1. what is meatn by bootstrap loader ?

give the answer for 2 marks

A bootstrap loader is a small program that initializes the computer system at startup and loads
the operating system into memory. It runs after the system firmware (BIOS/UEFI) completes
hardware initialization, making the system ready for use.

2. highlight the difference between user mode and kernel mode. give the answer for 2 marks

The key differences between user mode and kernel mode are:

1. Access Level:
o User Mode: Limited access to system resources; user applications run in this
mode.
o Kernel Mode: Full access to hardware and system resources; the operating
system core runs here.
2. Privilege:
o User Mode: Restricted privileges to ensure security and stability.
o Kernel Mode: High privilege, allowing direct interaction with hardware.
3. which of the turnaround is desirable to have either maximum or minimum? justify? give
the answer in 2 marks
A minimum turnaround time is desirable because it indicates that processes are
completing quickly, leading to better system efficiency and user satisfaction. Shorter
turnaround times reduce waiting for results and improve resource utilization.

4. what are semaphores? give the answer in 2 marks

Semaphores are synchronization primitives used in operating systems to manage access to

shared resources by multiple processes or threads. They prevent race conditions by using
counters:

1. Binary Semaphore: Allows one process at a time (mutex).

2. Counting Semaphore: Manages multiple processes within resource limits.

5. define backing store. give the answer in 2 marks

A backing store is a storage medium, such as a hard drive or SSD, used to hold
processes or data that cannot fit into the main memory (RAM). It supports virtual
memory by temporarily storing inactive pages or processes.
6. How page sizes are always power of 2? justify? give the answer for 2 marks

Page sizes are always a power of 2 because it simplifies memory management. Addresses are
binary, and using a power of 2 ensures that page boundaries align with address calculations,
making it efficient to extract the page number and offset using bitwise operations.
 7. what are the primary file allocation methods? give the answer in 2 marks

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

The primary file allocation methods are:

8. Contiguous Allocation: Files are stored in consecutive memory blocks.

9. Linked Allocation: Files are stored in scattered blocks linked via pointers.
10. Indexed Allocation: An index block stores pointers to all the file's blocks, allowing
random access.

8. differentiate between absolute path name and relative path name . give the answer in 2 marks

1. Absolute Path Name: Specifies the complete path from the root directory to the target
file or folder (e.g., /home/user/file.txt).
2. Relative Path Name: Specifies the path relative to the current working directory (e.g.,
./file.txt or ../folder/file.txt).

9. what role does a hypervisor play in virtualization? give the answer in 2 marks

A hypervisor manages virtualization by creating and running virtual machines (VMs). It

allocates hardware resources (CPU, memory, storage) to VMs, ensuring isolation, resource
sharing, and efficient utilization of physical hardware.

list out the key features of android (any 4). give the answer for 2 marks

Key features of Android include:

11. Open Source: Android is an open-source platform, allowing developers to customize and
modify the system.
12. Multi-tasking: Supports running multiple applications simultaneously.
13. User-friendly Interface: Offers an intuitive touchscreen interface with widgets and
customizability.
14. App Ecosystem: Access to a wide range of applications through Google Play Store.
15.

PART-B

11 a). define system call and also elaborate its various types. give the answer for 13 marks also
split the marks accordingly
Definition of System Call (3 marks)

A system call is a request made by a program or process to the operating system's kernel to
perform specific operations that are not directly accessible from user space, such as accessing
hardware, managing files, or creating processes. System calls act as an interface between user-
level programs and the underlying operating system, enabling communication with system
resources and services.

Types of System Calls (10 marks)

System calls can be categorized into various types based on the functionality they provide.
Below are the primary types of system calls:

1. Process Control System Calls (2 marks)

o These system calls are responsible for managing processes within the operating
system, including creation, termination, scheduling, and management.
o Examples:
 fork(): Creates a new process by duplicating the calling process.
 exec(): Replaces the current process image with a new process.
 exit(): Terminates the calling process.

2. File Management System Calls (2 marks)

o These system calls help in creating, deleting, reading, writing, and managing files.
o Examples:
 open(): Opens a file for reading or writing.
 read(): Reads data from a file.
 write(): Writes data to a file.
 close(): Closes an open file.

3. Device Management System Calls (2 marks)

o These system calls manage device operations, such as reading/writing to hardware
devices (disk, network interface, etc.) or controlling hardware devices like
printers and display units.
o Examples:
 ioctl(): Provides control over device operations.
 read() and write() system calls can also be used to interact with devices.

4. Information Maintenance System Calls (2 marks)

o These system calls allow processes to retrieve or modify system information, like
environment variables, process status, etc.
o Examples:
 getpid(): Returns the process ID of the calling process.
 gettimeofday(): Retrieves the current time.
 setenv(): Sets environment variables.
 5. Communication System Calls (2 marks)
o These system calls are used to establish communication between processes, either
within the same system or across different systems.
o Examples:
 pipe(): Creates a pipe for communication between processes.
 socket(): Creates a communication endpoint for networking.
 send(): Sends data over a network socket.
 recv(): Receives data over a network socket.

Conclusion (1 mark)

System calls are essential for enabling user applications to interact with the operating system's
kernel, allowing the execution of crucial operations like process management, file handling,
device control, and inter-process communication. They form the core mechanism for managing
system resources and maintaining process isolation and security.

11. b) describe the concept of system program and OS structures. give the answer for 13 marks
and also split accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Concept of System Program (6 Marks)

A system program is a software designed to manage and facilitate the operation of hardware,
manage resources, and provide an environment for user applications to run. These programs
provide essential services that support the execution of application programs, ensuring smooth
interaction between software and hardware. System programs often act as intermediaries
between user applications and the operating system.

Key Types of System Programs (4 Marks)

1. Operating System Utilities (1 Mark):

o These are tools that help users perform system maintenance and management
tasks, such as file management, disk partitioning, and system diagnostics.
o Examples: Disk defragmenter, backup utilities, antivirus software.

2. Compilers and Interpreters (1 Mark):

o A compiler translates high-level programming languages (like C, Java) into
machine code, while an interpreter executes the code line by line.
o Examples: GCC (GNU Compiler Collection), Python interpreter.

3. Assemblers (1 Mark):
 o These convert assembly language programs into machine code, which can then be
executed by the computer’s processor.
o Example: MASM (Microsoft Macro Assembler).

