions achieve an electron
configuration similar to the nearest noble gas (in this
case, Ne), indicating stability.
Covalent Bonding
 Covalent bonding is a fundamental concept in chemistry that describes
how atoms connect to form molecules. This type of bonding primarily
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

occurs between nonmetals or between metalloids and nonmetals,

where atoms share valence electrons to achieve stability.
Understanding covalent bonds involves exploring their types, the
formation of molecular compounds, and the methods used to represent
these bonds visually through Lewis structures.
 Covalent Bonding occurs when two or more nonmetal atoms share
their valence electrons to form stable molecules. This sharing of
electrons allows each atom to attain an electron configuration similar
to that of noble gases, thus achieving stability through the completion
of their outer electron shell.
o Types of Covalent Bonds
 Polar Covalent Bond
 A polar covalent bond occurs when the electrons are
shared unequally between two atoms. This usually
happens when the bonded atoms have different
electronegativities, resulting in a partial positive
charge (δ+) on one atom and a partial negative
charge (δ−) on the other.
o In water (H₂O), oxygen is more electronegative
than hydrogen, leading to an unequal sharing
of electrons. The oxygen atom attracts the
shared electrons more strongly than the
hydrogen atoms, creating a polar molecule.
 Nonpolar Covalent Bond
 A nonpolar covalent bond occurs when the electrons
are shared equally between two atoms, typically
when the atoms are of the same element or have
similar electronegativities.
o In molecular nitrogen (N₂), two nitrogen atoms
share their electrons equally, resulting in a
nonpolar covalent bond.
o Method for Determining the Lewis Structure of Covalent
Compounds
 Count the Number of Valence Electrons
 Begin by determining the total number of valence
electrons available from all the atoms in the
molecule. The number of valence electrons
corresponds to the group number of each element in
the periodic table.
o For H₂O, hydrogen has 1 valence electron (2 H
atoms contribute 2), and oxygen has 6 valence
electrons, giving a total of 8 valence electrons.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Determine the Number of Needed Electrons for a Full Octet

 For most atoms, particularly the main-group
elements, a full octet (8 electrons) is desired for
stability. Hydrogen is an exception, as it only needs 2
electrons.
o In our example (H₂O), oxygen needs 8
electrons (2 pairs of shared electrons from 2 H
atoms) to complete its octet.
 Apply the Equation to Know the Number of Bonds
 Use the equation:
o Number of Bonds = Needed Electrons −
Valence Electrons
2
o For H₂O: Needed electrons = 8, Valence
electrons = 8 (from 2 H and 6 O), so:
o Number of Bonds = 8 − 8
2
=0
 Since this indicates we need to share electrons, we
will create bonds between the atoms.
 Draw the Skeleton of the Compound
 Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure.
Generally, the least electronegative atom is placed in
the center.
o For H₂O, the structure is O in the center with H
on either side.
 Fill in Remaining (Non-Bonding/Lone Pair) Valence
Electrons:
 After connecting the atoms with single bonds, place
any remaining valence electrons as lone pairs around
the atoms to complete their octets.
o In H₂O, each H shares one electron with O, and
O has 4 remaining electrons, which form 2 lone
pairs.
 The final Lewis structure for water shows the oxygen atom
with two single bonds to the hydrogen atoms and two lone
pairs of electrons.
Uses of Organic Compounds
 Food
 Clothing
 Houses
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Fuel
o Natural Gas
o Petroleum
o Coal
 Medicine
 Raw Materials
Properties of Common Organic Compounds
 Odor
o Odor refers to the characteristic smell of a compound, which can
greatly influence its usability and appeal.
o The odor of organic compounds arises from their molecular
structure and the functional groups present. Different functional
groups, such as alcohols, esters, and amines, produce distinct
smells due to their ability to interact with olfactory receptors in
the nose.
 Ethanol (C₂H₅OH)
 This alcohol has a mild, sweet smell, commonly
associated with alcoholic beverages.
 Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH)
 Known for its pungent smell, acetic acid gives
vinegar its characteristic odor. This sharp scent is
due to its carboxylic acid functional group.
 Esters, like ethyl acetate (used in nail polish remover),
often have fruity odors, making them popular in flavoring
and fragrance industries.
 Viscosity
o Viscosity is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow. It indicates
how thick or thin a liquid is.
o The viscosity of an organic compound depends on factors such
as its molecular weight, intermolecular forces, and temperature.
Liquids with strong intermolecular forces (like hydrogen bonding)
tend to have higher viscosity because the molecules are held
together more tightly, making it harder for them to slide past one
another.
 Water
 Water has a relatively low viscosity, allowing it to
flow easily.
 Honey: In contrast, honey has a high viscosity due to its
larger and more complex sugar molecules, resulting in a
thick and slow-flowing liquid.
 Glycerol
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Another example is glycerol, which is more viscous

than water because of its three hydroxyl groups that
can form hydrogen bonds, increasing resistance to
flow.
 Volatility
o Volatility is a measure of a compound's tendency to evaporate or
turn into a gaseous state at a given temperature and pressure.
o Volatility is influenced by the strength of intermolecular forces
within a substance. Compounds with weak intermolecular forces
(like Van der Waals forces) tend to be more volatile because their
molecules can escape into the vapor phase more easily.
 Diethyl Ether
 This organic compound is highly volatile, with a low
boiling point (about 35°C), allowing it to evaporate
quickly and making it useful as a solvent in
laboratories.
 Water
 While water can evaporate, it has a higher boiling
point (100°C at standard pressure) compared to
diethyl ether, indicating that it is less volatile.
 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
 Many organic solvents, such as acetone and
benzene, are considered VOCs due to their high
volatility, which can have environmental and health
implications.
 Flammability
o Flammability measures how easily a material ignites and burns in
the presence of an open flame or spark.
o Flammability is determined by several factors, including the
chemical structure of the compound, its physical state (solid,
liquid, gas), and its flash point (the lowest temperature at which
it can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air). Organic
compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen, especially those
with lower molecular weights, tend to be more flammable.
 Methane (CH₄)
 This simple hydrocarbon is highly flammable and is
used as a fuel for heating and cooking due to its
ability to ignite easily.
 Gasoline
 A liquid hydrocarbon mixture, gasoline has a low
flash point, making it very flammable and a common
fuel for internal combustion engines.
 Organic and Inorganic Compounds

 Sugar
 Interestingly, while sugar (sucrose) can burn, it is not
considered flammable in the same way as
hydrocarbons because it requires a higher
temperature to ignite.