1 Electrostatics

The branch of physics, deals with electric effect of static charge is called electrostatics.

1. Electric Charge
Charge of a body or particle is the property due to which it produces and experiences
electrical and magnetic effects.
–3 –6 –9
It is measured in coulomb in (S.Ι. unit). In practice we use mC (10 C), µC (10 C), nC(10 C) etc.
C.G.S. unit of charge = stat coulomb
= electrostatic unit = esu = franklin
9
1 coulomb = 3 × 10 esu of charge
0 0 1 1
Dimensional formula of charge = [M L T A ]

1.1 Properties of Charge

• Charge is a scalar quantity.
• Charge is of two types: (i) Positive charge and (ii) Negative charge.
Charging a body implies transfer of charge (electrons) from one body to another. Positively
charged body means loss of electrons, i.e., deficiency of electrons. Negatively charged body
means excess of electrons. This also shows that mass of a negatively charged body > mass of
a positively charged [for identical bodies] body.
• Charge is conserved: In an isolated system, total charge remains constant whatever change
takes place in that system.
• Charge is quantized: Charge on a body always exists in integral multiples of a fundamental
unit of electric charge. So, charge on a body is Q = ± ne, where n is an integer and e is the
charge of the electron.
• Like point charges repel each other while unlike point charges attract each other.
• Charge is always associated with mass, i.e., charge can not exist without mass though mass
can exist without charge.
• Charge is independent of frame of reference, i.e., the charge is invariant. Charge on a body
does not change whatever be its speed. The mass of a body depends on its speed and
increases with increase in speed.
m0
m= m0 = Rest mass and c = speed of light
1 – V2 / C2
• A charge at rest produces only electric field around itself; a charge having uniform motion
produces electric as well as magnetic field around itself while a charge having accelerated
motion emits electromagnetic radiation.
• Charge is always additive in nature.

Electrostatics 1
Example 1:
–7
When a piece of polythene is rubbed with wool, a charge of –2 × 10 C is developed on
polythene. What is the amount of mass, which is transferred to polythene.
Solution:
Q 2 × 10–7
n
no. of electrons = = =
e 1.6 × 10–19
12
= 1.25 × 10
Now mass of transferred electrons
= n × mass of one electron
12 –31 –19
= 1.25 × 10 × 9.1 × 10 ≈ 11 × 10 kg

Example 2:
12
The rate of alpha particle falls on neutral sphere is 10 per second. What is the time in which
sphere gets charged by 2µC ?
Solution:
12
Number of α – particles falls in t second = 10 t
Charge on α – particle = +2e,
12
So charge incident in time t = (10 t).(2e)
Given charge is 2 µC
–6 12
∴ 2 × 10 = (10 t)·(2e)
10–18
=
⇒ t = 6.25 sec.
1.6 × 10–19

1.2 Charging of a body

A body can be charged by means of (A) friction, (B) conduction and (C) induction
(A) Friction:
When we rub a body with the other, the heat energy removes the loosely bounded electrons
from one body and the liberated electrons may enter into the other body. In consequence,
one body becomes positively charged by losing electrons and the other will get a net negative
charge by gaining electrons. for e.g., (a) when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the glass gets a
positive charge and the silk becomes negatively charged. (b) Atmospheric electricity such as
charge deposition in clouds occur due to its friction with air.
(B) Conduction
When we touch a charged body (a charged conductor) with barefoot charge flows from the
body to earth through our body. This process is called conduction (flow) of charge. If we
touch (or connect) a neutral metallic ball to a charged metallic ball, the neutral ball will be
charged by sharing of charges between them by the process of conduction.
Note: If two conducting spheres are connected then the net charge on the spheres get divided
in the ratio of their radius. (Q ∝ R)

2 Electrostatics
 (C) Induction
When a neutral object B is kept near a positively charged object A, the neutral object induces
a negative charge nearer to the charged object and equal positive charge at its opposite side.
If the object B is a conductor, by connecting it with earth, excess electrons flow from earth to
neutralise the induced positive charges leaving it as a negatively charged object. This process
of charging a neutral object without touching it to a charged object is called “Induction”.
If there is attraction between two objects then one of them may be neutral. But if there is
repulsion between two objects, both must be charged (similarly charged).
So "repulsion is the sure test of electrification".
Note : (a) Induced charge can be lesser or equal to inducing chage (but never greater) and its
 1
maximum value is give by Qi =
−Q  1 −  , K → Dielectric constant of the material of the
 K
uncharged body.

Example 3:
If a charged body is placed near a neutral conductor, will it attract the conductor or repel it?
Solution:
If a positive charged body is placed left-side near a neutral
conductor, negative charge will induce at left surface and – +
––
– +
+q – +
positive charge will induce at right surface. Due to positively –
– + Repulsion
– + force
charged body negative induced charge will feel attraction and Attraction –
force – +
+
the positive induced charge will feel repulsion. But as the
negative induced charge is nearer, so the attractive force will
be greater than the repulsive force. So the net force on the conductor due to positively
charged body will be attractive. Similarly, we can prove for negatively charged body also.

Detection of Charge : Electroscope

Let us investigate a way of determining the sign of the charge on
Metal Knob
an object. An electroscope is one of the simplest device used to
determine electric charge. An uncharged electroscope can detect
only whether an object is electrically charged. Metal Rod
If the electroscope is previously charged with a known sign, it can
then also determine the sign of the charge on the object. An Strips
electroscope consists of two strips of thin aluminum or gold foil
fastened to a metal rod and connected to the knob at the top.
When a body touches the metal knob at the top of the
electroscope, the leaves diverge, indicating that the body is charged. If they do not diverge
then body is uncharged.

