Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009

Oil cakes and their biotechnological applications – A review

Sumitra Ramachandran a,b, Sudheer Kumar Singh b, Christian Larroche a,
Carlos Ricardo Soccol c, Ashok Pandey b,¤
a
Laboratoire de Génie Chimique et Biochimique (LGCB), CUST – Université Blaise Pascal, 24, avenue des Landais, B.P. 206,
F-63174 Aubière Cedex, France
b
Biotechnology Division, Regional Research Laboratory, CSIR, Trivandrum 695 019, India
c
Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Parana, CEP 81531-970 Curitiba-PR, Brazil

Received 15 April 2006; received in revised form 30 July 2006; accepted 4 August 2006
Available online 4 October 2006

Abstract

Oil cakes have been in use for feed applications to poultry, Wsh and swine industry. Being rich in protein, some of these have also been
considered ideal for food supplementation. However, with increasing emphasis on cost reduction of industrial processes and value addi-
tion to agro-industrial residues, oil cakes could be ideal source of proteinaceous nutrients and as support matrix for various biotechnolog-
ical processes. Several oil cakes, in particular edible oil cakes oVer potential beneWts when utilized as substrate for bioprocesses. These
have been utilized for fermentative production of enzymes, antibiotics, mushrooms, etc. Biotechnological applications of oil cakes also
include their usages for vitamins and antioxidants production. This review discusses various applications of oil cakes in fermentation and
biotechnological processes, their value addition by implementation in feed and energy source (for the production of biogas, bio-oil) as
well.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Oil cakes; Chemical composition; Biotechnological applications; Feed source; Biogas production; Biocontrol agent

1. Introduction technology has resulted in the production of bulk-chemi-

cals and value-added products such as amino acid,
There has been an increased exploitation of organic resi- enzymes, mushrooms, organic acids, single-cell protein
dues from various sectors of agriculture and industries over (SCP), biologically active secondary metabolites, etc. (Pan-
the past few decades. Crop residues such as bran, husk, dey, 2003; Pandey et al., 1999a,b; Soccol et al., 2005;
bagasse, and fruit seeds are utilised as a potential raw mate- Nampoothiri et al., 2002; Vandenberghe et al., 2000). This
rial in bioprocesses as they provide an excellent substratum review focuses on the various process related to the value-
for the growth of microorganism supplying the essential addition of oil cakes (residue obtained after oil extraction)
nutrients to them (Pandey and Soccol, 1998, 2000; Pandey, by their utilisation in bioprocesses for the production of
1994; Pandey et al., 2000a,b,c,d, 1999a; Pandey, 1992). Their industrial bio-products. Biotechnological applications of
application in bioprocesses also oVers advantages in bio- sunXower oil cake (SuOC), sesame oil cake (SOC), soy bean
remediation and biological detoxiWcation of hazardous cake (SBC), coconut oil cake (COC), mustard oil cake
compounds. Their application in the Weld of fermentation (MOC), palm kernel cake (PKC), groundnut oil cake
(GOC), cottonseed cake (CSC), canola oil cake (CaOC),
*
olive oil cake (OOC), rapeseed cake (RSC) is emphasised
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 471 2515 279/2495949; fax: +91 471
2491 712.
in detail.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], ashokpandey56@ Oil cakes/oil meals are by-products obtained after oil
yahoo.co.in (A. Pandey). extraction from the seeds. Oil cakes are of two types, edible

0960-8524/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.08.002
 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009 2001