4. Linkers and Loaders (1 Mark):

o Linkers combine object files into a single executable file, resolving references
between files.
o Loaders load the executable code into memory for execution.
o Examples: ld linker, gcc loader.

Role of System Programs (2 Marks)

 System programs provide an interface between the user and the operating system,
allowing users to interact with the computer and perform operations such as creating
files, executing programs, or troubleshooting. They help in system management and
ensure proper functioning of hardware components.
 Without system programs, users would have to directly interact with the hardware, which
would be inefficient and prone to errors. They provide abstraction and simplify complex
tasks.

OS Structures (7 Marks)

The structure of an Operating System (OS) refers to how different components of the OS are
organized and how they interact with each other. There are several common approaches to
structuring an OS, each designed to achieve different goals such as modularity, flexibility, and
efficiency.

1. Monolithic Structure (2 Marks)

 In a monolithic OS structure, the entire operating system is built as a single large

program that runs in a single address space with a high degree of interaction between its
components. All OS services (such as memory management, process scheduling, file
management, etc.) are tightly integrated.
 Advantages:
o High performance due to direct communication between components.
o Simple design for small systems.

 Disadvantages:
o Difficult to maintain and extend.
o Changes in one part of the OS may affect others, leading to potential system
instability.

 Example: Traditional Unix, Linux (kernel mode).

2. Layered Structure (2 Marks)

 In a layered OS structure, the OS is divided into several layers or levels, each of which
has specific functionalities. Each layer only communicates with the layer directly above
or below it, offering a high level of modularity and separation of concerns.
 Advantages:
o Easier to understand, maintain, and extend the system.
o Improved security due to isolation between layers.

 Disadvantages:
o Performance overhead due to the interaction between layers.
o More complex to design and implement.

 Example: The Windows NT operating system uses a layered structure where the bottom
layer interacts with hardware, while the top layer provides user services.

3. Microkernel Structure (2 Marks)

 In a microkernel architecture, only the essential core services of the OS (such as

memory management, process scheduling, and basic inter-process communication) are
implemented in the kernel. Other services, such as device drivers and file systems, run in
user space as separate processes.
 Advantages:
o Highly modular and easy to maintain, as different components can be updated
independently.
o Increased security and stability because less code runs in kernel mode.

 Disadvantages:
o Potential performance issues due to more frequent context switching between
kernel and user space.
o More complexity in communication between kernel and user processes.

 Example: Minix, QNX, Mach.

4. Hybrid Structure (1 Mark)

 The hybrid OS structure combines aspects of both monolithic and microkernel designs.
It attempts to retain the performance benefits of a monolithic system while ensuring
modularity and maintainability from a microkernel design.
 Example: Windows NT and Mac OS X.
Conclusion (1 Mark)

In summary, system programs are essential for managing hardware and software resources,
providing an interface for users to interact with the computer, and facilitating efficient execution
of applications. On the other hand, OS structures define how the operating system components
are organized and interact, impacting the performance, modularity, and maintainability of the
system. Different OS structures, such as monolithic, layered, microkernel, and hybrid, offer
various trade-offs in terms of complexity, efficiency, and flexibility.

12/ a) explain in detail about the deaadlock and the way to handle the deadlock. give the answer
for 13 marks also split the marks accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Deadlock Definition (3 Marks)

A deadlock is a situation in a multiprogramming environment where a set of processes is unable

to proceed because each process is waiting for another process to release a resource. In other
words, deadlock occurs when a group of processes are blocked forever, each waiting for an event
that will never occur.

A deadlock typically involves four necessary conditions:

1. Mutual Exclusion: Resources cannot be shared and are assigned to only one process at a
time.
2. Hold and Wait: A process holding one resource is waiting for additional resources held
by other processes.
3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from processes holding them.
4. Circular Wait: A set of processes exists such that each process is waiting for a resource
held by the next process in the set, forming a circular chain.

Ways to Handle Deadlock (10 Marks)

There are four main strategies for handling deadlock in an operating system: Deadlock
Prevention, Deadlock Avoidance, Deadlock Detection and Recovery, and Ignoring
Deadlock.

1. Deadlock Prevention (3 Marks)

Deadlock prevention is the approach that aims to eliminate one of the four necessary conditions
for deadlock to occur, ensuring that deadlock is avoided. This can be done by breaking at least
one of the following conditions:
  Breaking Mutual Exclusion: This is not always possible because some resources (like
printers, tapes, etc.) must be used exclusively.
 Breaking Hold and Wait: This can be done by requiring processes to request all the
resources they need at once, before starting execution. If all resources are not available,
the process does not start. However, this can lead to poor resource utilization.
 Breaking No Preemption: If a process is holding resources and requests another
resource that cannot be granted, all the resources it is holding can be forcibly preempted.
The process will be rolled back, and the resources will be reassigned. This can cause
additional overhead and complexity.
 Breaking Circular Wait: To break the circular wait condition, resources can be ordered,
and each process must request resources in a particular order. If a process requests a
resource that is not next in the sequence, it must release all previously acquired resources
and try again.

2. Deadlock Avoidance (3 Marks)

Deadlock avoidance aims to ensure that the system never enters a deadlock state by carefully
allocating resources. The system uses resource-allocation algorithms to decide whether or not a
process can safely request resources. This is typically done using the Banker's Algorithm or
similar methods.

 Banker's Algorithm: This algorithm is used in systems where resources can be

dynamically allocated. It ensures that the system remains in a safe state, meaning that
there is always a sequence of processes that can execute to completion without causing a
deadlock.
o The system maintains information about the maximum resources that each
process may need and the current resources allocated.
o When a new resource request is made, the algorithm checks whether granting the
request will leave the system in a safe or unsafe state. If the request would lead to
an unsafe state (where deadlock could occur), the request is denied, and the
process must wait.

 Safe vs. Unsafe State: A system is in a safe state if there exists a sequence of processes
that can finish without resulting in a deadlock. An unsafe state may eventually lead to
deadlock if resources are allocated inappropriately.

3. Deadlock Detection and Recovery (3 Marks)

In deadlock detection and recovery, the system allows deadlock to occur but takes action to
detect and recover from it. This approach involves two stages:

 Deadlock Detection:
o Periodically, the operating system checks the system for deadlocks using
algorithms that track resource allocation and process wait conditions.
 o Resource Allocation Graph (RAG): This graph is used to detect deadlocks.
Nodes represent processes and resources, and edges indicate the relationship
between processes and the resources they hold or request.
o A cycle in this graph suggests the presence of a deadlock.

