CELL DIVISION

What is Cell Division?

• The process by which a single parent cell splits to
form new cells, known as daughter cells. There
are two types of cell division: mitosis and
meiosis.

• In cell division, the cell that is dividing is called as

the PARENT cell, while the one being produced in
the process is called as the DAUGHTER cell.
WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?
1. Renewing of damaged cells.
2.Production of new cells from older ones.
3.Maintains the total number of chromosomes.
4.Provides more cells for growth and development.
5.Repairs and controls the damage caused to the cells.
6.Also helps in the survival and growth of living organisms.
7.It is responsible for the definite shape, size and proper
growth and development of an individual.
8.In plants, mitosis helps in the formation of new parts and
in repairing damaged parts.
The process of asexual reproduction begins after
Sexual reproduction).
 • Tissue repair and
wound healing
• Growth and
MITOSIS development
• Maintenance of
cellular function
• Immune response

• 36 trillion cells in the male, 28 trillion in the female, and 17 trillion in

the child.
• 25 million cell divisions occur every second in your body
 Every tissues are made up of cell

• Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function
together as a unit.
 CELL DIVISION IN A NUTSHELL

MITOSIS IS THE PROCESS OF NUCLEAR A PROCESS WHERE A SINGLE CELL

DIVISION, WHEREBY DUPLICATED DNA DIVIDES TWICE TO PRODUCE FOUR
MOLECULES ARE ARRANGED INTO TWO CELLS CONTAINING HALF THE ORIGINAL
SEPARATE NUCLEI AMOUNT OF GENETIC INFORMATION.
THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF CELLS IN HUMAN BODY
SEX CELLS
EACH ORGANISMS HAVE UNIQUE
NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES
EACH ORGANISMS HAVE UNIQUE
NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES
Note: A haploid set is a
single set of
chromosome, as carried
by sperm cells and egg
cells. A fertilized egg
has two sets and is
diploid.
 • Haploid (n) – with one set of
chromosomes
• Diploid (2n) – with two sets of
chromosomes
• Triploid (3n) – with three sets of
chromosomes
• Tetraploid (4n) – with four sets
of chromosomes
• Pentaploid (5n) – with five sets
of chromosomes
• Hexaploid (6n) – with six sets of
chromosomes
• Heptaploid (or septaploid) (7n)
– with seven sets of
Question: Why does Cell-Division is called Asexual chromosomes
Reproduction? How does it differ from Sexual • Octaploid (or octoploid) (8n) –
reproduction? with eight sets of chromosomes
CHROMOSOME
❑ a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein
found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes.

❑ Each human cell contains a total of 46

chromosomes

❑ The only human cells that do not contain pairs of

chromosomes are reproductive cells, or gametes,
which carry just one copy of each chromosome.

❑ A chromosome is formed from a single,

enormously long DNA molecule that contains a
linear array of many genes.
CHROMOSOME ❑ A chromatid is one of the two
identical halves of a chromosome that
has been replicated in preparation for
cell division.

❑ The two “sister” chromatids are

joined at a constricted region of the
chromosome called the centromere.

❑ During cell division, spindle fibers

attach to the centromere and pull
each of the sister chromatids to
opposite sides of the cell. Soon after,
the cell divides in two, resulting in
daughter cells with identical DNA.
• Nucleosome- the basic
unit of chromatin. It is
made up of coil of DNA
wound around a histone
core.

• In eukaryotes, a special
class of proteins called
histones complexes with
DNA
▪ Protection
▪ Structure
 NOTE: A single nucleosome consists of about 150 base pairs of DNA
sequence wrapped around a core of histone proteins.

▪ The entire structure is ▪ The millions of ▪ which is further

called a nucleosome, nucleosomes tightly condensed into
each of which includes coil the continuous the chromosome
an octamer of histone during cell
DNA strand into
proteins and 146 to
chromatin division
147 base pairs of DNA.
 • INTERPHASE IS AN

OVERVIEW ACTIVE PERIOD IN THE

CYCLE, IN WHICH A CELL
GROWS AND PREPARES
FOR DIVISION (INCLUDES
G1, S AND G2 SUB-
PHASES)

