CE-412: STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

(Seismic analysis & design of structures

using UBC-97)

1
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- Seismic Design
Design of structures to withstand the maximum intensity
earthquake is highly expensive and may not even be possible
due to the following factors:
• The magnitude, intensity and other characteristics of future
earthquakes are not precisely known.
• Stiffer structures attract more earthquake loads.
• These structures cannot dissipate energy and all the
energy is stored in them making them unstable.
• Heavier design means more mass of the structure.
• Due to larger mass, more inertial forces are produced
during the ground excitation.
2
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design
• Damage to multistory structures due to earth-quake result in
loss of lives and infrastructure at massive level.

• Earthquake forces are random in nature and are

unpredictable, so, these forces are required to be carefully
analyzed and modeled to assess the real response behavior of
structure with damages.

• Seismic response analysis are performed on the basis of

external action, the behavior of structure , structural materials,
or the type of structural model selected.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods
• Based on the type of external action and behavior of
structure, the analysis can be further classified as:
• (1) Linear Static Analysis,
• (2) Nonlinear Static Analysis,
• (3) Linear Dynamic Analysis; and
• (4) Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis.

• Linear static analysis or equivalent static or Eqt. lateral

load analysis:
This is generally used for regular structure with limited height.
Equivalent Static analysis procedure does not require dynamic
analysis, however, it accounts for the dynamics of building in an
approximate manner.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods

• This equivalent lateral load method is the simplest one. It

requires less computational efforts and is based on formulate
given in different codes of practices.

• First, the design base shear is computed for the whole

building, and is then distributed along the height of the building.

• The lateral forces at each floor levels thus obtained are

distributed to individual lateral load resisting elements. The
moments are then calculated at each level as usual.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods

• In Linear dynamic analysis or Response spectrum

method (RSM), the peak response of structure during an
earthquake is obtained directly from the earthquake response.

• The difference between linear static and linear dynamic

analysis is the level of the forces and their distribution along the
height of structure. Structural design is generally based on peak
response values rather than detailed time history.

• This procedure is not an exact predictor of peak response,

but it provides an estimate that is sufficiently accurate for
structural design applications.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Procedure To Use Response Spectra For SDOF Systems

• The procedure to use response spectrum to calculate the earthquake
lateral forces for single degree of freedom systems is summarized as
under:
1) Calculate angular speed  and time period T for the structure.
2) Estimate the damping ratio .
3) Use applicable response spectrum for a particular area and find
Sd or Sv or Sa (the values are inter-convertible) against the time
period.
4) Find shear force in each column as:
5) S.F = Sd  k
6) Find the total lateral force by adding shear forces in all the
columns.
7) The lateral forces may be scaled to the values given by the
equivalent static method. This scaling depends upon the types
of frames and their ductility

Structural Engineering
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CE-401, Department,
By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

Procedure To Use Response Spectra For MDOF Systems

• The procedure to use response spectrum for the calculation of the
earthquake lateral forces in case of multiple degrees of freedom
systems is summarized as under:
• Calculate angular speed  and time period T for the desired mode of
vibration of the structure.
• Find the mode shape ai.
• Estimate the damping ratio .
• Find Sd, Sv and Sa from the response spectrum or calculate others
after knowing one out of these.

Structural Engineering
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By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

• Calculate the effective weight as follows:

• Calculate the base shear as follows:

• Find the lateral force at each level as follows:

• The lateral forces may be scaled to the values given by the equivalent
static method. This scaling depends upon the types of frames and
their ductility.

Structural Engineering
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CE-401, Department,
By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods,
(UBC Design Spectrum)

• Although the response spectrum should be developed for a particular

site based on geologic, seismological and soil properties at a specific
site.
• In the absence of such response spectrum, the UBC design
response spectrum may effectively be used.

Response Spectrum Analysis

• According to UBC, response spectrum analysis is defined as an elastic
dynamic analysis of a structure utilizing the peak dynamic response of
all modes having a significant contribution to total structural response.