Electrostatics 3
Example 4:
A glass rod rubbed with silk is used to charge a gold leaf electroscope and the leaves are
observed to diverge. The charged electroscope thus is exposed to X-ray for a short period. Then
(1) The divergence of leaves will not be affected
(2) The leaves will diverge further
(3) The leaves will collapse
(4) The leaves will melt
Ans. (2)
Solution:
Charge on glass rod is positive, so charge on gold leaves will also be positive. Due to X-rays,
more electrons from leaves will be emitted, so leaves become more positive and diverge
further.

2. Coulomb's law (Inverse Square Law)

The magnitude of electrostatic force between two-point charges is directly proportional to
the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
1 q1q2 Kq1q2
i.e. F ∝ q1q2 and F∝ ⇒F ∝ 2
⇒F =
r 2
r r2

Important points regarding Coulomb's law:

• It is applicable only for point charges. It is because the distribution of charge does not remain
uniform when two bodies are brought together.
1
• The constant of proportionality k in SI units in vacuum is expressed as and in any other
4πε0
1
medium expressed as [ε =ε0 .εr ] .
4πεM M
1 q1q2
• If charges are dipped in a medium then electrostatic force on one charge is .
4πε0 εr r2
ε0 and εM are called permittivity of vacuum and absolute permittivity of the medium
respectively. The ratio εM / ε0 =εr is called relative permittivity of the medium, which is a
dimensionless quantity.
• The value of relative permittivity εr is constant for medium and can have values between 1 to
∞. For vacuum, by definition it is equal to 1. For air it is nearly equal to 1 and may be taken to
be equal to 1 for calculations. For metals the value of εr is ∞.
1 9 2 –2 –12 2 2
• The value of = 9 × 10 Nm C ⇒ ε0 = 8.855 × 10 C /Nm
4πε0
–1 –3 4 2
Dimensional formula of permittivity is M L T A
• The force acting on one point charge due to the other point charge is always along the line
joining these two charges. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on two charges,
irrespective of the medium, in which they lie.

4 Electrostatics
 • The force is conservative in nature i.e., work done by electrostatic force in moving a point
charge along a closed loop of any shape is zero.
 1 q1q2 1 q1q2 
• vector form=F =  ˆr  r
4πε0 εr | r | 4πε0 εr | r |3

(q1 & q2 are to be substituted with sign) here r is position vector of the test charge (on which
force is to be calculated) with respect to the source charge (due to which force is to be
calculated).
• The force exerted by one charge on another is independent of medium & presence of other
charge.
1 q1q2
• Colomb's law in other medium : Fm =
4πε0 εr r2

F
Fm =
εr

ε
Where ε=
r , ε → Electric permitivity of free space, ε0 → Electric permitivity of a medium, εr
ε0 0
→ Dielectic constant or relative permitivity
1 q1q2
Note : In air Fa =
4πε0 r2
a

1 q1q2
In a medium Fm =
4πε0 εr r2
m

1 q1q2 1 q1q2
If Fa = Fm, then - =
4πε0 r2 4πε0 εr r2
a m

Solving the above relation we get =

ra rm εr

Example 5:
Two particles having charges q1 and q2 when kept at a certain distance, exert a force F on
each other. If the distance between the two particles is reduced to half and the charge on
each particle is doubled then what will be the force between the particles:
Solution:
kq1q2 r
 F= 2
If q’1 = 2q1, q’2 = 2q2, r’ =
r 2

kq'1 q'2 k(2q1 )(2q2 ) 16kq1q2

then F’ = = F’ = ⇒ F’ = 16F
r' 2
r
2
r2
 2 

Example 6:
A particle of mass m carrying charge q1 is revolving around a fixed charge –q2 in a circular
path of radius r. Calculate the period of revolution and its speed also.

Electrostatics 5
Solution:

1 q1q2 2 4π2mr
= mrω =
4πε0 r2 T2

(4πε0 )r2 (4π2mr) πε0mr

T2 = or T = 4πr
q1q2 q1q2

and also we can say that

q1q2 mv2 q1q2

= ⇒v=
4πε0r 2 r 4πε0mr

Example 7:
Two copper balls, each weighing 10g are kept in air 10 cm apart. If one electron from every
6
10 atoms is transferred from one ball to the other, the coulomb force between them is
(atomic weight of copper is 63.5)
10 4 8 6
(1) 2.0 × 10 N (2) 2.0 × 10 N (3) 2.0 × 10 N (4) 2.0 × 10 N
Solution:
Number of atoms in given mass
10 23 22 e–
= × 6.02 × 10 = 9.48 × 10
63.5 + –
Number of electrons transferred between balls
A B
22 10 cm
9.48 × 10 16
= 6
= 9.48 × 10
10
Hence magnitude of charge gained by each ball
16 –19
Q = ne = 9.48 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 = 0.015 C
Force of attraction between the balls

9 (0.015)2 8
F = 9 × 10 × = 2 × 10 N
(0.1)2

Concept Builder-1
–20
Q.1 When a piece of a material is rubbed with another material, mass of 9.1 × 10 kg is reduced
from one material. Calculate the number of electrons gained by another material.
10 13 5 11
(1) 10 (2) 10 (3) 10 (4) 10

23
Q.2 Estimate the negative charge possessed by 1g of water. Given that Avogadro number 6.02×10
and molecular weight of water = 18.
4 4
(1) 6.25 × 10 C (2) 5.35 × 10 C
4 4
(3) 1.76 × 10 C (4) 1.25 × 10 C

6 Electrostatics
Q.3 Two point charges +3µC and 8µC are repel each other by force of 40 N. If a charge of –5µC is
added to each of them and the distance become half then what will be the force between
them?