• THE M PHASE DESCRIBES

THE PERIOD OF ACTUAL
DIVISION AND INCLUDES
MITOSIS (NUCLEAR
DIVISION) AND
CYTOKINESIS
(CYTOPLASMIC DIVISION)
RESTING PHASE /INTERPHASE • G1 – FIRST INTERMEDIATE GAP PHASE
IN WHICH A CELL GROWS IN SIZE
AND SYNTHESISES THE PROTEINS
NEEDED FOR DNA REPLICATION
• S – THE SYNTHESIS STAGE IN WHICH
DNA IS REPLICATED (ALONG WITH THE
MICROTUBULE-ORGANISING
CENTROSOME)
• G2 – SECOND INTERMEDIATE GAP
DID YOU KNOW? PHASE IN WHICH A CELL CONTINUES
- The resting stage (the cell is not TO GROW AND ALL CELLULAR
dividing in this stage
- The longest part ORGANELLES ARE DUPLICATED
 • G1 – the first stage after division
G1 / Gap 1 phase
• Make more organelles

• the cell grows physically larger,

copies organelles, and makes the
molecular building blocks
(chromosomes) it will need in later
steps.

• Synthesizing proteins and enzymes

 S phase
• The genes in the nucleus (DNA)
are replicated.

• the cell synthesizes a complete

copy of the DNA in its nucleus.
It also duplicates a microtubule-
organizing structure called the
centrosome (help separate DNA
during M phase).
DID YOU KNOW?
- Many higher plants and animals need about
30,000 types of genes to store the • The amount of DNA and histones
information required to make the proper
enzymes, structural proteins, and hormones is duplicated in this phase
necessary for the organism’s life.
• (A) Before S phase, each chromosome has one chromatid and one copy of each
gene.

• (B) After replication in S phase, each chromosome has two chromatids and two
copies of each gene. The constriction represents the centromere
 • After the S phase, the cell
G2 phase progresses into G2 phase, during
which cells prepare for division

• lasts only about 3 to 5 hours

• The necessary for

spindle microtubules are synthesized,

• and the cell produces proteins

necessary for processing
chromosomes and breaking down the
nuclear envelope.
 WHY INTERPHASE IS ESSENTIAL?
• Preparation for cell division
▪ Cells must grow and duplicate their internal
structures during interphase before they can divide
during mitosis.

▪ The cell then leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis,

and completes its division.
▪ G1 -> S -> G2
 MITOTIC PHASE/ MITOSIS

• EACH DAUGHTER CELL RECEIVES A COMPLETE SET OF

CHROMOSOMES FROM THE PARENT CELL.
• THIS PROCESS ALLOWS THE BODY TO GROW AND REPLACE CELLS.
• OCCURS ONLY IN EUKARYOTES ORGANISM
• PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase)
 PLANTS
• IN FLOWERING PLANTS,
CONIFERS, AND OTHER
HIGHER PLANTS, MITOSIS
OCCURS IN SPECIFIC
REGIONS, OR TISSUES,
CALLED MERISTEMS.

⚬ APICAL MERISTEM
⚬ LATERAL MERISTEM
⚬ ROOT APICAL MERISTEM
MITOTIC PHASE
M phase involves two main
processes, mitosis and
cytokinesis

▪ Karyokinesis- the division of the

nucleus (mitosis and meiosis)
▪ Cytokinesis- the division of the
cytoplasm to form two cells
(daughter cells)
 PROPHASE

• THE CHROMOSOMES CONDENSES (MAKING THEM EASIER TO SEPARATE)

• Chromatin (the long threadlike material of which chromosomes are
composed) begins to condense and coil into visible chromosome.
• CENTROSOMES MOVE TO OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE NUCLEUS, INITIATING
FORMATION OF THE MITOTIC SPINDLE (for pulling sister chromatids)
• THE SPINDLE STARTS TO FORM DURING PROPHASE OF MITOSIS.
KINETOCHORES ON THE SPINDLE ATTACH TO THE CENTROMERES OF SISTER
CHROMATIDS.
 PROPHASE

• Short and thick

• Can be moves around the cell easily
 CHROMATIN

• For most of the life of the cell, chromatin is decondensed, meaning that it exists
in long, thin strings that look like squiggles under the microscope.

• Chromatin refers to a mixture of DNA and proteins that form the

chromosomes found in the cells of humans and other higher organisms.