Structural Engineering
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CE-401, Department,
By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods
• Nonlinear static analysis or Pushover analysis is an
improvement over linear static or dynamic analysis in the sense
that it allows inelastic behavior of structure.

• A nonlinear dynamic analysis is the only method to describe

the actual behavior of a structure during an earthquake.

• The method is based on the direct numerical integration of

the differential equations of motion by considering the elasto-
plastic deformation of the structural element.

• It is practical method in which analysis is carried out under

permanent vertical loads and gradually increasing lateral loads
to estimate deformation and damage pattern of structure.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods

• The behavior of the structure is characterized by capacity

curve that represents the relation between the base shear
force and the displacement of the roof.

• It is practical method in which analysis is carried out under

permanent vertical loads and gradually increasing lateral
loads to estimate deformation and damage pattern of
structure.

• The behavior of the structure is characterized by capacity

curve that represents the relation between the base shear
force and the displacement of the roof.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic Design Methods
• Nonlinear dynamic analysis or Time history or response
history analysis (RHA):

• An important technique for structural seismic analysis

especially when the evaluated structural response is nonlinear.
A representative earthquake time history is required for a
structure being evaluated and it is a step-by-step analysis of the
dynamic response of a structure to a specified loading that may
vary with time. Time history analysis is used to determine the
seismic response of a structure under dynamic loading of
representative earthquake.

• Structural response is calculated as a function of time when

the system is subjected to a given ground acceleration u¨g(t)
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic loads
• Earthquakes often occur due to slip between tectonic plates along
a geological fault in the earth's crust.
• Earthquakes result in various types of ground motion as seismic
waves propagate through the earth. As these waves pass the
location of a structure, the associated ground motion subjects the
structure to lateral forces (primarily) and vertical forces (to a lesser
degree).
• Ground motion at the base of a structure results in dynamic loads
(forces) distributed throughout the structure based on the
stiffnesses of structural elements (restoring forces) and the
distribution of mass (inertial forces). The most accurate methods of
design for seismic loads involve comprehensive dynamic
analyses of structures.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Seismic loads

• However, simplified analytical techniques (typically referred to

as equivalent static force or equivalent lateral force procedures)
are provided in model building codes for the design of general
building structures subjected to seismic loads.
• Calculation of seismic loads for analysis of structure is required
when earthquake resistant structure is to be designed. Structural
Engineers use different design codes/guidelines for calculation of
earthquake loads.
• Widely accepted codes for calculation of seismic loads are,
Uniform Building Code 1997 (UBC-97), International building code
(IBC-2000), ASCE-7-10, Building code of Pakistan (seismic
provisions).

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- (EQUIVALENT LATERAL LOAD METHOD)

• Equivalent static lateral force procedure is to place static loads on

a structure with magnitudes and direction that closely approximate
the effects of dynamic loading caused by earthquakes.
• Concentrated lateral forces due to dynamic loading tend to occur
at floor and ceiling/roof levels in buildings, where concentration of
mass is the highest.
• Furthermore, concentrated lateral forces tend to be larger at
higher elevations in the structure.
• In general, the distribution of lateral story forces is associated with
the first (fundamental) mode of vibration of a cantilevered
structure. (In this case, a typical structure is idealized as a vertical
cantilever, rigidly attached to the ground.)