and non-edible. Edible oil cakes have a high nutritional tial for use as fermentation sources. SuOC is high in meth-
value; especially have protein content ranging from 15% ionine, but low in lysine and threonine. RSC and CaOC
to 50% (www.seaoWndia.com). Their composition varies have protein content of 33% and good source of amino
depending on their variety, growing condition and extrac- acids but are deWcient in lysine. CSC has protein content of
tion methods. Due to their rich protein content, they are about 40% and Wbre content of 11–13%, is deWcient in
used as animal feed, especially for ruminants and Wsh. Non- lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan. COC con-
edible oil cakes such as castor cake, karanja cake, neem tains high levels of residual oil composed of short chain sat-
cake are used as organic nitrogenous fertilizers, due to their urated fatty acids, is deWcient in amino acids such as lysine,
N P K content. Some of these oil cakes are found to methionine, threonine and histidine but high in arginine.
increase the nitrogen uptake of the plant, as they retard the PKC has the lowest protein content among all the other oil
nitriWcation of soil. They also protect the plants from soil cakes and contains high levels of galactomannans. The
nematodes, insects, and parasites; thereby oVer great resis- amino acid proWle is poor and is deWcient in lysine, methio-
tance to infection (www.itdgpublishing.org.uk). nine and trytophan. SOC has protein content of about 35%
Annual growth in oil cake production is projected to and nutrient composition compares favourably with SBC.
average 2.3% annually over the decade to 2010. India is one The protein content of diVerent varieties ranges from 41%
of the world’s leading oilseeds producers. Total production to 58%. It is an excellent source of methinoine, tryptophan
currently stands at over 25 million tonnes per annum while and cysteine, still low in lysine and threonine. The amino
the exports account for over 4.3 million tonnes of oil cake – acid composition of SOC complements SBC. The amino
valued at US$ 800 million annually (www.seaoWndia.com). acid composition of some of the oil cakes is given in Table 2.
SBC dominates the oil cake market, and its share of pro- The composition of OOC is generally diVerent from the
duction is projected to rise from 64% in the base period, other oil cakes. It has low crude protein and high crude
to 66% by 2010. Of the total oil meal production increase of Wbre content. A large proportion of the proteins (80–90%)
23 million tonnes, 17 million tonnes is from developing are linked to the lingo-cellulose fraction. OOC fat is high in
countries including India, Brazil and Argentina. unsaturated C16 and C18 fatty acids, which constitutes
96% of the total fatty acids (Swick, 1999).
2. Chemical composition of oil cakes
3. Biotechnological applications of oil cake
The composition and nutritional availability of oil cakes
widely vary based on the quality of the seed or nuts, Oil cakes have been widely used for the production of
method of oil extraction, storage parameters, etc. The industrial enzymes, antibiotics, biopesticides, vitamins and
chemical composition of the oil cakes was widely studied by other biochemicals. They have also been commonly used as
many authors and some of them are given in Table 1. SBC feed supplement. Table 3 shows some important applica-
has rich amino acid proWle. It is an excellent source of tions of oil cakes.
amino acids such as tryptophan, threonine and lysine but is
deWcient in methionine. SuOC has about 27% crude protein 3.1. Production of enzymes
while dehulled SuOC has high protein content of 40% and
Wbre of 10%. The chemical composition of undehulled There are several reports describing production of vari-
SuOC was studied by Bautista et al. (1990) to evaluate its ous enzymes using oil cakes as substrate in solid-state
biotechnological potential. SuOC can be fractionated into fermentation (SSF), or as supplement to the production
three main components, a lignocellulosic fraction (LCF), a medium. Oil cakes are ideally suited nutrient support in SSF
proteinaceous fraction (PF) and a soluble fraction (SF), rendering both carbon and nitrogen sources, and reported to
which represented 23.2–25.3%, 55.4–57.6% and 17.1–21.4% be good substrate for enzyme production using fungal spe-
of the dry weight, respectively. After removal of the PF, the cies. The enzyme production could be further enhanced by
remaining sub products (LCF and SF) have a high poten- optimisation of physiological and biological conditions.

Table 1
Composition of oil cakes
Oil cake Dry matter (%) Crude protein (%) Crude Wbre (%) Ash (%) Calcium (%) Phosphorus (%) Ref.
CaOC 90 33.9 9.7 6.2 0.79 1.06 Ewing (1997)
COC 88.8 25.2 10.8 6.0 0.08 0.67 Gohl (1970)
CSC 94.3 40.3 15.7 6.8 0.31 0.11 Friesecke (1970)
GOC 92.6 49.5 5.3 4.5 0.11 0.74 Kuo (1967)
MOC 89.8 38.5 3.5 9.9 0.05 1.11 Kuo (1967)
OOC 85.2 6.3 40.0 4.2 – – Maymone et al. (1961)
PKC 90.8 18.6 37 4.5 0.31 0.85 Owusu-Domefeh et al. (1970)
SOC 83.2 35.6 7.6 11.8 2.45 1.11 Kuo (1967)
SBC 84.8 47.5 5.1 6.4 0.13 0.69 Kuo (1967)
SuOC 91 34.1 13.2 6.6 0.30 1.30 Brendon (1957)
2002 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009