Q.4 Two point charges +6µC and –12µC attract by the forces of 100 N. If the charges are increased
by 50% and the distance is reduced by 20% then what will be the new force between them?

125
Q.5 A charge (q1 = 32µC) is placed at origin & another charge of magnitude µC & opposite
9
nature is placed at point (3, 4). The force acting on the second charge will be:

( ) (
(1) 32 × 10–3 3iˆ + 4ˆj N (2) –32 × 10–3 3ˆi + 4ˆj N )
(3) 32 × 10–3 (6iˆ + 8ˆj) N ( )
(4) –32 × 10–3 6ˆi + 8ˆj N

Q.6 Find minimum repulsive force between 2 charges placed at separation 1 fermi (1F = 10–15 m)
(1) 23 N (2) 2.3 N (3) 0.23 N (4) 230 N

3. Principle of Superposition 
F4 
Force on a charged particle due to number of point charges is the q1
F3
resultant of forces due to individual point charges, therefore force on a 
q2 F2
point test charge due to many charges is given by q3 q

    q4 F1
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ....... .

Example 8:
2 10
Two charged pendulums of charges µC & mC are in equilibrium when they are 1 m Apart.
3 3
If the pendulums are identical then what will be the mass of each pendulum if the angle
between the strings in equilibrium is 60°
Solution:
Force between the charges
2   10 
(9 × 109 )  × 10–6   × 10–3 
3  3  T cos30º 60º
F=
12 30º
F = 20 N F = 20N
For balancing T sin30º
⇒ T sin 30° = 20 mg
⇒ T cos 30° = mg
20
⇒ tan 30° =
mg
⇒ m = 2 3 Kg

Electrostatics 7
Example 9:
Find net electrostatic force on any charge in situation (a) & (b)
Q Q Q
r

r r r r

Q r Q Q r Q
(a) (b)
Solution:
KQ2 60
(a) F=2 cos
r 2 2
2KQ2 3
=F ×
r 2 2
3KQ2
F=
r2
2KQ2 KQ2
(b) Fnet
= +
r2 2r2

=Fnet
KQ2
2r2
(2 2 + 1)

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 Three charges each of magnitude q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, the
electrostatic force on the charge placed at the centre is (each side of triangle is L).
1 q2 1 3q2 1 q2
(1) zero (2) (3) (4)
4πε0 L2 4πε0 L2 12πε0 L2

Q.2 Charges Q, q, Q, q are placed at the corners A, B, C, D of a square respectively. If the resultant
force on the charge Q is zero due to other charges, what is the relation between Q and q?
1
(1) Q = –2 2q (2) Q = –2q (3) Q = – 2q (4) Q = – q
2 2

Q.3 ABC is right-angle triangle with sides AB = 3 cm, BC = 4 cm, AC = 5 cm. Charges 15, 12 and
–20 e.s.u. are placed at A, B, C respectively. Magnitude of the force experienced by the charge
at B in dyne is:
A
+15
5
3

B C
+12 4 –20

(1) 125 (2) 35 (3) 25 (4) zero

8 Electrostatics
Q.4 Two small balls having equal positive charge Q (coulomb) on each
are suspended by two insulated strings of equal length L meter,
L
from a hook fixed to a stand. The whole set up is taken in satellite L
into space where there is no gravity (state of weightlessness). +Q +Q
Then the angle between the strings and tension in the string is
1 Q2 1 Q2
(1) 180°, . (2) 90°, .
4πε0 (2L)2 4πε0 L2

1 Q2 1 QL2
(3) 180°, . 2 (4) 180°, .
4πε0 2L 4πε0 4L2

Q.5 Two small spherical balls each carrying a charge Q = 10µC are suspended
by two insulating threads of equal length 1m each from ceiling.
It is found that in equilibrium, threads are separated by an angle 60º
60° between them, as shown in the figure.
1 9 2
Q Q
What is the tension in the threads (Given: = 9 × 10 Nm/C )
(4πε0 )
(1) 18 N (2) 1.8 N (3) 0.18 N (4) None

4. Electric Field
Electric field is the region around charged particle or charged body in which if another charge
is placed, it experiences electrostatic force.


4.1 Electric field intensity E
Electric field intensity at a point is equal to the electrostatic force experienced by a unit
positive point charge, both in magnitude and direction.

If a test charge q0 is placed at a point in an electric field and experiences a force F due to
some charges (called source charges), the electric field intensity at that point due to source

 F
charges is given by E = Lim
q →0 q
0 0


4.2 Properties of electric field intensity E
• It is a vector quantity. Its direction is the same as the force experienced by positive charge.
• Its S.Ι. unit is Newton/Coulomb [N/C].
–3 –1
• Its dimensional formula is [MLT A ].
• Electric force on a charge q placed in a region of electric field at a point where the electric
  
field intensity is E is given by F = qE.
• Electric force on point charge is in the same direction of electric field on positive charge and
in opposite direction on a negative charge.
• It obeys the superposition principle, that is, the field intensity at a point due to a system of
charges is vector sum of the field intensities due to individual point charges.
   
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + .....