 Recovery from Deadlock: Once deadlock is detected, the system must recover by either
aborting processes or preempting resources. There are two main recovery strategies:
o Process Termination: Terminate one or more processes involved in the
deadlock. This can be done in two ways:
 Abort all processes: Drastic but ensures the system can recover from
deadlock.
 Abort one process at a time: A more gradual approach where processes
are terminated one by one, and the system checks for deadlock resolution.
o Resource Preemption: Resources are forcibly taken from one or more processes,
which may lead to rollback of those processes to a safe state.

4. Ignoring Deadlock (1 Mark)

In some systems, especially where deadlock occurrence is rare or not critical, the operating
system may choose to ignore the deadlock problem entirely. This is known as the "Ostrich
Algorithm". The idea is that deadlock is unlikely to occur and, even if it does, it may not cause
significant harm, so the system does not implement any specific strategy for dealing with it.

Conclusion (1 Mark)

In conclusion, deadlock is a serious issue in concurrent systems, and various strategies are
employed to either prevent, avoid, detect, or recover from it. Deadlock prevention and avoidance
focus on ensuring that deadlock does not occur, while detection and recovery deal with handling
deadlocks after they happen. Some systems, particularly those where deadlock is rare or less
harmful, may choose to ignore the problem altogether. The choice of strategy depends on system
requirements, resource constraints, and performance considerations.

12.b) explain in detail about process concepts and its scheduling with neat diagram give the
answer for 13 marks also split the marks accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Process Concepts (6 Marks)

A process is an instance of a program in execution. It is a dynamic entity that includes both the
program code (often referred to as the text section) and its current activity. A process has various
components that make it a self-contained unit of execution. Below are the main components of a
process:

1. Process State (1 Mark)

A process can be in one of several states during its lifetime. The common states of a process are:

 New: The process is being created.

 Ready: The process is ready to execute but waiting for CPU time.
 Running: The process is currently being executed by the CPU.
 Waiting (Blocked): The process is waiting for some event (e.g., I/O operation) to
complete.
 Terminated: The process has finished execution.

2. Process Control Block (PCB) (1 Mark)

Each process is represented by a Process Control Block (PCB), which contains all the
information needed by the operating system to manage the process. The PCB includes:

 Process ID (PID): Unique identifier for the process.

 Process State: Current state of the process (e.g., ready, running).
 Program Counter: Points to the next instruction to be executed.
 CPU Registers: The contents of CPU registers when the process is interrupted.
 Memory Management Information: Information such as base and limit registers, page
tables, etc.
 I/O Status Information: Information about I/O devices and files allocated to the process.

3. Process Address Space (1 Mark)

The process address space refers to the memory allocated to a process. It includes:

 Text Segment: Contains the executable code of the program.

 Data Segment: Contains global and static variables.
 Heap: Used for dynamic memory allocation (e.g., malloc() in C).
 Stack: Used for function calls and local variables.

4. Process Lifecycle (1 Mark)

The lifecycle of a process follows a sequence of steps:

1. Process Creation: A process is created via system calls (e.g., fork() in Unix).
2. Execution: The process is scheduled by the OS to run on the CPU.
3. Waiting/Blocking: The process may need to wait for resources or events (e.g., I/O
completion).
4. Termination: After completing its execution, the process is terminated, and its resources
are deallocated.
5. Multithreading (1 Mark)

A thread is the smallest unit of execution within a process. A process can have multiple threads,
each of which can run concurrently. Threads share the same address space and resources but
have their own execution context. Multithreading improves resource utilization and efficiency in
a process.

Process Scheduling (7 Marks)

Process Scheduling is the mechanism by which the operating system decides which process or
thread should run next on the CPU. The scheduler makes this decision based on the process
priority, CPU usage, and other factors. The aim is to optimize the performance of the system by
ensuring fairness, responsiveness, and throughput.

1. Scheduling Queues (1 Mark)

 Processes are placed in different queues based on their state. The most common queues
are:
o Ready Queue: Contains processes that are ready to run.
o Waiting Queue: Contains processes waiting for some event (e.g., I/O).
o Suspended Queue: Processes that are temporarily stopped for various reasons.

2. Types of Scheduling Algorithms (4 Marks)

There are several algorithms used to schedule processes. Each algorithm has its own advantages
and trade-offs.

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) (1 Mark):

o In FCFS, the process that arrives first is executed first. This is the simplest
scheduling algorithm.
o Advantages: Easy to implement.
o Disadvantages: It can cause convoy effect, where long processes delay shorter
ones, leading to poor response times.

 Shortest Job Next (SJN) / Shortest Job First (SJF) (1 Mark):

o The process with the shortest burst time (expected CPU time) is scheduled next.
o Advantages: Minimizes average waiting time.
o Disadvantages: Requires knowledge of the process's burst time, which is often
not known in advance.

 Round Robin (RR) (1 Mark):

o Each process is assigned a fixed time slice (quantum). The CPU scheduler assigns
the CPU to each process for one time slice in a circular order, and if a process
doesn't complete, it is placed back in the ready queue.
 o Advantages: Provides fair CPU time to all processes and is responsive for
interactive systems.
o Disadvantages: If the time slice is too large, it behaves like FCFS; if it's too
small, it can cause excessive context switching overhead.

 Priority Scheduling (1 Mark):

o Each process is assigned a priority. The process with the highest priority is
executed first.
o Advantages: Ensures critical tasks are executed first.
o Disadvantages: Low-priority processes may starve if higher-priority processes
keep arriving.

3. Scheduling Criteria (2 Marks)

Different scheduling algorithms optimize different criteria. The performance of the algorithm is
often judged based on the following factors:

 CPU Utilization: The fraction of time the CPU is active.

 Throughput: The number of processes completed in a unit of time.
 Turnaround Time: The total time taken from submission of a process to its completion.
 Waiting Time: The total time a process spends in the ready queue.
 Response Time: The time between submitting a request and receiving a response
(important for interactive systems).

4. Gantt Chart (1 Mark)

A Gantt chart is used to visually represent the schedule of processes over time. It shows how
long each process runs and when it is scheduled, giving a clear view of CPU utilization and
process execution order.