Table 2
Amino acid composition (% of crude protein) of oil cakes
Amino acids CaOC COC CSC GOC MOC OOC PKC SOC SBC SuOC
Arg 2.12 11.0 11.1 11.0 6.4 2.40 13.9 12.8 7.4 9.1
Cys – 0.9 1.5 0.9 2.5 – 1.9 2.1 1.6 1.8
Gly 1.75 4.2 4.5 6.0 4.9 3.10 4.8 5.3 4.5 5.6
His 1.13 2.1 2.6 2.5 2.6 0.70 2.5 2.9 2.4 2.8
Isoleu 1.41 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.8 2.30 3.8 3.6 4.6 4.2
Leu 2.39 6.0 5.9 6.1 6.3 4.20 6.4 7.5 7.8 6.9
Lys 2.02 2.5 4.1 3.6 5.4 0.70 3.7 2.9 6.1 3.5
Met 0.77 1.0 1.3 0.4 1.7 0.20 2.7 3.1 1.4 2.2
Phenylalanine 1.54 4.1 5.4 4.9 3.8 2.70 3.6 4.3 5.5 5.1
Threonine 1.50 3.0 3.2 2.8 4.0 2.80 3.5 3.2 3.8 3.4
Tryptophan 0.46 – 1.1 – – – 2.8 1.4 1.3 1.4
Tyrosine 1.05 3.1 2.7 3.7 2.7 0.60 2.7 3.9 3.5 1.4
Valine 1.71 5.8 4.5 3.7 4.7 3.30 5.7 4.0 5.2 5.8
Ref. www.canola- Owusu-Domefeh Smith Owusu-Domefeh Miller et al. Rupic et al. De Vuyst De Vuyst Fetuga De Vuyst
council.org et al. (1970) (1970) et al. (1970) (1962) (1999) (1963) (1963) et al. (1974) (1963)

Table 3
Application of oilcakes in bioprocesses yielding industrial metabolites
Oil cake Products Microorganism References
Protease Bacillus horikoshii Joo et al. (2002)
Protease B. clausi I52 Joo et al. (2003)
Protease Penicillium sp. Germano et al. (2003)
Protease Bacillus sp. I-312 Joo and Chang (2005)
Protease A. oryzae NRRL 1808 Sandhya et al. (2005)
Phytase A. Wcuum Bogar et al. (2003)
-endotoxin B. thuringiensis var kurstaki ATCC 33679 Vidyarthi et al. (2002)
Lipase P. simplicissimum Di Luccio et al. (2004)
COC -amylase A. oryzae Ramachandran et al. (2004a)
Glucoamylase A. niger Pandey et al. (1995)
Lipase Candida rugosa Benjamin and Pandey (1996, 1997, 1998)
Inulinase Staphylococcus sp., Kluyveromyces marxianus Selvakumar and Pandey (1999)
Phytase Rhizopus oligosporus Sabu et al. (2002)
Phytase M. racemosus Bogar et al. (2003)
Phytase R. oryzae Ramachandran et al. (2005)
Protease A. oryzae Sumantha et al. (2005)
SOC Lipase P. chrysogenum S1 Ramakrishnan and Banerjee (1952)
L-glutaminase Zygosaccharomyces rouxii Kashyap et al. (2002)
Phytase Mucor racemosus Bogar et al. (2003); Roopesh et al. (2006)
Phytase R. oryzae Ramachandran et al. (2005)
PKC Mannanse Tannase A. niger Ong et al. (2004); Sabu et al. (2005, 2006)
-amylase A. oryzae Ramachandran et al. (2004b)
OOC Mushroom Pleurotus eryngii, P. pulmunaris Zervakis et al. (1996)
Lipase Rhizomucor pusillus, R. rhizopodiformis Cordova et al. (1998)
CSC Glucoamylase Thermomucor indicae-seudaticae Kumar and Satyanarayana (2004)
Mushroom P. sajor-caju Bano et al. (1993); Shashirekha et al. (2002)
Cephamycin C Streptomyces clavuligerus Kota and Sridhar (1999)
MOC Lactic acid Lactobacillus casei Tuli et al. (1985)
Mushroom P. sajor-caju Bano et al. (1993); Shashirekha et al. (2002)
GOC -amylase A. oryzae Ramachandran et al. (2004)
CaOC Phytase A. Wcuum Ebune et al. (1995a,b)
SuOC -amylase B. licheniformis Haq et al. (2003)
Cephamycin C S. clavuligerus Kota and Sridhar (1999); Sarada and Sridhar (1998)
Clavulanic acid S. clavuligerus Sircar et al. (1998)
Mushroom P. sajor-caju Bano et al. (1993); Shashirekha et al. (2002)