Electrostatics 9
5. Electric Lines of Force (ELOF) or Electric Field Lines (ELF)
An electric field line is an imaginary curve and tangent at any point on which gives the
direction of the net electric field at that point.
Electric lines of electrostatic field have following properties
(i) They are Imaginary
(ii) Can never intersect each other because there will be two directions of electric field at the
point of intersection which is not possible.
(iii) Can never forms closed loops because it originate from positive charge and terminate at
negative charge. Induced electric field (non conservative) form close loop.
(iv) Electric field lines are always perpendicular to surface of metallic bodies.
(v) Lines of force starts from (+ve) charge or infinity and ends on (-ve)
charge or infinity.
(vi) If there is no electric field there will be no lines of force.
(vii) Lines of force per unit area normal to the area at a point represents
magnitude of intensity, crowded lines represent strong field while distant represents weak field.
(viii) Tangent to the line of force at a point in an electric field gives the direction of intensity.

Representation of Electric Lines of Forces Due to Various Configurations

(a) Isolated Positive Charge (b) Isolated Nagative Charge

q –q
B

|EA| > |EB| as density of field lines at A is greater than at B.

(c) Two Positive Chages (d) Oppositive Charges

10 Electrostatics
 (e) Uniform Electric Field (f) Non-uniform Electric Field

(Direction)
B
A
q
|EB| > |EA|

Field lines are parallel, straight and equispaced

(g) Non-uniform field due to direction (h) Non-uniform field due to change in magnitude

Following Pattern of Electrostatics Field lines Cannot Exist

(a) Cannot be circular (b) Cannot be circular

(c) Cannot be directed towards +ve charge (d) Cannot intersect

+10C –10C

Example 10:
If number of electric lines of force from charge q are 10 then find out number of electric lines
of force from 2q charge.
Solution:
No. of ELOF ∝ magnitude of charge
10 ∝ q ⇒ 20 ∝ 2q So number of ELOF will be 20.

Example 11:
Some electric lines of force are shown in figure, for point A and B
A
(1) EA > EB (2) EB > EA
(3) EA = EB (4) can’t be determined B
Solution:
lines are denser at A so EA > EB.

Electrostatics 11
Example 12:
If a charge is released in electric field, will it follow lines of force?
Solution: E
F = q0E
Case I: +q0

If lines of force are parallel (in uniform electric field):

In this type of field, if a charge is released, force on it will be qoE and its
→
direction will be along E . So the charge will move in a straight line along
the lines of force.
Case II: - +q
If lines of force are curved (in non-uniform electric field)
The charge will not follow lines of force (due to inertia of motion)

6. Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

kq
E= q r
r2
A P
 kq 
E= 3 r
r
  
• r = rP – rA = Position vector of P with respect to A. Put value of charge with sign.

Example 13:
Electrostatic force experienced by –3µC charge placed at point 'P' due to P
 Q1
F (21ˆi + 9 ˆj) µN.
a system 'S' of fixed point charges as shown in figure is=
Q2 S
(i) Find out electric field intensity at point P due to S.
Q3 Q4
(ii) If now 2µC charge is placed and –3µC is removed at point P then force
experienced by it will be.
Solution:
   
(i) F = qE ⇒ (21iˆ + 9ˆj)µN = –3µC(E) ⇒ E = – 7 î – 3 ˆj
 
(ii) F2µC = +2( E ) = 2(–7 î – 3 ˆj ) = (–14 î – 6 ˆj ) µN

Example 14:
Calculate the electric field intensity which would be just sufficient to balance the weight of a
–2
particle of charge –10 µc and mass 10 mg. (take g = 10 ms )
Fe
Solution:
 
| Fq | = | W |
A q E
i.e., |q|E = mg
mg
⇒E = = 10 N/C in downward direction W
|q|

12 Electrostatics
Example 15:
Find out electric field intensity at point A (0, 1m, 2m) due to a point charge –20 µC situated at
point B( 2 m, 0, 1m).
Solution:
KQ 
E=  r
| r |3

⇒ r = Position vector of A – Position vector of B
   
r = rA – rB = (- 2 î + ˆj + k̂ ) ⇒ | r|= ( 2)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = 2

9 × 109 × (–20 × 10–6 )

(– 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ ) = – 22.5 × 10 (– 2iˆ + ˆj + kˆ ) N/C
3
E=
8

6.1 Null Point Identification

Case: 1 For charges of same nature and unequal magnitude Null point will lie on the line of
joining of charges and in between the two charges
at point ‘p’
P
kq1 kq2 q1
r1
⇒ = ⇒ = + q1 r1 r2 + q2
r12 r22 r2 q2

Case: 2 For charges of opposite nature & different magnitude Null point will lie on the line of
joining of the charges, closer to smaller magnitude charge & will be on exterior point
here |q1| > |q2| –q2
P
r1 q1 E=0
Here = q1 r1 r2
r2 q2

Example 16:
What has to be the value of Q for the system to be in equilibrium
q q
Q
FB F'centre
q q FA
D q
Solution: q FD
C
Charge Q is at centre where E = 0 Q
If system is in equilibrium then 'q' must be in equilibrium
Kq2 Kq2 2KQq q q
FD = FB = ; FA = , Fcentre = A B
a2 2a2 a2
For equilibrium
2KQq  Kq2 Kq2 
= = – 2 + 2 2 
a2  2a a 
q  q q 
⇒ 2Q = –  + 2q ; Q = –  + 
2  4 2

Electrostatics 13
Example 17:
Six equal point charges are placed at the corners of a regular hexagon of side 'a'. Calculate
electric field intensity at the centre of hexagon?
+q +q

+q +q

+q +q
Solution:
Zero

Example 18:
Calculate the electric field at origin due to infinite number of charges as shown in figures below.
q q q q –q q
O O
1 2 4 x(m) 1 2 4 x(m)
fig(a) fig(b)
Solution:
1 1 1 
(a) E=
0 kq  + + + .....
 1 4 16 
kq.1 4kq
= =
(1 – 1 / 4) 3
a 1
[ S∞ = , a = 1 and r = ]
1–r 4
1 1 1  kq.1 4kq
E0 kq  – +
(b)= + ..... = =
 1 4 16  (1 – (–1 / 4)) 5