Neat Diagram of Process Scheduling (1 Mark)

Here’s a simple diagram showing the process scheduling flow:

sql
CopyEdit
+-------------------+ +--------------------+
| New Process | | Ready Queue |
+-------------------+ +--------------------+
| |
| |
v v
+-------------------+ +--------------------+
| CPU Scheduler | ----> | Running Process |
 +-------------------+ +--------------------+
| |
| |
v v
+-------------------+ +--------------------+
| Wait Queue | <---- | Terminated Process |
+-------------------+ +--------------------+

 Processes start in the New Process state and are then moved to the Ready Queue.
 The CPU Scheduler picks a process from the Ready Queue and moves it to the
Running Process state.
 A process can then either move to the Wait Queue (if it's waiting for an I/O operation) or
terminate.
 Once a process completes execution, it enters the Terminated Process state.

Conclusion (1 Mark)

In summary, a process is a program in execution, and its management involves various aspects
like process state, the process control block, and memory allocation. Process scheduling is
critical for managing CPU time and ensuring fair, efficient execution of processes. Scheduling
algorithms like FCFS, SJF, Round Robin, and Priority Scheduling offer different ways to handle
process execution, with each designed to optimize specific system performance criteria.

13 .a) explain the concept of paging in memory management and also describe the structure of a
page table. give the answer for 13 marks also split the marks accordinglt

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Concept of Paging in Memory Management (7 Marks)

Paging is a memory management scheme that eliminates the need for contiguous allocation of
physical memory. It divides physical memory into fixed-size blocks, called frames, and divides
logical memory (the memory used by processes) into blocks of the same size, called pages. This
allows non-contiguous allocation of physical memory, which helps avoid fragmentation and
makes memory management more efficient.

How Paging Works (3 Marks)

 Dividing Memory: In paging, both the logical memory (used by processes) and physical
memory are divided into small, equal-sized blocks. These blocks are:
o Pages: The blocks of logical memory.
o Frames: The blocks of physical memory.
  Page Size: The size of a page is typically a power of 2, such as 512 bytes, 1KB, or 4KB.
The page size must match the size of the frames in the physical memory.
 Page Table: Since pages are non-contiguous in logical memory and frames are non-
contiguous in physical memory, a page table is required to keep track of where each
page is stored in physical memory.

Advantages of Paging (2 Marks)

 Eliminates External Fragmentation: Since pages and frames are of fixed size, the
system doesn't face the problem of external fragmentation, which occurs when free
memory is scattered in small, non-contiguous blocks.
 Efficient Memory Utilization: Memory is allocated in smaller chunks, making it more
flexible and efficient. It allows the operating system to make better use of available
memory by allocating and freeing memory in fixed-size blocks.

Disadvantages of Paging (2 Marks)

 Internal Fragmentation: Although paging eliminates external fragmentation, it can lead

to internal fragmentation. This happens when a process does not use the entire space
allocated to it within a page.
 Overhead of Page Table: Maintaining a page table requires additional memory. For
large systems, the page table itself can be large, introducing overhead in terms of both
space and time.

Structure of a Page Table (6 Marks)

A page table is a data structure used by the operating system to manage the mapping between
logical memory (pages) and physical memory (frames). The page table stores the frame number
for each page in the process's address space. Each process has its own page table, which maps its
pages to the appropriate frames in physical memory.

Components of a Page Table (4 Marks)

1. Page Number: The page number is the index used to access the page table. It represents
the logical address of the page within a process.
2. Frame Number: The frame number is the index that points to a frame in physical
memory. It represents the location of the page in physical memory.
3. Page Table Entry (PTE): Each entry in the page table corresponds to a page and stores
the frame number where that page is located. In addition to the frame number, the PTE
may also include other control bits such as:
o Present/Absent Bit: Indicates whether the page is in physical memory or needs to
be fetched from secondary storage (like a disk).
o Modified/Dirty Bit: Indicates whether the page has been modified since it was
loaded into memory.
 o Access Control Bits: Indicate permissions like read/write access.
o Reference Bit: Used in page replacement algorithms to track whether a page has
been accessed recently.

4. Page Table Size: The size of the page table is determined by the number of pages in the
process. If a process uses a large address space, its page table can become quite large.

Example of a Simple Page Table (2 Marks)

Consider a process with a logical memory of 4 pages (0-3) and physical memory with 3 frames
(0-2). The page table might look like this:

Page Number Frame Number

0 2

1 0

2 1

3 -

In this example, page 0 is stored in frame 2, page 1 is stored in frame 0, and page 2 is stored in
frame 1. Page 3 is not yet in physical memory (it may be swapped out or not yet loaded).

Multi-level Page Table (2 Marks)

In systems with large address spaces, a multi-level page table may be used to reduce memory
usage. Instead of having a single large page table, the page table itself is divided into multiple
levels. The first level stores pointers to the second level, which in turn stores pointers to the
actual frames in physical memory. This approach reduces the space required to store page tables
by only allocating memory for the portions that are actually in use.

 Two-Level Page Table: The first level contains entries pointing to second-level tables,
and the second-level tables contain frame numbers.
 Example: If the system has a 32-bit address space and a 4KB page size, using a single-
level page table could require an impractically large table. With a multi-level page table,
the first level could point to second-level tables, which reduce the overall memory
footprint of the page table.
Conclusion (1 Mark)

In conclusion, paging is a memory management technique that enables the system to use
memory efficiently by dividing both logical and physical memory into fixed-size blocks called
pages and frames. The page table plays a crucial role in mapping pages to frames and managing
the access to memory. While paging helps eliminate external fragmentation and improves
memory utilization, it can introduce overhead in terms of both memory usage and the need for
managing page tables. The structure of a page table includes page numbers, frame numbers, and
additional control bits, and in systems with large address spaces, multi-level page tables are used
to optimize memory usage.

13. b) explain the concept of page replacement in virtual memory management. Discuss various
page replacement algorithms with an example. give the answer for 13 marks also split the marks
accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Concept of Page Replacement in Virtual Memory Management (5 Marks)

Virtual memory allows a system to use more memory than physically available by using a
portion of the disk as an extension of RAM. When a program accesses a page that is not
currently in memory (i.e., a page fault occurs), the operating system needs to bring the required
page into memory. If there is no free space in memory, the operating system must decide which
page to remove or "swap out" to free up space for the required page. This process is known as
page replacement.