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- (EQUIVALENT LATERAL LOAD METHOD)
• The effects of higher modes of vibration are approximated in the
UBC by considering an additional lateral force, Ft, applied to the
top level of a structure.
• In both the IBC and the UBC, the summation of the lateral story
forces (plus the additional lateral force at the top, Ft, in the UBC)
must be equivalent to the base shear (V) force applied to the
structure due to seismic ground motion.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- UBC-General Terms

• BASE is the level at which the earthquake motions are considered to

be imparted to the structure or the level at which the structure as a
dynamic vibrator is supported.
• Base shear is an estimate of the maximum expected lateral force
due to seismic ground motion at the base of a structure.
• BRACED FRAME is an essentially vertical truss system of the
concentric or eccentric type that is provided to resist lateral forces.
• BUILDING FRAME SYSTEM is an essentially complete space frame
that provides support for gravity loads.
• CANTILEVERED COLUMN ELEMENT is a column element in a lateral-
force-resisting system that cantilevers from a fixed base and has
minimal moment capacity at the top, with lateral forces applied
essentially at the top.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- UBC-General Terms
• COLLECTOR is a member or element provided to transfer lateral
forces from a portion of a structure to vertical elements of the
lateral-force-resisting system.
• COMPONENT is a part or element of an architectural, electrical,
mechanical or structural system.
• DESIGN-BASIS GROUND MOTION is that ground motion that has a
10 percent chance of being exceeded in 50 years as determined by
a site-specific hazard analysis or may be determined from a hazard
map. A suite of ground motion time histories with dynamic
properties representative of the site characteristics shall be used to
represent this ground motion. The dynamic effects of the Design
Basis Ground Motion may be represented by the Design Response
Spectrum

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- UBC-General Terms

• DIAPHRAGM is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to

transmit lateral forces to the vertical-resisting elements. The term
“diaphragm” includes horizontal bracing systems.
• LATERAL-FORCE-RESISTING SYSTEM is that part of the structural
system designed to resist the Design Seismic Forces.
• MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME is a frame in which members and
joints are capable of resisting forces primarily by flexure.
• MOMENT-RESISTING WALL FRAME (MRWF) is a masonry wall
frame especially detailed to provide ductile behavior and designed
in conformance with Section 2108.2.5.
• ORDINARY BRACED FRAME (OBF) is a steel-braced frame designed
in accordance With the provisions of Section 2-9

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- UBC-General Terms

• STORY is the space between levels. Story x is the story below Level
x.
• STORY DRIFT is the lateral displacement of one level relative to the
level above or below.
• STORY DRIFT RATIO is the story drift divided by the story height.
• STORY SHEAR, is the summation of design lateral forces above the
story under consideration.
• STRENGTH is the capacity of an element or a member to resist
factored load as specified in Chapters 16, 18, 19, 21 and 22.
• STRUCTURE is an assemblage of framing members designed to
support gravity loads and resist lateral forces. Structures may be
categorized as building structures or non-building structures.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Basis for Design
(1629.1- Base Shear–UBC)

The procedures and the limitations for the design of structures

shall be determined considering;
1) occupancy configuration,
2) site characteristics
3) seismic zoning
4) structural system and
5) height in accordance with this section

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Basis for Design (1629.1- UBC)

• Structures shall be designed with adequate strength to

withstand the lateral displacements induced by the Design-
Basis Ground Motion, considering the inelastic response of
the structure and the inherent redundancy, over-strength and
ductility of the lateral-force- resisting system.
• The minimum design strength shall be based on the Design
Seismic Forces determined in accordance with the static
lateral force procedure of Section 1630, except as modified
by Section 1631.5.4.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- Base Shear - (UBC)
Calculations of base shear (V) depends on:
• Site soil conditions at the site,
• Proximity to potential sources of seismic activity (geological faults)
• Probability of significant seismic ground motion
• Level of ductility and over-strength associated with various
structural configurations and the total weight of the structure
• Fundamental (natural) period of vibration due to dynamic loading
• UBC addresses the probability of significant seismic activity in
various locations by categorizing geographic regions as Seismic
Zones 0 through 4 (See UBC Figure 16-2).
• Seismic Zone 0 indicates a geographic location where no seismic
activity is expected to occur. Seismic Zone 4 indicates a geographic
location with a high probability of significant seismic activity.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 1. 1629.2 -Occupancy Categories

• For purposes of earthquake resistant design, each structure

shall be placed in one of the occupancy categories listed in
Table 16-K.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

1. -Occupancy Categories

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 2. Site Geology and Soil Chracteristics

• 1629.3 Site Geology and Soil Characteristics.

• Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on
properly substantiated geotechnical data using the site
categorization procedure set forth in Division V, Section 1636
and Table 16-J.

• EXCEPTION: When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to
determine the soil profile type, Type SD shall be used. Soil Profile Type SE
or SF need not be assumed unless the building official determines that
Type SE or SF may be present at the site.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 2. Site Geology and Soil Chracteristics

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 3. Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics
and Zones
• 1629.4 Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics.
• Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be established
based on the seismic zone and proximity of the site to active
seismic sources, site soil profile characteristics and the structure’s
importance factor.

• 1629.4.1 Seismic zone.

• Each site shall be assigned a seismic zone in accordance with.
UBC defined probability of significant seismic activity in various
locations by categorizing geographic regions as Seismic Zones 0
through 4 (Figure 16-2).
• Seismic Zone 0 indicates a geographic location where no seismic
activity is expected to occur. Seismic Zone 4 indicates a
geographic location with a high probability of significant seismic
activity. Each structure shall be assigned a seismic zone factor Z in
accordance with Table 16-I.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 3. Seismic Zone factor

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 3. Near Source Factor for Zone 4, Na & Nv

• 1629.4.2 Seismic Zone 4-near-source factor.

• For sites located in Zone 4, additional lower bound for calculating
base shear (V) includes factors associated with (Z) and near source
factors Na and Nv assigned according to seismic source type and
distance from the seismic source. Seismic source type is defined in
Table 16-U. Values for Na and Nv are provided in tables 16-S and 16-
T, respectively. These factors are then used to calculate seismic
response coefficients Ca & Cv for zone-4.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 4 near-source factors

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 5. Seismic Response Coefficients

•Cv and Ca are seismic

coefficients associated with
structural sensitivity to the
velocity and acceleration
(respectively) of seismic
ground motion.

•Cv and Caare based on the

geographic location of the
structure (seismic zone)
and soil conditions at the
site.

•Values for Cv and Ca are

specified in UBC Tables 16-
R and 16-Q.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 6. Height Limitations

• 1629.7 Height Limits.

• Height limits for the various structural systems in Seismic
Zones 3 and 4 are given in Table 16-N.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS:- 6. Height Limitations

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 1629.8.3- Static Lateral Force (Base shear) Procedure
The procedure may be used for the following structures:
1. All structures, regular or irregular, in Seismic Zone 1 and in occupancy
categories 4 and 5 in Seismic Zone 2.
2. Regular structures under 240 feet (73152 mm) in height with lateral force
resistance provided by systems listed in Table 16-N,
3. Irregular structures not more than five stories or 65 feet (19 812 mm) in height.

Seismic dead load W, is total load plus other loads as listed below:
• In storage and warehouse occupancies, a min. of 25% of the floor live load shall
be applicable. V = Cv I W / R T (UBC Equation 30-4)
• Where a partition load is used in the floor design , a load of not less than 10psf
(0.48kN/m2) shall be included.
• Design snow load of 30psf (1,44kN/m2) or less need not be included. Where
design snow loads exceed 30psf(1.44kN/m2),the design snow load shall be
included, but may be reduced up to 75% where consideration of siting,
configuration and load duration warrant when approved by the building official.
• Total weight of permanent equipment shall be included.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 Static Lateral Force Procedure, UBC 1630.2
 UBC specifies the following formula for calculating base shear (V):

•The upper bound value for base V = Cv shear

I W / R T tends to (UBC
govern
Equationfor
30-4)relatively stiff
structures that exhibit a small (short) fundamental period of vibration (T).
•The lower bound values for base shear tend to govern for relatively
flexible structures that exhibit a large (long) fundamental period of
vibration (T).