Concept Builder-3

Q.1 The lines of force of the electric field due to two charges q and Q are sketched in the figure then:

Q q

(1) Q is positive and |Q| > |q| (2) Q is negative and |Q| > |q|
(3) q is positive and |Q| < |q| (4) q is negative and |Q| < |q|

Q.2 An uncharged sphere of metal is placed in between two charged plates as shown. The lines of
force look like
+ + + + + ++ – –– –––– + + + + + ++

– –– –––– + + + + + ++ – –– ––––
A B D
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D

14 Electrostatics
Q.3 The given figure gives electric lines of force due to two charges q1 and q2. What are the signs
of the two charges ?

q1 q2

(1) Both are negative (2) Both are positive

(3) q1 is positive but q2 is negative (4) q1 is negative but q2 is positive

Q.4 Two charges +5µC and +10µC are placed 20 cm apart. The net electric field at the mid-Point
between the two charges is:
6 6
(1) 4.5 × 10 N/C directed towards + 5µC (2) 4.5 × 10 N/C directed towards +10µC
6 6
(3) 13.5 × 10 N/C directed towards +5µC (4) 13.5 × 10 N/C directed towards +10µC

Q.5 A charged particle of charge Q, mass m is kept in equilibrium in the electric field between the
plates of Millikan oil drop experiment. If the direction of the electric field between the plates
is reversed, then calculate acceleration of the charged particle.

Q.6 A charge q = 1 µC is placed at point (1m, 2m, 4m). Find the electric field at point P(0, –4m, 3m).

Q.7 A point charge of 0.009 µC is placed at origin. Calculate intensity of electric field due to this
point charge at point ( 2, 7,0) .

Q.8 The distance between the two charges 25µC and 36µC is 11cm. At what point on the line
joining the two, the intensity will be zero.
(1) At a distance of 5 cm from 25µC (2) At a distance of 5 cm from 36µC
(3) At a distance of 10 cm from 25µC (4) At a distance of 11 cm from 36µC

Q.9 Two point charges +8q and –2q are located at x=0 and x=L respectively. The location of a
point on the x-axis at which the net electric field due to these two point charges is zero is:
L
(1) 8L (2) 4L (3) 2L (4)
4

Q.10 For systems to be in equilibrium Q=?

q
Q
(i) a a (ii) q a a q
Q
q q
a

Electrostatics 15
 7. Electric Field Intensity Due To Continuous Charge Distribution
7.1 Electric field due to uniformly charged circular ring at an axial point
λRx kQx
=EP = 3/2
2 ∈0 R + x 
2 2 r3 Q =λ(2πR)
  + +
+ R + r 
Q
where; r= R2 + x2 ; λ = + + x
E
2πR + O + P
kQx + +
or EP = + +
(R ) +++
3/2
2
+ x2

At centre of ring x = 0 so E0 = 0
dE
E will be maximum when =0
dx
R 2KQ
that is at x = ⇒ Emax =
2 3 3 R2

KQ 2 2 2
Case (A): if x>>R, E = 2
, Hence the ring will act like a point charge (distant point x +R  x )
x
KQx
Case (B): if x<<R, E = 3
(nearpoint x2 + R2  R2 )
R

Example 19:
If Ep = 0, What is Q0? The distance of point P from C1 is same as that of C2.

+Q Q0
C1 C2
P
R R
d

Solution:
KQx K(Q0 )x
= ⇒ Q = Q0
2 2 3/2
(R + x ) (R + x2 )3/2
2

7.2 Segment of Ring

E at center
2kλ α
E0 = sin
R 2
+λ
+
+
+
+ 
α E
+
+
+ R
+
+
+λ

16 Electrostatics
Example 20:
Electric field intensity at origin is
– Y
λ 0– R
– 45º O
– 45º
– X
R
–

2Kλ 0 2Kλ 0 ˆ 2Kλ0 ˆ

(1) î (2) – i (3) – i (4) – x axis
R R R
Solution:

2Kλ 0 2Kλ 0
E= sin(45)(–i) ; E = (–i)
R R

7.3 Electric field due to uniformly charged infinite sheet

σ
Enet = in normal direction of sheet
2ε0
• The direction of electric field is always perpendicular to the sheet.
• The magnitude of electric field is independent of distance from sheet.

8. Motion of Charge in A Uniform Electric Field

8.1 A charge is released from rest in a uniform electric field, then

• Force on charge = QE
QE
• Acceleration of charge =
m
E
QE Q⊕ F
• Velocity after time ‘t’ = t
m
1 QE 2
• displacement after time ‘t’ = t
2 m
• Path of particle will be straight line

8.2 A charge enters in a uniform electric field with a velocity v parallel to the electric field

• Path of particle will be straight line

QE
• Acceleration of particle will be = Q⊕ v
m E
QE
• Velocity after time ‘t’ = v + t
m
1 QE 2
• Displacement after time ‘t’ = vt + t
2 m
• If the charge is enters along the field or positive charge enters opposite to the field then the
speed of particle will first decrease then increase.

v Q E

Electrostatics 17
8.3 A charge enters in a uniform electric field perpendicularly

⊕
v0

E
ĵ
î

• Path of particle will be parabolic

• acceleration of particle
QE ˆ
a= j
m
• velocity of particle after time ‘t’
QE ˆ QE ˆ
= v 0ˆi + (t)
= j v 0ˆi + tj
m m