Lipase (Benjamin and Pandey, 1996), -amylase (Rama- et al., 2003; Ramachandran et al., 2005; Roopesh et al.,
chandran et al., 2004a,b), phytase (Sabu et al., 2002; Bogar 2006), protease (Sandhya et al., 2005; Sumantha et al., 2005)
 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009 2003

and glutaminase (Kashyap et al., 2002) are some of the reached 44.5 U/gds when combination of SOC and wheat
enzymes produced using oil cakes as nutrient source. bran was used which was almost 4-fold higher than that
Lipase production has been among the earliest reports obtained from wheat bran (Roopesh et al., 2006). CaOC
describing use of oil cakes since 1950s using fungal strains was studied for phytase production with Aspergillus Wcuum
of Penicillium sp., especially P. chrysogenum S1 isolated in a SSF process. Lower concentrations of phosphorus
from molds growing in sesame. The strains when grown in favoured the production of the enzyme. Compared with the
SOC medium containing 10% sesame oil showed an appre- control, Tween-80 and sodium oleate increased the rates of
ciable amount of lipolytic activity (Ramakrishnan and phytase production and hydrolysis of phytic acid, while
Banerjee, 1952). COC extract was evaluated for its eYcacy Triton X-100 had a negative eVect on these processes
as substrate for the production of lipase using Candida (Ebune et al., 1995a). Similarly, eVects of moisture content
rugosa. Raw extract supported the growth with compara- of media, inoculum age and homogenization on production
tively less lipase activity (Benjamin and Pandey, 1996). of phytase and reduction of phytic acid content in CaOC by
Lipase production was also studied with Aspergillus niger A. Wcuum NRRL 3135 during static SSF were investigated.
using gingelly oil cake (Kamini et al., 1998), OOC (Cor- Optimum moisture content of media for these processes
dova et al., 1998). The thermostable fungal cultures of was 64%. Rate of phytase production increased with an
Rhizomucor pusillus and Rhizopus rhizopodiformis showed increase in inoculum age between 2 and 5 days (Ebune
appreciable lipase activity (Cordova et al., 1998). Babassu et al., 1995b). COC was used for phytase production with
oil cake was used for growth and lipase production in SSF R. oligosporus with maximum enzyme production (14.29 U/
by a Brazilian strain of P. restrictum (Gombert et al., 1999; g of dry substrate) occurring at pH 5.3, 30 °C, and 54.5%
Gutarra et al., 2005). Emtiazi et al. (2003) studied extra- moisture after 96 h of incubation. The addition of extra
cellular lipase production by Pseudomonas strain X using nutrients to the substrate resulted in inhibition of product
CSC. Maximum production of lipase was obtained on CSC formation (Sabu et al., 2002). Similarly, phytase production
(400 U/ml) in 50 h. Addition of olive oil to pre-culture has also been reported using CaOC and COC along with
induced maximum lipase production in 24 h. SunXower oil wheat bran using three Mucor and eight Rhizopus strains.
induced lipase production by 540 U/ml and the maximum M. racemosus gave the highest activity (14.5 IU/g dry mat-
lipase activity was observed at 60 °C (1200 U/ml) and at pH ter phytase activity) on COC. The optimised supplementa-
8 (Emtiazi et al., 2003). Another bacterial strain, Bacillus tion of COC with glucose, casein and (NH4)2SO4 led to
mycoides was identiWed as lipase producer on COC. The increase in phytase production to 26 U/g dry matter. Simi-
growth of the organism and lipase production was maxi- larly, using optimised medium phytase, -amylase and
mum after 72 h of incubation under shaking. Olive oil and lipase production of M. racemosus was compared in solid-
beef extract were best carbon and nitrogen sources. Na+ state fermentation and in shake Xask (SF) fermentation
induced more lipase than K+ and Mg2+ (Thomas et al., (Bogar et al., 2003).
2003). Production of lipases by Penicillium simplicissimum An extra-cellular alkaline protease was produced by a
was studied in SSF using SBC as substrate (Di Luccio bacterial strain of Bacillus sp. AR-009 when grown on nug
et al., 2004). The enriched samples from diVerent oil seed meal (a by product of oil extraction from Guizotia abyssi-
cakes for the isolation of lipolytic fungi by tributyrin agar nica seeds) as the sole nitrogen source. The enzyme had an
clearing method and subsequently by cultivating the optimum pH of 9.5–11.5 and was stable in the pH range of
selected isolates under submerged fermentation conditions 5–12. Its optimum temperature was 55 °C in the absence of
and assaying for their extracellular lipase producing capa- calcium and 65 °C in the presence of calcium (Gessesse,
bilities led to identiWcation of a Rhizopus sp. designated as 1997). Bacillus horikoshii producing an extra-cellular alka-
Rhizopus sp. BTS-24. Gingelly oil cake was used as a car- line protease showed maximum enzyme activity when
bon source with optimal lipase production under the initial grown in SBC (1.5%, w/v) and casein (1%, w/v) at pH 9.0
pH of 5.0, incubation time of 72 h, incubation temperature and 34 °C over 16–18 h incubation period. The enzyme had
of 28 °C, volume of the medium to volume of the Xask ratio an optimum pH of around 9 and maintained its stability
of 1:5 and agitation speed of 100 rpm (Bapiraju et al., over a broad pH range between 5.5 and 12 (Joo et al., 2002).
2004). Similarly, an oxidative and SDS-stable alkaline protease
Oil cakes such as COC, SOC, PKC, GOC, CSC and was produced by Bacillus clausii and maximum activity was
OOC were reported as substrates for phytase production in observed in a medium containing (g/l): SBC, 15; wheat
SSF using three strains of Rhizopus spp., namely R. oligo- Xour, 10; liquid maltose, 25; K2HPO4, 4; Na2HPO4, 1;
sporus NRRL 5905, R. oryzae NRRL 1891 and R. oryzae MgSO4 · 7 H2O, 0.1; Na2CO3, 6. The enzyme had an opti-
NRRL 3562. Mixed substrate fermentation using COC and mum pH of around 11 and optimum temperature of 60 °C.
SOC resulted more than two-fold increase in phytase pro- The alkaline protease showed extreme stability towards
duction under optimised conditions (64 U/gds phytase) in SDS and oxidizing agents but was inhibited by PMSF (Joo
comparison to the use of COC and SOC individually et al., 2003). Also, protease production by a wild strain of
(Ramachandran et al., 2005). Phytase production has also Penicillium sp. in SSF was reported using defatted SBC as
been reported with SOC and GOC with Mucor racemosus carbon and nitrogen source and solid matrix for SSF
NRRL 1994. At optimised conditions phytase production (Germano et al., 2003). The suitability of several oil cakes
2004 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009