How Page Replacement Works (3 Marks)

1. Page Fault: When a process accesses a page that is not in memory, a page fault occurs,
triggering the operating system to load the page from the disk into a frame in physical
memory.
2. Page Replacement: If all frames are occupied, the OS must replace an existing page with
the new one. The OS must decide which page to remove, ideally choosing one that will
not be needed for the longest time or as efficiently as possible.
3. Page Replacement Algorithms: Different strategies are used to determine which page to
evict when a page fault occurs. The choice of algorithm impacts performance by
minimizing the number of page faults and maximizing the use of available memory.

Various Page Replacement Algorithms (7 Marks)

Several page replacement algorithms are used to determine which page to replace when a page
fault occurs. Below are the most commonly used algorithms:
1. First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm (2 Marks)

 Concept: FIFO is the simplest page replacement algorithm. It replaces the oldest page in
memory (the one that has been in memory the longest) when a new page is needed. This
algorithm uses a queue to maintain the order of page accesses.
 How It Works: Pages are inserted into the memory in the order they arrive. When a page
fault occurs, the page at the front of the queue (the oldest one) is removed and replaced
by the new page.
 Example:
o Consider a system with 3 frames and the reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5.
o Initially, all frames are empty: [ ].
o 1 is accessed → [1].
o 2 is accessed → [1, 2].
o 3 is accessed → [1, 2, 3].
o 4 is accessed → Replace 1 (FIFO) → [2, 3, 4].
o 1 is accessed → Replace 2 → [1, 3, 4].
o 2 is accessed → Replace 3 → [1, 2, 4].
o 5 is accessed → Replace 4 → [1, 2, 5].

In this case, there were 6 page faults and FIFO evicted the pages in the order they arrived.

 Disadvantages:
o FIFO can lead to poor performance in certain situations, as it doesn't consider
the frequency or recency of page accesses. It can suffer from the Belady's
anomaly, where increasing the number of frames increases the number of page
faults.

2. Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm (2 Marks)

 Concept: LRU replaces the page that has not been used for the longest period of time.
The idea is that if a page hasn't been accessed in a while, it is less likely to be used in the
near future.
 How It Works: The operating system maintains a record of the order in which pages are
accessed. When a page is accessed, it is moved to the most recent position. When a page
fault occurs and a replacement is necessary, the least recently used page (the one that is
farthest from the most recent) is replaced.
 Example:
o Consider a system with 3 frames and the reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5.
o Initially, all frames are empty: [ ].
o 1 is accessed → [1].
o 2 is accessed → [1, 2].
o 3 is accessed → [1, 2, 3].
o 4 is accessed → Replace 1 (LRU) → [2, 3, 4].
o 1 is accessed → Replace 2 (LRU) → [1, 3, 4].
o 2 is accessed → Replace 3 (LRU) → [1, 2, 4].
o 5 is accessed → Replace 4 (LRU) → [1, 2, 5].
 In this case, there were 6 page faults. LRU avoids the problem of FIFO by taking into
account the recency of use.

 Disadvantages:
o Maintaining the access history can be expensive in terms of both time and space.
o Requires additional hardware or software support to track the most recent access
times for pages.

3. Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm (2 Marks)

 Concept: The optimal page replacement algorithm replaces the page that will not be used
for the longest period of time in the future. This algorithm is optimal because it
minimizes the number of page faults.
 How It Works: When a page fault occurs, the operating system looks ahead in the
reference string and selects the page that will not be accessed for the longest time. This is
ideal but not feasible in practice because future references are generally unknown.
 Example:
o Consider a system with 3 frames and the reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5.
o Initially, all frames are empty: [ ].
o 1 is accessed → [1].
o 2 is accessed → [1, 2].
o 3 is accessed → [1, 2, 3].
o 4 is accessed → Replace 1 (optimal) → [2, 3, 4].
o 1 is accessed → Replace 3 (optimal) → [1, 2, 4].
o 2 is accessed → Replace 4 (optimal) → [1, 2, 5].

In this case, there were 5 page faults.

 Disadvantages:
o This algorithm is theoretical and cannot be implemented in real systems because it
requires knowledge of future page references.

4. Least Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm (1 Mark)

 Concept: LFU replaces the page that is used the least often. This algorithm tracks the
frequency of accesses to each page and removes the page with the lowest count when a
replacement is needed.
 How It Works: The operating system maintains a counter for each page, which
increments each time the page is accessed. When a page fault occurs, the page with the
lowest frequency count is replaced.
 Disadvantages:
o LFU may suffer from cache pollution, where pages that are accessed once or
very infrequently are kept in memory, even if they are not useful.
Conclusion (1 Mark)

In conclusion, page replacement is a critical part of virtual memory management, ensuring that
the system can continue functioning efficiently even when physical memory is limited. Various
page replacement algorithms, such as FIFO, LRU, Optimal, and LFU, offer different trade-offs
in terms of complexity and performance. While algorithms like FIFO are easy to implement but
inefficient, others like LRU and Optimal provide better performance by considering the recent or
future access patterns of pages. The choice of algorithm depends on the specific needs of the
system, such as the available resources and performance goals.

14 a) suppose that a disk drive has 200 cylinders, numbered from 0 to 199. the drive is currently
serving a request at cylinder 100. the queue of pending requests in FIFO order is
23,89,132,42,187. Starting from current head position, what is the total distance ( in cylinders)
that the disk arm moves to satisfy all the pending requests for each of the following disk-
scheduling algorithms? a) FCFS b) LOOK c) SCAN. give the answer for 13 marks also split the
marks accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

Problem Breakdown (1 Mark)

We are given a disk drive with 200 cylinders, numbered from 0 to 199, and the disk arm is
currently at cylinder 100. The queue of pending requests in FIFO order is: 23, 89, 132, 42,
187. We need to compute the total distance (in cylinders) the disk arm moves to satisfy all the
pending requests for each of the following disk scheduling algorithms:

1. FCFS (First Come First Serve)

2. LOOK
3. SCAN

Disk Scheduling Algorithms (12 Marks)

a) FCFS (First Come First Serve) Algorithm (4 Marks)

FCFS simply processes the requests in the order they are received (FIFO). The disk arm moves
from the current position to the position of each request in the queue, one by one.

 Initial position: Cylinder 100

 Pending requests: 23, 89, 132, 42, 187

Step-by-step movement:
 1. Move from 100 to 23: Distance = |100 - 23| = 77 cylinders.
2. Move from 23 to 89: Distance = |23 - 89| = 66 cylinders.
3. Move from 89 to 132: Distance = |89 - 132| = 43 cylinders.
4. Move from 132 to 42: Distance = |132 - 42| = 90 cylinders.
5. Move from 42 to 187: Distance = |42 - 187| = 145 cylinders.