9. Electric Flux (φ)

Electric flux represent "the total number of lines of force passing through normal area or
surface held perpendicularly".
  
for open surface φ = dφ = ∫ ∫ E ds φc =∫ E.ds (by definationof flux)
for closed surface qnet
 =φc or 4πkqnet (Gauss's law)
φc = E.S = E S cosθ ∈0

S = always normal to surface and pointed out wards.
(i) It is a scalar quantity
2 3 -3 -1
(ii) Units (V-m) and N-m /C, Dimensions: [ML T A ]
(iii) The value of φ does not depend upon the distribution of charges and the distance between
them inside the closed surface.
(iv) The value of φ is zero in the following circumstances:
(a) If a dipole (or many dipoles are) is enclosed by a closed surface
(b) Magnitude of (+ve) and (-ve) charges are equal inside a closed surface
(c) If no charge is enclosed by the closed surface
(d) Incoming flux (- ve) = out going flux (+ve)

9.1 Some Important application of flux linked with surface when electric field is uniform

ds 
E
2 2
(A) φin= –πR E and φout= πR E 
E
R
So φtotal = 0
 
ds  ds
E

18 Electrostatics
 R 
2 2
E
(B) φin= φcircular = –πR E and φout= φcurved = πR E

So φtotal = 0 E


y ds 
E
 a
(C) φin =−a2E and φout =
a2E ds 
ds
So φtotal = 0 x
a
a
z
1 1 
(D) φin = – πR2 E and φout = πR2E
2 2 E
So φtotal = 0

Note: Electric flux linked with any closed surface in a uniform electric field is always zero.

10. Gauss's Law

1
The total flux linked with a closed surface is times the net charge enclosed by the closed
∈0
  q
surface (Gaussian surface) i.e. ∫ E.ds =
∈0
. This law is suitable to calculate for symmetrical

charge distribution and valid for all vector fields obeying inverse square law.

10.1 Gaussian surface

(i) Is taken to be imaginary closed surface
(ii) Is taken to be spherical for a point charge, conducting and non - conducting spheres
(iii) Is taken to be cylindrical for Infinite line of charges, uniformly charged long cylindrical bodies.
 
We select a Gaussian surface such that determination of ∫ E . ds can be done in simplest way

(by symmetry)

Note: (i) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of its shape.

(ii) Flux through Gaussian surface depends only on total charge present inside the Gaussian surface.
(iii) Flux through Gaussian surface is independent of position of charges inside the Gaussian surface.
(iv) Electric field intensity at the Gaussian surface is due to all the charges present inside as
well as outside the Gaussian surface.
(v) In a closed surface incoming flux is taken negative while outgoing flux is taken positive,
because n̂ is taken positive in outward direction.
(vi) In a Gaussian surface φ = 0 does not imply E = 0 at every point of the surface but E = 0 at
every point implies φ = 0.
(vii) Discrete charge can't present on Gaussian surface but continuous charge system can pass
through Gaussian surface.

Electrostatics 19
10.2 Calculation using symmetry

(1) Charge placed at centre of sphere

(a) Flux linked with hemisphere

kq   E
E=
R2 ∫
; φ = E· dA

q q
φ = 2πR2 × = R q
4π ∈0 R 2 2 ∈0

Note: Here electric field is radial

(b) Flux linked with complete sphere

q
φTotal =
∈0 q

(2) Charge placed at centre of cylinder

(a) Flux linked with complete cylinder q
q
φTotal =
∈0
R

q
(b) Flux linked with half of cylinder
q
φcylinder = R
2 ∈0

(3) Charge placed in a cube

(i) Charge present at any one of the face of a cube q
q
φcube =
2 ∈0

(ii) Charged placed at centre

q q
φTotal =
∈0

(iii) Charge placed at any one corner]

q
φ= q
8 ∈0

q
(iv) Charge is anyone arm of cube
q
φ=
4 ∈0

20 Electrostatics
Example 21:
As shown in fig. a closed surface intersects a spherical conductor. If a –ve charge is placed at
point P. What is the nature of the electric flux coming out of the closed surface ?
closedsurface conductor

P
–Q

Solution: closedsurface conductor

Point charge –Q induces charge on conductor as shown in fig. Net – ++

–– + P
– +
charge enclosed by closed surface is (–ve) so flux is negative. – + –Q
–
– +
– +
– –+ +
Example 22:
Find out flux through the given Gaussian surface.

• q5 =2µC
• q4 = –6µC • q1 =2µC
• q2 =−3µC
• q3 =4µC
• q6 =3µC

Gaussian surface

Solution:
Qin 2µC – 3µC + 4µC 3 × 10–6 2
φ= = = Nm /c
ε0 ε0 ε0

Example 23:

In a region of space, the electric field is in the x-direction and proportional to x, i.e. E = E0xiˆ .
Consider an imaginary cubical volume of edge a, with its edges parallel to the axes of
coordinates. What is the charge enclosed by this volume? y
C Q
Solution : The idea behind this question is that we have to calculate the P
 B
total electric flux of the field E = E0xiˆ through this cube and have D R
q A S
to make it equal to . Then q will be calculated. O x
ε0
z
The contribution in the electric flux will be made only by two
faces (ABCD and PQRS) of the cube because for rest of the four faces the area vector is

perpendicular to the E field and hence the flux will be zero (because cos 90°=0). Let the face
ABCD is at a perpendicular distance 'd' from the origin on the x-axis as shown below.