• Many of the proteins — namely, histones — package the massive amount of

DNA in a genome into a highly compact form that can fit in the cell nucleus.
 • The genome is the entire set of
CHROMOSOME CONTAINS GENES,
DNA instructions found in a cell.
AND THESE GENES ARE MADE UP In humans, the genome consists
OF DNA of 23 pairs of chromosomes
located in the cell’s nucleus, as
well as a small chromosome in
the cell’s mitochondria.

• A genome contains all the

information needed for an
individual to develop and
function.

• DNA is the information molecule

DID YOU KNOW?
- A gene is a locus on the DNA, whereas a
for all living organisms. All of the
genome is the whole genetic information of an DNA of an organism is called its
organism. genome.
• The gene is considered the
basic unit of inheritance.
Genes are passed from
parents to offspring and
contain the information
needed to specify physical and
biological traits.

• Most genes code for specific

proteins, or segments of
proteins, which have differing
functions within the body.

• Humans have approximately

20,000 protein-coding genes.
• Genes are further divided
into exons and introns.

• The exons carry the code

for the production of
proteins, hence they are
called as protein-coding
regions

• The most important

function of introns is that
they allow for alternative
splicing, making it
possible to generate
multiple proteins from a
single gene
DID YOU KNOW?
 • THE CHROMOSOMES
PROMETAPHASE BECOME EVEN MORE
CONDENSED, SO THEY ARE
VERY COMPACT.
• The nuclear envelope breaks
down, releasing the
chromosomes.
• The mitotic spindle grows
more, and some of the
microtubules start to
“capture” chromosomes.
 DID YOU KNOW?

• MICROTUBULES CAN BIND TO CHROMOSOMES AT THE KINETOCHORE, A PATCH

OF PROTEIN FOUND ON THE CENTROMERE OF EACH SISTER CHROMATID.
• (CENTROMERES ARE THE REGIONS OF DNA WHERE THE SISTER CHROMATIDS
ARE MOST TIGHTLY CONNECTED.)
• MICROTUBULES THAT BIND A CHROMOSOME ARE CALLED KINETOCHORE
MICROTUBULES.
 • In metaphase, the spindle
METAPHASE has captured all the
chromosomes and lined
them up at the middle of
the cell, ready to divide.

• All the chromosomes align

at the metaphase plate

• At this stage, the two

kinetochores of each
chromosome should be
attached to microtubules
from opposite spindle
poles.
• Microtubules connects to kinetochore in order
for the sister chromatids to be separated
 ANAPHASE • In anaphase, the
sister
chromatids
separate from
each other and
are pulled
towards
DID YOU KNOW? opposite ends
- The energy necessary to move a chromosome
from the metaphase plate to the end of the
of the cell.
spindle is small: just 20 ATP molecules
 SEPARASE CLEAVES COHESINS THAT
BINDS CHROMATINS TOGETHER

WHAT IS COHESIN?
-provides the cohesion
that is established
between the two newly
duplicated sister
chromatids

Chromosome -> Chromatin

• Anaphase begins after cohesin releases the
centromeres, freeing two kinetochore faces from
each other.
WHAT ARE THESE
STRUCTURES?
TELOPHASE • The five main features of
telophase are :

• each group of daughter

chromosomes becomes
surrounded by a reformed
nuclear envelope;
• the daughter
chromosomes become
longer and thinner and
finally become
indistinguishable;
• nucleoli reappear;
• many of the spindle fibers
disintegrate; and
• a cell plate forms.
 CYTOKINESIS

Note: Before a eukaryotic cell divides by cytokinesis, its nucleus must undergo
mitosis, a process that precisely distributes complete sets of chromosome to
each daughter cells.
PHRAGMOPLAST

Note: The phragmoplast

is the structure that
builds a cell wall (called
as “cell plate”) between
daughter cells.
 TRICHOMES
• Trichomes are a
protective barrier
against natural
hazards, such as
herbivores, ultraviolet
(UV) irradiation,
pathogen attacks,
excessive transpiration,
seed spread, and seed
Common name: Thale cress protection.
Scientific name: Arabidopsis thaliana
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Sexual reproduction, the production of new organisms by the

combination of genetic information of two individuals of different sexes.
 SUMMARY
• During interphase, the cell grows
and makes a copy of its DNA.
• During the mitotic (M) phase, the
cell separates its DNA into two sets
and divides its cytoplasm, forming
two new cells.