such as COC, PKC, SOC, OOC were evaluated for neutral 3.2. Production of mushroom
protease production along with several agro-industrial resi-
dues such as wheat bran, rice husk, rice bran, spent brewing The supplementation of oil cakes (MOC, SuOC, CSC,
grain (Sandhya et al., 2005). While, COC in combination and SBC) with rice straw substrate colonized by the mush-
with wheat bran was used for production of neutral metal- room, Pleurotus sajor-caju increased the mushroom yields
loprotease by A. oryzae NRRL 2217 (Sumantha et al., between 50% and 100%, compared to the unsupplemented
2005). substrate. Oil cake supplementation also aVected an
Ramachandran et al. (2004a) evaluated several oil cakes increase in the solubility of the rice straw substrate; there
for the production of alpha amylase using A. oryzae. Best was an increase in the contents of free sugars and amino
results (1827 IU alpha amylase/gds) were obtained when acids, and a decrease in cellulo–hemicellulosics (Bano et al.,
COC was used as a substrate in SSF. Mixed solid substrate 1993). The eVect of supplementing spent rice straw substrate
fermentation resulted in improved enzyme titres and maxi- with extra organic nitrogen (in the form of oil cakes) was
mum amount of enzyme (9196 U/gds) was obtained when studied for production of mushroom Pleurotus sajor-caju.
SSF was carried out using combination of wheat bran and Their chemistry and the increase in the in vitro dry matter
GOC (Ramachandran et al., 2004b). COC was also used digestibility of rice straw were also investigated. CSC
for production of glucoamylase enzyme by A. niger NCIM proved to be better in enhancing the mushroom yields (up
1245 and under optimised conditions enzyme units as high to 12 times to those of unsupplemented spent straw, than
as 194 IU/g dry fermented substrate were produced when the other oil seed cakes. CSC supplemented mushrooms
fermentation was carried out for 96 h at 30 + 1 °C with showed increased protein, fat and decreased carbohydrate
an initial substrate pH and moisture of 4.5–4.7 and 65%, contents. Also, there was a signiWcant reduction in the
respectively. Addition of inorganic nitrogen enhanced the spawn run period (Shashirekha et al., 2002).
enzyme yields without aVecting dry matter loss signiWcantly OOC was tested for the cultivation of Pleurotus to colo-
(Pandey et al., 1995). A thermophilic mould Thermomucor nize on olive press-cake supplemented with various dilu-
indicae-seudaticae was used for the production of a thermo- tions of raw olive mill wastewater and cultural characters
stable and neutral glucoamylase in SSF. The mold pro- such as earliness, yield, biological eYciencies and quality of
duced the enzyme optimally at 40 °C and pH 7, when grown basidiomata were estimated (Zervakis et al., 1996).
in a medium supplemented with 2% CSC (Kumar and
Satyanarayana, 2004). 3.3. Production of antibiotics and biopesticides
CaOC has been used as a substrate for xylanase produc-
tion by Trichoderma reesi. The results suggested xylanase Oil cakes have also been reported for use in production
yields were better in CaOC than from Solka-Xoc, xylan or of antibiotics and antimicrobials. Arun and Dharmalingam
glucose. Maximum xylanase activity obtained from CaOC (1999) reported evaluation of alternative media constitu-
was 210 IU/ml in 9–12 days. The enzyme system produced ents like carbon sources and buVers for the large-scale pro-
using CaOC also contained a higher proportion of acetyl– duction of daunorubicin. Streptomyces peucetius cultivated
xylan esterase, cellulase, and xylosidase activities. This sys- on the media containing SOC as carbon source with
tem was more than or equally eYcient as that produced HEPES or phosphate buVer showed good yield of the anti-
using Solka-Xoc in hydrolysing CaOC, corn cobs, corn and biotic, and the intermediates were also converted into the
wheat bran, straw, and larchwood xylan to fermentable Wnal product more eYciently. Use of SuOC, SBC and SOC
sugars (Gattinger et al., 1990). has been reported for production of clavulanic acid (Sircar
Selvakumar and Pandey (1999) used COC for the pro- et al., 1998). Sarada and Sridhar (1998) used SuOC for the
duction of inulinase enzyme in SSF using Staphylococcus production of cephamycin C. The cephamycin production
sp. RRL-1 and Kluyveromyces marxianus. has also been reported in medium containing deoiled CSC
Federici et al. (1988) reported pectinolytic enzyme by along with SuOC (Kota and Sridhar, 1999). Bacitracin
Cryptococcus albidus var. albidus IMAT-4735 using suit- biosynthesis was reported in SSF using media containing
ably treated olive vegetation waters. Enzyme production defatted oil cakes (SBC, SuOC) by Bacillus licheniformis
was favoured by increasing concentrations of SuOC in the (Farzana et al., 2005). Vidyarthi et al. (2002) studied the
medium. The enzyme was characterized as an endopolyga- growth and -endotoxin yield of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
lacturonase with considerable potential technological inter- subsp kurstaki in tryptic soy yeast extract (TSY) medium,
est. SOC based commercial medium and waste water sludge
Salinity tolerant yeast Zygosaccharomyces rouxii medium. The viable spore count in sludge medium was
NRRL-Y 2547 was used for extra-cellular glutaminase pro- comparable to that obtained in laboratory and commercial
duction using wheat bran and SOC (Kashyap et al., 2002). media.
PKC has been reported for the production of tannase in
SSF using A. niger ATCC 16620 (Sabu et al., 2005; Sabu 3.4. Production of other biochemicals
et al., 2006). Palm oil cake and PKC have been utilized for
various enzyme production by A. niger ATCC 6275 (Pra- Mould strains were used to grow on oil seeds in 1950s to
sertsan et al., 1997; Ong et al., 2004). synthesize thiamine (in Czapek liquid medium). It was also
 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009 2005