Note the things on the face ABCD. Here the electric field E = E0diˆ (because x=d here) and area

vector ds = −a2ˆi (because it has to be perpendicular outside the cube). So, the flux on the

Electrostatics 21
  
(
E0diˆ −a2ˆi =
surface 1 is E ⋅ ds = )
−E0da2 (because ˆi ⋅ ˆi =1 ). On surface 2 i.e., on the surface
 
PQRS the electric field
= E E0 (d + a)iˆ (because x=d+a here) and the area vector ds = a2ˆi . So, the
 
electric flux E ⋅ ds= E0 (d + a)a2 (because ˆi ⋅ ˆi =1 ). Now, the net flux through the cube is

E0 (d + a)a2 − E0da2 =
E0a3 .

Qnet
Using the Gauss's law, Net flux
ε0

therefore Qnet enclosed = ε0 (Net flux) = ε0E0a3

surface 1
y y
C
B P
B surface 2
d D
A A S
O x O x
z z

Example 24:
A long string with a charge of λ per unit length passes through an imaginary cube of edge a.
What is the maximum flux of the electric field through the cube?
Solution : Maximum flux means maximum charge enclosed. Here the source of charge is a line charge
distribution so we have to look for the maximum length into which the line charge can be
accommodated. Note that the maximum length in a cube is the largest diagonal which is 3a
(where a is the length of the side of the cube). So the maximum charge that can be
accommodated in the cube is 3aλ .
1
Now, as per Gauss's law, the maximum flux is times the maximum charge included in the
ε0
cube.

3aλ
So, the maximum flux =
ε0

Example 25:
A charge Q is placed at a distance a/2 above the centre of a horizontal, square surface of
edge 'a' as shown in figure. Find the flux of the electric field through the square surface.
Q
a/2

a a

22 Electrostatics
Solution:
The procedure of the question will be to cover the charge Q symmetrically and completely.
So, if we have five more square plates of identical size then we can make a hollow cube and
we will find that the charge Q is placed at the centre.
Now, can you see that the total flux of Q is being shared by six faces equally and we are
supposed to calculate it for the lower plate! So, the answer will be Q / 6ε0 .

a/2
a
a

11. Calculation of Electric field (Application of gauss law)

From gauss's law, we can say
 qin
∫ E.ds = φ net =
ε0


11.1 E due to a uniformly charged spherical shell
(A) At Exterior Point
Since, electric field due to a shell will be radially outwards. So, let’s choose a spherical
Gaussian surface. Applying Gauss's law for this spherical Gaussian
surface ++
q,R
+
q + +
 q q
∫ E ds = φnet = in =
εo εo ∫
⇒ Eds cos 0° =
ε0
+
+
+ +
+
r
+ + +
2 qin q kq 1
⇒ E (4πr ) = ⇒ Eout = = 2
∝
ε0 4πεor 2
r r2

(B) At Interior Point

Let’s choose a spherical Gaussian surface inside the shell. q,R
++
Applying Gauss`s law for this surface +
+
+
r
 q
∫ E.ds = φnet = in = 0 + +
+ r
ε0
  + +
Since angle between E and ds is 0° + +
+

 
∫ Eds = E(4πr2 ) = 0 Ein = 0

r
R

Electrostatics 23
11.2 Electric field due to solid sphere (having uniformly distributed charge Q and radius R)
(A) At Exterior Point
Direction of electric field is radially outwards, so we will choose a spherical Gaussian surface
Applying Gauss's law
  q Q
∫ E.ds = φnet = in =
εo εo Q,R
++ +
  + + +
Since angle between E and ds is 0° + + +
– +
  Q Q kQ 1
∫
E.ds = E(4πr2 ) =
ε0
; Eout =
4πεor 2
= 2 ∝ 2
r r

(B) At interior point

For this choose a spherical Gaussian surface inside the solid sphere. Applying Gauss's law for
this surface
 
 Q 4 3 ++
× πr  + + + Q,R +
 + ++ r + ++
 4 πR3 3  3
+ + ++ + + +
+
+ + + + + +++
+
 Qin 3
  = Qr + + + + + + ++
∫ E.ds = φ net =
ε0
=
ε0 εoR3
+ + + + + ++ ++
+++++ + ++ +
+

++
Qr kQr
E= ⇒ Ein = ∝r
4πεoR 3
R3
E

r
r=R

11.3 Electric field due to infinite line charge (having uniformly distributed charge of charge density λ)
Electric field due to infinite wire is radial so we will choose cylindrical Gaussian surface as
shown is figure.
∞

φ1
Surface(1)
cylindrical
gaussian
surface 
E
λ
 φ3
r
Surface(3)

r
R
φ2 Surface(2)

∞
φnet = φ1 + φ2 + φ3 φ1 = φ2 = 0(θ=90°)
qin λ
φnet = φ3 = =
εo εo

and φ3 = ∫ E.ds
= ∫ E ds cos =θ E∫ ds= E(2πr)

λ λ 2kλ 1
so, E [2πrl] = ⇒E= = ∝
εo 2πεor r r

24 Electrostatics
11.4 Electric field due to infinity long charged tube (having uniform surface charge density σ and
radius R)
 ∞
(A) E out side the tube
Let’s choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface. Applying Gauss’s theorem r
qinσ2πR + + +
φnet = = + + +
εo εo + + +
+ + + 
σ2πR + + +
⇒ Eout × 2πrl = + + +
εo + + +

σR 1
⇒E= ∝
r εo r
∞

 E
(B) E inside the tube:
Let’s choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the tube. Applying
Gauss’s theorem
1
qin Eout ∝
r
φnet = =0 So Ein = 0 Ein = 0
εo r
r =R


11.5 E due to infinitely long solid cylinder of radius R having uniformly distributed charge in
volume (charge density ρ) ∞