Total Distance (FCFS) = 77 + 66 + 43 + 90 + 145 = 421 cylinders.

b) LOOK Algorithm (4 Marks)

LOOK is similar to SCAN, but instead of moving the disk arm all the way to the end of the disk,
the disk arm stops when the last request is reached, and then reverses direction.

 Initial position: Cylinder 100

 Pending requests: 23, 89, 132, 42, 187
 Direction of movement: Since the current position is 100, we will first move towards the
nearest end (lower or higher) until we reach the last request in that direction, and then
reverse the direction.

Step-by-step movement:

1. Sort the requests in ascending order: 23, 42, 89, 132, 187.
2. Move from 100 to 89 (Move leftwards, as it's closest to 100): Distance = |100 - 89| = 11
cylinders.
3. Move from 89 to 42: Distance = |89 - 42| = 47 cylinders.
4. Move from 42 to 23: Distance = |42 - 23| = 19 cylinders.
5. Now reverse direction to go towards the higher numbered requests.
6. Move from 23 to 132: Distance = |23 - 132| = 109 cylinders.
7. Move from 132 to 187: Distance = |132 - 187| = 55 cylinders.

Total Distance (LOOK) = 11 + 47 + 19 + 109 + 55 = 241 cylinders.

c) SCAN Algorithm (4 Marks)

SCAN (also called the "Elevator Algorithm") moves the disk arm in one direction (either
towards the lowest or highest numbered cylinder), satisfies all requests in that direction, and then
reverses the direction. The disk arm continues moving in the reverse direction until all the
requests are serviced.

 Initial position: Cylinder 100

 Pending requests: 23, 89, 132, 42, 187
  Direction of movement: Since the current position is 100, we will first move towards the
highest cylinder, satisfy the requests in that direction, and then reverse direction to serve
requests in the opposite direction.

Step-by-step movement:

1. Sort the requests in ascending order: 23, 42, 89, 132, 187.
2. Move from 100 to 132 (move rightward towards the highest request): Distance = |100 -
132| = 32 cylinders.
3. Move from 132 to 187: Distance = |132 - 187| = 55 cylinders.
4. Now, reverse direction.
5. Move from 187 to 89: Distance = |187 - 89| = 98 cylinders.
6. Move from 89 to 42: Distance = |89 - 42| = 47 cylinders.
7. Move from 42 to 23: Distance = |42 - 23| = 19 cylinders.

Total Distance (SCAN) = 32 + 55 + 98 + 47 + 19 = 251 cylinders.

Conclusion (1 Mark)

To summarize, the total distance the disk arm moves for each algorithm is as follows:

 FCFS: 421 cylinders

 LOOK: 241 cylinders
 SCAN: 251 cylinders

In this case, LOOK is the most efficient algorithm, followed closely by SCAN, while FCFS
requires the largest movement.

14. b) explain the different file allocation methods for disk space. mention their advantages and
disadvantages. give the answer for 13 marks also split the marks accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT

File Allocation Methods for Disk Space (13 Marks)

Disk space is allocated to files using various file allocation methods, which define how the
operating system stores and accesses data on the disk. The most commonly used file allocation
methods are Contiguous Allocation, Linked Allocation, and Indexed Allocation. Each of these
methods has its advantages and disadvantages, depending on the nature of the file system and the
use case.
1. Contiguous Allocation (4 Marks)

In Contiguous Allocation, each file is stored in a set of contiguous blocks on the disk. The
operating system allocates a contiguous block of disk space to a file, which means the entire file
is stored in one continuous sequence of blocks.

How It Works:

 The operating system maintains the starting block address and the length of the file.
 When a file is created or extended, it is allocated a contiguous block of disk space.
 The file system uses the file's start address and length to find and access the file.

Advantages (2 Marks):

 Simple and Fast Access: Since all the file’s data blocks are located next to each other,
reading or writing to the file is efficient, as the head can access them in one continuous
read or write operation.
 Reduced Seek Time: The disk arm moves a small distance if the file is contiguous,
reducing the seek time.

Disadvantages (2 Marks):

 External Fragmentation: As files are created and deleted, small gaps or "holes" appear
in the disk, leading to external fragmentation. This makes it difficult to allocate large
contiguous blocks of space.
 Fixed Size Allocation: The size of the file must be known in advance to allocate
contiguous space, and resizing a file can be difficult because contiguous space may not
be available.
 Wasted Space: If the allocated space is larger than the file size, there will be wasted
space within the contiguous block.

2. Linked Allocation (4 Marks)

In Linked Allocation, each file is stored as a linked list of blocks scattered across the disk. Each
block contains a pointer to the next block in the file. The blocks can be located anywhere on the
disk.

How It Works:

 The operating system maintains a pointer to the first block of the file. Each block in the
file has a pointer to the next block.
 The last block of the file has a special end-of-file marker indicating the end of the file.
 Files can grow or shrink easily as new blocks can be added or removed from anywhere
on the disk.
Advantages (2 Marks):

 No External Fragmentation: Since blocks are not required to be contiguous, there is no

external fragmentation. The file can grow or shrink as needed.
 Dynamic Allocation: Files can be easily resized since new blocks are allocated
dynamically and scattered across the disk.

Disadvantages (2 Marks):

 Slower Access: Accessing the file requires following the pointers from one block to the
next. This increases the seek time and reduces performance, especially for large files.
 Overhead of Pointers: Each block requires extra space for the pointer, which increases
storage overhead and reduces the usable space in each block.
 Disk Head Movement: Disk head movement is more unpredictable and inefficient
because the blocks are not contiguous.

3. Indexed Allocation (4 Marks)

In Indexed Allocation, each file has an associated index block that contains pointers to all the
data blocks of the file. The index block acts as a table that stores the addresses of all the blocks
of the file.

How It Works:

 Each file has a single index block that stores the addresses of all the blocks of the file.
 The operating system uses the index block to access the file’s data blocks.
 Indexed allocation can use a single-level index (a single index block) or a multi-level
index (multiple index blocks in case the file is large).

Advantages (2 Marks):

 No External Fragmentation: Like linked allocation, there is no external fragmentation,

as the file’s blocks can be scattered across the disk.
 Direct Access to Blocks: Access to data blocks is efficient because the index block
allows direct access to any data block in the file.
 Flexible File Growth: Files can grow dynamically, and new blocks can be allocated
without needing contiguous space.