observed that GOC was a good medium for growth on a showed that 25% fermented PKC in ration had highly
large scale (Srinivasan and Ramakrishnan, 1952). Tuli et al. signiWcant inXuence on liver, pancreas, kidney and heart
(1985) observed that supplementation of Mg2+ (1 mM) and (Yellita et al., 2001).
MOC (6%) in the whey permeate medium improved lactic The eYciency of various alternative protein sources as
acid production ability of the immobilized cells. The lactic partial or complete dietary replacements for Wsh meal has
acid conversion of substrate without supplementation was been evaluated in Wsh diets, such as RSC (Higgs et al.,
90% (Tuli et al., 1985). Bacillus circulans strain YUS-2 was 1979). MOC, SOC and linseed cake were used as dietary
reported as strongest antioxidant-producer in fermentation protein sources for the common carp Wngerlings (Hossain
of SOC. Two major strong antioxidants from fermented and Jauncey, 1989). Nevertheless, many of these ingredients
SOC were puriWed and identiWed as known sesaminol tri- have been used as dietary protein sources for other Wsh
glucoside and sesaminol diglucoside, however, their results species, i.e. linseed cake (Hasan et al., 1989, 1991), MOC
also demonstrated that the fermentation process with (Hasan et al., 1991) GOC (Wu and Jan, 1977; Jackson et al.,
B. circulans YUS-2 was highly eVective to gain the extraction 1982) and SOC (Hasan et al., 1991). MOC, SOC, COC were
eYciency of the sesaminol glucosides (Ohtsuki et al., 2003). studied as a substitute for Wsh meal protein up to a maxi-
mum of 75% of the total protein content of the common
4. Other applications carp fry. The histopathological examination of liver
revealed higher levels of intracellular lipid deposition in Wsh
4.1. As growth supplement for nematodes fed diet containing MOC (Hasan et al., 1997).