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 Static Lateral Force Procedure

For structures with flat roofs, hn is the distance from the ground to the
roof/ceiling system. For structures with sloped (pitched) roofs, hn may be
taken as either the height of the ceiling system above the ground or as
the mean roof height.
Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf
Static Lateral Force Procedure

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 Static Lateral Force Procedure
Ft is an additional lateral force assumed to act at the top of a structure. This force is
intended to approximate the effects of higher modes of structural vibration. The
magnitude of Ft is determined based on the natural (fundamental) period of
vibration of the structure, T:

Ft = 0, when T < 0.7s

Ft = 0.07 T V, when 0.7s < T < 3.57s
Ft = 0.25 V, when T > 3.57s,

Since Ft = 0 when T < 0.7s, it is apparent from UBC Equation 30-8 that Ft = 0 for
buildings less than 114.5 ft tall.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 Static Lateral Force Procedure

• hx is the height from the base of the structure to level x,

• wx is the portion of the building weight assumed to be “lumped” at level x.
• wx typically includes the total weight of the floor or ceiling/roof system at level x,
plus half the weight of the vertical elements (walls; columns) located immediately
below level x and half the weight of the vertical elements located immediately
above level x.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf

 Problem-1
Determine the UBC-97 design seismic forces for a three-story
concrete shear Wall office building. It is located in Dir District
KPK province on rock with a shear Wave velocity of 3000 ft/
sec. The story heights are 13 feet for the first floor and 11 feet
for the second and third floors. The story dead loads are 2200,
2000 and 1700 kips from the bottom up. The plan dimensions
are 180 feet by 120 feet. The Walls in the direction under
consideration are 120 feet long and are Without openings.
The shear walls do not carry vertical loads.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf 47

 Problem-1

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf 48

 Problem-2

Determine the UBC-97 design seismic forces for a nine story

ductile moment resisting steel frame office building located in
Muzaffarabad on very dense soil and soft rock. The building is
located 5km from a fault capable of large magnitude
earthquakes and that has a moderate slip rate (M>7,
SR>2mm/yr). The story heights are all thirteen feet. The plan
area is 100 feet by 170 feet. The total dead load is 100
pounds per square foot at all levels.

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf 49

 Problem-2

Structural Engineering CE-401, By Dr. M. Yousaf 50

 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS - Example 10.9 using Response Spectrum
• Determine the base shear for the fundamental mode of the Frame
shown in Fig. 35 by using response spectrum of Fig. 33 with  = 0.05.
Also determine the lateral load at each level for the fundamental mode.

Solution:
Dead Loads:
Level 1 & 3 = (880)(30)(30) = 7770 kN
Level 2 = (590)(30)(30) = 5209 kN
 = 15.1 rad/sec
T = 2 /  = 0.416 sec

Structural Engineering
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By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- Example 10.9 using Response Spectrum

Structural Engineering
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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- Example 10.9 using Response Spectrum

Structural Engineering
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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
• Buildings are designed to withstand moderate earthquakes without
damage and severe earthquakes without collapse. Earthquake
movements impose deformations on the structures.
• We find inertial forces due to these earthquake movements depending
upon the structure.
• Dynamic effects like resonance are also important to be considered.
• Due to availability of limited data, the design is generally based on
statistical studies of the previous earthquakes.
• As more and more earthquake data become available and
understanding of the structural behavior is improved, Building Codes
undergo modifications to cover the weaknesses in design criteria of
the previous codes.
• Further, the safety of a structure subjected to earthquake loading also
depends on the designer’s understanding of the response of the
structure to ground motion.
• It is prohibitively expensive to design the structure in the elastic range.
Overall structural ductility is very important in such designs.
Structural Engineering
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By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
• Following are the general considerations for the seismic design of
structures:
1. Design for earthquakes differ from the design for gravity and
wind loads particular with respect to greater sensitivity of
earthquake-induced forces to the geometry of the structure.
Most structures, which are not extremely tall, are designed by
the equivalent static loading (up to about 20 stories). This is
applicable for regular buildings with center of mass and center of
resistance very near to each other (Fig. 36).