Disadvantages (2 Marks):

 Overhead of Index Block: The index block itself takes up space, and for very large files,
multiple index blocks may be required, which increases overhead.
  Increased Access Time for Large Files: For large files, the operating system may need
to access multiple levels of index blocks to find the data blocks, resulting in increased
access time.
 Wasted Space for Small Files: If a file is small, the index block may have unused
entries, leading to inefficient space utilization.

Comparison of File Allocation Methods (1 Mark)

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Contiguous Simple and fast access; reduced seek External fragmentation; fixed size
Allocation time allocation; wasted space

Linked No external fragmentation; dynamic Slower access time; overhead of pointers;

Allocation file growth unpredictable disk head movement

Indexed No external fragmentation; direct Overhead of index blocks; increased

Allocation access to blocks; dynamic growth access time for large files

Conclusion (1 Mark)

In conclusion, the choice of file allocation method depends on the specific requirements of the
file system. Contiguous Allocation is simple and fast but suffers from fragmentation and wasted
space. Linked Allocation eliminates fragmentation and allows for dynamic file growth, but it
leads to slower access and overhead from pointers. Indexed Allocation offers direct access to
blocks and avoids fragmentation, but it comes with the overhead of index blocks and potential
inefficiencies for large files. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and their suitability
depends on the system's performance goals and workload characteristics.

15.a) elaborate concept of virtual machines focusing on their benefits and features. explain how
virtual machines enable efficient resource utlization, isolation and flexibility in computing
environments. give the answer for 13 marks also split the marks accordingly.

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT
Virtual Machines: Concept, Benefits, Features, and Their Role in Computing
Environments (13 Marks)

Virtual Machines (VMs) are software-based emulations of physical computers that run an
operating system and applications as if they were operating on dedicated hardware. A hypervisor
or virtual machine monitor (VMM) facilitates the creation and management of VMs by sharing
and managing underlying hardware resources.

1. Concept of Virtual Machines (2 Marks)

A virtual machine acts as a self-contained environment, emulating a complete computer system,

including CPU, memory, storage, and network resources. It runs its operating system and
applications independently of the host system.

 Hypervisor: The hypervisor is a software layer that creates and manages VMs, ensuring
isolation and efficient hardware utilization. Examples include VMware ESXi, Microsoft
Hyper-V, and KVM.
 Host and Guest Systems: The physical machine is the host, while the virtual machine is
the guest.

2. Benefits of Virtual Machines (4 Marks)

a) Efficient Resource Utilization (1 Mark)

 VMs allow multiple operating systems and applications to run on a single physical
machine by dynamically allocating resources such as CPU, memory, and storage.
 Hardware utilization is optimized, as idle resources in one VM can be allocated to
another.

b) Isolation (1 Mark)

 Each VM operates independently, ensuring that issues like crashes, malware infections,
or performance degradation in one VM do not affect others or the host system.
 This isolation also enhances security, as vulnerabilities in one VM do not compromise
others.

c) Flexibility and Scalability (1 Mark)

 VMs provide flexibility to deploy and manage various operating systems and applications
on the same hardware.
 They are scalable; additional VMs can be created as needed without acquiring more
physical hardware.
d) Portability and Disaster Recovery (1 Mark)

 VMs are portable as they are stored as files and can be easily migrated to other hardware
or environments.
 Snapshots and backups simplify disaster recovery, enabling quick restoration of VMs in
case of failure.

3. Key Features of Virtual Machines (3 Marks)

a) Hardware Emulation (1 Mark)

VMs emulate hardware, enabling the use of various guest operating systems without concern for
hardware compatibility.

b) Snapshots and Cloning (1 Mark)

VMs support creating snapshots (a saved state of the system) and cloning (copying the VM),
which simplify testing, development, and backup processes.

c) Live Migration (1 Mark)

VMs can be migrated between physical hosts without downtime, enabling maintenance and load
balancing without affecting operations.

4. Role of VMs in Resource Utilization, Isolation, and Flexibility (4 Marks)

a) Efficient Resource Utilization (1 Mark)

 By virtualizing hardware, VMs eliminate the need for multiple physical machines. A
single physical server can host multiple VMs, each with different workloads.
 Dynamic allocation ensures that hardware resources are used efficiently. Unused
resources from one VM can be reallocated to others.

b) Isolation (1 Mark)

 VMs run in isolated environments, ensuring that problems like crashes or malicious
software in one VM do not affect the host or other VMs.
 This isolation also enables secure multi-tenancy, allowing multiple users or organizations
to share the same hardware securely.
c) Flexibility (1 Mark)

 VMs support running different operating systems and applications on the same physical
hardware, making them ideal for testing and development.
 They enable rapid deployment of new services or applications without significant
changes to the underlying infrastructure.

d) Cost Efficiency and Energy Savings (1 Mark)

 By consolidating workloads onto fewer physical servers, organizations save costs on

hardware, maintenance, and energy consumption.
 Virtualization reduces the physical footprint of data centers.

5. Challenges and Mitigation (1 Mark)

While VMs offer significant benefits, they also pose challenges:

 Overhead: VMs may introduce performance overhead due to resource sharing and
hypervisor management.
 Complexity: Managing a large number of VMs requires advanced tools and expertise.

Mitigation:

 Using lightweight hypervisors and efficient resource allocation policies.

 Employing management tools like VMware vCenter or OpenStack for centralized
control.

Conclusion (1 Mark)

Virtual machines revolutionize computing by enabling efficient resource utilization, robust

isolation, and unparalleled flexibility. They allow businesses to maximize hardware efficiency,
enhance security, and reduce costs while supporting diverse workloads. The combination of
features like hardware emulation, snapshots, live migration, and disaster recovery makes VMs
indispensable in modern IT environments.

15.b) explain the architecture and key features of the ios operating system with neat diagram .
give the answer for 13 marks also split the marks accordingly

ChatGPT said:

ChatGPT
Architecture and Key Features of the iOS Operating System (13 Marks)

The iOS operating system, developed by Apple Inc., powers devices like iPhones, iPads, and
iPods. It is based on a layered architecture that provides robust performance, security, and
flexibility.

1. iOS Architecture (6 Marks)

The architecture of iOS is a layered structure designed to manage hardware, services, and user
applications. It consists of four primary layers: Core OS, Core Services, Media, and Cocoa
Touch.