The media containing linseed oil-cake agar, mustard oil- 4.4. As energy source
cake agar, neem oil-cake agar, beef extract agar, Emerson
agar and YPSS agar were used for growing an endoparasite The eVect of the incorporation of various wastes with
of nematodes. In general, maximum radial growth of most castor cake in relation to biogas generation and digester
of the isolates was recorded on linseed oil-cake agar microbiological activities have been studied and it was
medium, whereas neem oil-cake agar medium supported observed that with proper C:N ratio adjustments, various
least growth of all the isolates of C. anguillulae. Linseed oil- types of wastes along with castor cake, could proWtably be
cake agar medium also maintained the typical characters employed for maximum microbiological activity and gas
of the fungus and clear visibility of morphological details output (Lingaiah and Rajasekaran, 1986). EVect of particle
(Gupta et al., 2005). size, temperature, loading rate and stirring on biogas pro-
duction from oil-expelled castor cake was studied in 5-L
4.2. Preparation of protein hydrolysate capacity single-stage fermentors protected from light at 30
and 37 °C (Gollakota and Meher, 1988).
Oil cakes such as SOC and MOC have also been used as OOC combustion in a Xuidized bed combustor was stud-
substitutes for animal protein hydrolysates, used in the ied and cold-Xow tests included investigations of the eVects
treatment of protein malnutrition. Growth experiments of particle-size distribution, Xuidization velocity, and bed
with rats indicated that the product was comparable to height (Abu-Qudais, 1996). Similarly, a bench scale model
commercial casein (Krishnamurti, 1965). Amino acid pro- to prepare intact samples was designed and fabricated.
Wle of SOC and MOC (Table 2) shows them to be rich in Proximate analysis indicated that OOC has an excellent
leucine, phenylalanine, arginine and glycine. Also, dry mat- potential to be a renewable source of energy. Moreover, the
ter analysis shows presence of high crude protein content caloriWc values of OOC and oil shale mixtures, to catalyse
indicating their suitability as protein supplements. oil shale combustion, were also studied (Alkhamis and
Kablan, 1999). Similarly, OOC co-Wring with coal in a cir-
4.3. As feed source culating Xuidized bed and combustion experiment results
suggested that OOC is good fuel that can be mixed with lig-
The eVect of feeding diVerent levels of SOC on the intake nite coal for cleaner energy production in small-scale indus-
and digestibility of crude protein, crude Wbre, and crude fat tries by using CFB (Atimtay and Topal, 2004).
in Awassi fattening lambs were studied and it was observed Studies have also been conducted to investigate the
that SOC resulted in more daily gain and better feed con- eVect of the water vapour on the structure of the products
version eYciency compared to control (Omar, 2002). GOC obtained by low temperature thermal destruction of CSC
was replaced with MOC in feed to evaluate its eVect on the at atmospheric pressure. For structural analysis, the pyro-
growth performance of growing lambs. The study sug- lysis oils and aromatic and polar subfractions were con-
gested GOC could completely be replaced with MOC with- ducted using FTIR and 1H NMR spectra (Ozbay et al.,
out aVecting feed intake, feed eYciency, nitrogen balance, 2001a). Also, the Xash pyrolysis experiments of sunXower
mineral balance and growth performance of growing lambs SuOC in a tubular transport reactor at atmospheric pres-
(Anil Kumar et al., 2002). The inXuence of various level of sure under nitrogen atmosphere and chemical characteriza-
PKC fermented by Trichoderma harzianum in ration on tion of products showed that the oil obtained from SuOC
local duck physiological organs was studied and the results can be used as a renewable fuel and chemical feedstock
2006 S. Ramachandran et al. / Bioresource Technology 98 (2007) 2000–2009