Structural Engineering
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By Dr. M. Yousaf UET, Lahore.
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
2. Design is made for loads that are a function of weight/mass of the
structure.
• Bulk of mass is located at floor levels, so forces are considered
at these levels.
• Triangular variation of forces is generally assumed. Without
careful design, for an irregular structure, forces and
displacements can be concentrated in portions of the structure
that may not be capable of providing the adequate strength or
ductility.
• The configuration of a structure has a major effect on its
response to an earthquake.
• Structures with a discontinuity in stiffness or geometry can be
subjected to very high displacements and forces.
• the absence of shear walls, infill walls or even cladding at a
particular story level, as compared to other stories, causes
concentration of displacements at this story.

Structural Engineering
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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
• The ground floor of a shopping
center generally has this
weakness, as shown in Fig.37.
This weak story compared with
rest of the structure is termed
as open or soft story.
• The larger displacements
require a considerably larger
ductility at the level of soft story.
• If this amount of ductility is not
available, the structure fails
locally at this level. Such a
design is not recommended
and the stiffening members
must be continued to the
foundations.

Structural Engineering
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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
3. Steps to strengthen a member for one type of loading may actually
increase the forces in the member and change the mode of failure
from ductile to brittle.
4. As the frequency of the ground motion becomes closer to one of the
natural frequencies of a structure, the chances of the structure to
experience resonance increases. This results in an increase in both
displacements and damage to the structure. The frequency or time
period of a structure basically depends on height of the structure and
the earthquake response of a structure especially varies with the
height. Tall buildings usually exhibit stronger response to long period
ground motion and short buildings usually exhibit stronger response to
short period ground motion.
5. The first mode of vibration usually provides the greatest contribution to
lateral displacement.
6. The taller structures are more affected by the higher modes of
vibration and their effect actually adds to the effects of lower modes.

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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
7. The longer duration of earthquake always has a greater potential for
damage to the structure.
8. Vertical geometric (Fig. 38 a) and plan irregularities (Fig. 38 b) may
result in torsion induced by ground motion.

9. The addition of stiff members, such as shear wall, can on one side
reduce the displacements of the structure and hence the damage. On
the other side, stiff members pick up a greater portion of the load.
When this effect is ignored in design, unexpected and often
undesirable results can occur.
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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
Design
10. An adequate separation must be left between structures. Large lateral
displacements can cause the structures to come in contact with each
other during an earthquake. This results in major damage due to
hammering effect.
11. Members designed for seismic loading must behave in a ductile
manner and should dissipate energy without compromising the
strength.
• Confinement of concrete is to be provided to ensure ductility in
members subjected to shear and bending. Due to this confinement,
the beams and columns can undergo nonlinear cyclic bending.
• the flexural strength is maintained and no excessive diagonal tension
cracking occurs.
• Confinement is provided by the use of closed loops or spiral
reinforcement that encloses the core-concrete of beams and columns.
• Confined concrete allows the formation of ductile hinges that can
dissipate energy in case of reinforced concrete frames.

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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- General Considerations for Seismic
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12. It must be tried that the plastic hinges are developed in the beams
rather than columns.
• The weak beam – strong column approach is always preferred for
the design of reinforced concrete frames subjected to seismic loading.
• This effect is achieved by making the columns stronger than the
beams at the joints, forcing the hinges to be formed in the beams.
• The advantage of this approach is that the overall vertical load
carrying capacity is maintained near collapse and smaller portion of
the structure is affected by the nonlinear behavior.
13. Transverse reinforcement for the columns is to be carefully designed
for the shear force due to lateral loads in addition to shear force
resulting from the dead and live loads.
• A smaller length column closer to high stiffness members or shear
walls may attract large shear forces and may fail in shear. This type of
column, called captive column, is more critical for design in shear
than in flexure

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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- ACI Definitions For Seismic Design
• Chapter 21 of the ACI code deals with special provisions for seismic
design. Some of the definitions are discussed below:
Ductile Connection:
• A connection that is capable of yielding up to the level of the design
earthquake displacements.
Strong Connection:
• This type of connection remains elastic even if the adjoining members
yield as a result of design earthquake displacements.