1.1 Core OS Layer (1.5 Marks)

 Role: This is the base layer of the iOS architecture, managing low-level functionalities.
 Responsibilities:
o Provides hardware abstraction for efficient interaction with the device's hardware
components.
o Handles memory management, file systems, networking, and inter-process
communication.
o Offers security features like App Sandbox and Keychain.

1.2 Core Services Layer (1.5 Marks)

 Role: Provides essential services for app development.

 Key Frameworks:
o Foundation Framework: Offers data storage, text processing, date and time
management, and other utilities.
o CloudKit: Supports cloud data storage and synchronization.
o Core Data: Manages the data model layer for apps.

1.3 Media Layer (1.5 Marks)

 Role: Provides advanced graphics, audio, and video technologies.

 Key Frameworks:
o Quartz Core: Supports 2D rendering and animation.
o AVFoundation: Handles audio and video playback and recording.
o Metal: Provides high-performance graphics rendering and computation.

1.4 Cocoa Touch Layer (1.5 Marks)

 Role: The topmost layer, responsible for user interface (UI) frameworks and touch-based
input.
  Key Frameworks:
o UIKit: Provides components like buttons, labels, and table views for building
UIs.
o EventKit: Manages calendar and event-related data.
o MapKit: Offers map-based services and UI elements.

2. Key Features of iOS (6 Marks)

2.1 Security and Privacy (1.5 Marks)

 iOS ensures robust security through features like:

o App Sandbox: Isolates app processes to prevent unauthorized access.
o Face ID/Touch ID: Biometric authentication for secure access.
o End-to-End Encryption: Protects user data in messaging and communication
apps.

2.2 Multitasking (1 Mark)

 iOS supports efficient multitasking by managing background app activities such as:
o Background updates.
o Task switching with minimal resource usage.

2.3 Energy Efficiency (1 Mark)

 Optimized resource management ensures extended battery life through:

o Intelligent power management.
o Scheduling CPU and GPU tasks efficiently.

2.4 Integration with Ecosystem (1.5 Marks)

 Seamless connectivity with Apple’s ecosystem through features like:

o Handoff: Enables continuity across Apple devices.
o iCloud: Provides cloud storage and synchronization.
o AirDrop: Facilitates quick file sharing between Apple devices.

2.5 App Store and Developer Support (1 Mark)

 A curated app ecosystem supported by robust developer tools like Xcode and Swift
programming language.
3. iOS Architecture Diagram (1 Mark)

Below is a simplified representation of the iOS architecture:

diff
CopyEdit
+-----------------------------------+
| Cocoa Touch Layer |
| (UIKit, MapKit, EventKit) |
+-----------------------------------+
| Media Layer |
| (AVFoundation, Metal, Quartz) |
+-----------------------------------+
| Core Services Layer |
| (Foundation, Core Data, CloudKit) |
+-----------------------------------+
| Core OS Layer |
| (Security, Networking, Kernel) |
+-----------------------------------+

Conclusion (1 Mark)

iOS is a powerful and secure operating system with a well-defined architecture and a rich set of
features. Its layered design allows developers to create responsive, efficient, and secure
applications. With strong support for security, multitasking, and seamless ecosystem integration,
iOS remains a leading choice for mobile computing.

16.a)
Solution to the Problem (13 Marks)

1. Problem Analysis (2 Marks)

The scheduling algorithm used is First-Come, First-Served (FCFS). Processes are executed in
the order of their arrival times. The Gantt chart is constructed to visualize the execution order of
processes, and the waiting and turnaround times are computed.

Given Data:
Process Arrival Time (ms) Burst Time (ms)

P1 0 20

P2 25 25

P3 30 105

P4 60 15

P5 100 10

P6 105 10

2. Gantt Chart (3 Marks)

The Gantt chart is built by executing processes in the order they arrive:

1. Start with P1 at time 0.

2. At each arrival, execute the next process in line based on their arrival times.

Time Interval Process

0 - 20 P1

25 - 50 P2

50 - 155 P3

155 - 170 P4

170 - 180 P5

180 - 190 P6
3. Calculations of Waiting Time (4 Marks)

Waiting Time (WT) = Start Time - Arrival Time

Process Arrival Time Burst Time Start Time Finish Time Waiting Time

P1 0 20 0 20 0

P2 25 25 25 50 0

P3 30 105 50 155 20

P4 60 15 155 170 95

P5 100 10 170 180 70

P6 105 10 180 190 75

4. Calculation of Turnaround Time (3 Marks)

Turnaround Time (TAT) = Finish Time - Arrival Time

Process Arrival Time Finish Time Turnaround Time

P1 0 20 20

P2 25 50 25

P3 30 155 125

P4 60 170 110

P5 100 180 80

P6 105 190 85

5. Average Waiting Time and Turnaround Time (1 Mark)

Average Waiting Time (AWT):

AWT=Total Waiting TimeNumber of Processes=0+0+20+95+70+756=2606=43.33 msAWT = \

frac{\text{Total Waiting Time}}{\text{Number of Processes}} = \frac{0 + 0 + 20 + 95 + 70 +
75}{6} = \frac{260}{6} = 43.33 \, \text{ms}AWT=Number of ProcessesTotal Waiting Time
=60+0+20+95+70+75=6260=43.33ms

Average Turnaround Time (ATAT):

ATAT=Total Turnaround TimeNumber of Processes=20+25+125+110+80+856=4456=74.17

msATAT = \frac{\text{Total Turnaround Time}}{\text{Number of Processes}} = \frac{20 + 25
+ 125 + 110 + 80 + 85}{6} = \frac{445}{6} = 74.17 \, \
text{ms}ATAT=Number of ProcessesTotal Turnaround Time=620+25+125+110+80+85=6445
=74.17ms

Final Answer (13 Marks)

1. Problem Analysis (2 Marks): Explained the scheduling algorithm and process arrival
order.
2. Gantt Chart (3 Marks): Diagram showing execution order:

CopyEdit
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | P5 | P6 |
0 20 50 155 170 180 190

3. Waiting Time Calculation (4 Marks): Individual waiting times calculated.

4. Turnaround Time Calculation (3 Marks): Individual turnaround times calculated.
5. Average Waiting and Turnaround Times (1 Mark):
o Average Waiting Time = 43.33 ms
o Average Turnaround Time = 74.17 ms

16 b)