(Yorgun et al., 2001). Similarly, the Wxed-bed pyrolysis used and there was a synergistic eVect when the neem cake
experiments on CSC to determine the possibility of being a was coupled with carbofuran 3G in the management of
potential source of renewable fuels and chemical feedstock, P. delattrei (Jothi et al., 2004).
in two diVerent reactors, namely a tubular and a Heinze Oil cakes in combination with 35% wheat bran, 20%
retort were conducted and eVect of pyrolysis atmosphere MOC, 25% cow dung and 20% Wne sand were reported for
and pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis product yields tubiWcid worms production in a culvert system under run-
and chemical composition were investigated. The maxi- ning water. New oVspring appeared after 20 days from the
mum oil yield of 29.68% was obtained in N2 atmosphere at start of the experiment, and 2.85 g raw materials produced
a pyrolysis temperature of 550 °C with a heating rate of 1.0 g of worms (Ahamed and Mollah, 1992).
7 °C min¡1 in a tubular reactor (Ozbay et al., 2001b). The
slow pyrolysis of SBC in a Wxed-bed reactor under three 5. Conclusions
diVerent atmospheres for determining the eVects of pyro-
lysis temperature and particle size, nitrogen and steam Oil cakes are rich in Wbre, protein and energy contents.
showed that the fractions were quite similar to currently They oVer potential beneWts when used as substrates in
utilized transport fuels (Putun et al., 2002). Similarly, developing bioprocesses for the production of organic
SuOC pyrolysis experiments conducted in a Wxed-bed tubu- chemicals and biomolecules. Studies using them for the
lar reactor and the eVects of nitrogen Xow rate and Wnal production of industrial enzymes have shown promising
pyrolysis temperature on the pyrolysis product yields and results. Mixed substrate fermentation has been more
chemical compositions showed that the oil obtained from advantageous for such applications. While edible oil cakes
SuOC can be used as a renewable fuel and chemical feed- are used as feed source and protein hydrolysate, some of
stock. The production of bio-oil and bio char was also the non-edible cakes Wnd its application as biocontrol
studied from RSC obtained by cold extraction pressing agents. Also, use of oil cakes oVers good alternative to tra-
revealed that bio char obtained were carbon rich, with high ditional applications by their exploitation in the production
heating value and relatively pollution-free potential solid of environmentally friendly green bio fuel. Another key
bio fuel. The bio-oil product was presented as an environ- point to be noted is that the bioprocess utilising oil cakes is
mentally friendly green bio fuel candidate (Ozçimen and attractive due to relatively cheaper availability of the oil
Karaosmanoglu, 2004). cakes throughout the year, making it even more favourable
when economics is considered.
4.5. As bio-control agent
Acknowledgements
The eYcacy of oil-seed cakes of neem, castor, mustard
and duan against plant-parasitic nematodes and soil-inhab- The Indian authors are thankful for Wnancial grant from
iting fungi infesting mungbean and the subsequent crop, the Department of Biotechnology, New Delhi for a project
chickpea were investigated. The population of plant-para- of food enzymes and the Council of ScientiWc and Indus-
sitic nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reni- trial Research, New Delhi for a project on Green Technolo-
formis, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae, Helicotylenchus indicus, gies (CMM 006).
etc., and the frequency of the pathogenic fungi Macropho-
mina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, Phyllosticta phaseolina,
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