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Crosstie:
• This is a continuous reinforcing bar satisfying the following
requirements:
a. It should have a seismic hook at one end.
b. It should have a hook not less than 90 at the other end.
c. It should have a six-diameter extension at the 90 hook side.
d. Both the hooks must go around and anchored against
peripheral longitudinal bars.
e. Two successive cross ties between the same longitudinal bars
must alternate in their hooks.

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Design Displacement:
• It is the code prescribed total lateral displacement in case of
earthquake.
• As the codes for seismic design allow inclusion of the nonlinear
response, the stability of the lateral force resisting system must be
studied at displacements larger than those obtained by linear
analysis.
• Further, the interaction with other structural and non-structural
members must also be considered.
• If detailed nonlinear response analysis is not carried out and code
specific value is also not available, an approximate method may be to
consider the total displacement equal to double of the displacement
obtained by linear analysis considering cracked stiffness for the
members.

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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- ACIDefinitions For Seismic Design
Hoop:
• This is a closed tie with seismic hooks at both ends, or a spiral with
seismic hooks at both ends.
Lateral Force Resisting System:
• The members of the structure designed to resist the earthquake
forces, collectively making the resisting frames.
Moment Frame:
• This is a lateral force-resisting frame that resists forces by flexure
besides shear and axial forces.
• This may be of three types, namely, ordinary moment frame,
intermediate moment frame, and special moment frame.

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Ordinary Moment Frame:
• Any frame that satisfies the general ACI Code provisions but not
necessarily the seismic provisions is called ordinary moment frame. It
may be cast-in-place or precast frame.
• This type of frame may be used in regions of low seismic risk or
where correspondingly low seismic performance is used in the
calculation of seismic forces.
• This frame has performance corresponding to Seismic Design
Category B.

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Intermediate Moment Frame:
• This type of frame satisfies the general requirements of the ACI Code
along with provisions of ACI 21 for super-structure and part of the
structure between the base and the foundation.
• Base of the foundation is the level at which earthquake motions are
transferred to the structure, not necessarily the ground level.
• only cast-in-place frames are included in this category.
• This type is used in regions of moderate seismic risk or for frames
where intermediate seismic performance is taken in the calculation of
the loads.
• Once this type of frame is considered for the seismic analysis, all
requirements of this type of frame given in Chapter 21 of ACI Code
must be applied.

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Special Moment Frame:
• This frame may be either cast-in-place satisfying the ACI Code 21.1.3
to 21.1.7 and 21.5 to 21.7 or it may be precast additionally satisfying
the Code requirement 21.8.
• The general provisions of ACI must also be satisfied.
• This type of frame must be used in regions of high seismic risk or
where high seismic performance is considered in the analysis.
• In such cases special structural walls and diaphragms may also be
used.
• For design and detailing, all requirements of special moment frame
must be satisfied if it is used for calculation of the forces.

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STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS- ACIDefinitions For Seismic Design
Plastic Hinge Region:
• The is the length over which the flexural yielding due to design
displacements is extended, which is not to be taken lesser than the
overall depth of the member from the critical section at which yielding
starts.
Seismic Hook:
• This is a hook having a bend greater than or equal to 135 for
crossties, rectangular stirrups and hoops and greater than or equal to
90 for circular hoops.
• The hooks after going around the longitudinal reinforcement must
have extension of greater of six-diameters and 75mm, projecting into
the interior of the stirrup or hoop.

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