(A) E at outside point
r
Let’s choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface.
Applying Gauss's law
qin ρ × πR2  
E × 2πr = =
εo εo

ρR2 1
⇒ Eout = ∝
2r εo r
∞
 ∞
(B) E at inside point
Let’s choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface inside the solid cylinder. r
Applying Gauss's law
qin ρ × πr2  
E × 2πr = =
εo εo
ρr
⇒ Ein = ∝r
2εo
E ∞

Ein ∝ r 1
Eout ∝
r

r
r =R

Electrostatics 25
11.6 Electric field due to a conducting and non-conducting uniformly charge infinite sheets

Suppose Q charge
is given to

Conducting Non − conducting

plate plate
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ + +
+
+ + +

Electric field for both the cases

Q
E=
2Aε0

σconducting σnon −conducting

E= E=
εo 2εo
Q Q
where σconducting = where σnon −conducting =
2A A
Because Qis distributed Because Qis distributed
in' 2A 'area. in' A 'area.

Example 26: Q 2Q
Two large parallel conducting sheets (placed at finite distance) are given
charges Q and 2Q respectively. Find out charges appearing on all the P Q

surfaces.
Solution:
Let there is x amount of charge on left side of first plate, so x Q–x y 2Q – y
on its right side charge will be Q–x, similarly for second plate E3 P Q
there is y charge on left side and 2Q – y charge is on right side E 4 E2 E1
of second plate 1 2 3 4

Ep = 0 (By property of conductor)

x  Q – x y 2Q – y 
⇒ –  + + = 0
2Aεo  2Aεo 2Aεo 2Aεo 

we can also say that charge on left side of

P = charge on right side of P
+3Q –Q Q +3Q
2 2
3Q –Q 2 2
x = Q – x + y + 2Q – y ⇒ x = ,Q–x=
2 2
Similarly, for point Q:
x + Q – x + y = 2Q – y ⇒ y = Q/2, 2Q – y = 3Q/2
So final charge distribution of plates is as shown in figure.

26 Electrostatics
 Concept Builder-4

Q.1 Two concentric rings, one of radius R and total charge +Q and the second of radius 2R and
total charge – 8 Q, lie in x – y plane (i.e., z = 0 plane). The common centre of rings lies at
origin and the common axis coincides with z-axis. The charge is uniformly distributed on both
rings. At what distance from origin is the net electric field on z-axis would be zero ?

z − axis
Where the
fieldis zero
R
z=0
2R
+Q

– 8Q

R R R
(1) (2) (3) (4) 2R
2 2 2 2

Q.2 An electron and a proton start from the negative plate and positive plate respectively, and go
to opposite plates. Which of them wins this race? (plates are parallel to each other)


Q.3 What is the electric flux linked with following geometries (E = E0ˆi)
sphere 
E = Eo ˆi
E
(A) (B)
R a b
c

(C) h (D) E = E0 ˆi
E0 ˆi h

 3  4  3
Q.4 The electric field in a region is given by
= E E0 i + E0 j with E0 = 2.0 × 10 N/C. Find the flux
5 5
2
of this field through a rectangular surface of area 0.2m parallel to the Y–Z plane.

Q.5 A cylinder of length L and radius b has its axis coincident with the x-axis. The electric field in

this region is E = 200iˆ . Find the flux through the left end of the cylinder.
2 2 2
(1) 0 (2) 200 πb (3) 100 πb (4) –200 πb

Electrostatics 27
 
Q.6 region of space the electric field is E = E0xiˆ Consider an imaginary cubical volume of edge ‘a’
with its edges parallel to the axes of coordinates. The charge inside this volume will be
1 1
E a3
3
(1) zero (2) ε0E0 a (3) (4) ε E a3
ε0 0 6 0 0

Q.7 Calculate flux through cylinder?

 = 1m

(1) λ ·ε 0 (2) λ 2 ε0 (3) λ / ε0 (4) ε0 / λ

Q.8 S1 and S2 are two hollow concentric spheres enclosing charges Q and 2Q,
respectively, as shown in figure.
2Q
Q

S1
S2
(i) What is the ratio of the electric flux through S1 and S2
(ii) How will the electric flux through sphere S1 change if medium
of dielectric constant 5 is introduced in the space inside S1 in place of air.

Q.9 Figure shows three large metallic plates with charges Q, 4Q and –Q respectively. Determine
the final charges on all the surfaces.
Q 4Q –Q

1 2 3

12. Electrostatic Potential Energy

12.1 Electrostatic potential energy of a point charge due to many charges
The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge at a point in q1 Source charges
Test charges
electric field is the work done in taking the charge from reference q2
point (generally at infinity) to that point without acceleration (or q3 q
keeping KE const. or Ki = Kf). Its Mathematical formula is q4
U = W(∞→P)ext = qV = – W(P→∞)ele.
Here q is the charge whose potential energy is being calculated and V is the potential at its
position due to the source charges.

Note: Always put q and V with sign.

28 Electrostatics
Properties
(i) Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity but may be positive, negative or zero.
(ii) Its unit is same as unit of work or energy that is joule (in S.Ι. system). Sometimes energy is
also given in electron-volts.
–19
1 eV = 1.6 × 10 J
(iii) Electric potential energy depends on reference point. (Generally Potential Energy at r= ∞ is
taken zero)

Example 27:
The four identical charges q each are placed at the corners of a square of side a. Find the
potential energy of one of the charges due to the remaining charges.
Solution:
The electric potential energy of point A due to the charges placed at B, C and D is
a
1 q2 1 q2 1 q2 q
D C
q
UA = + +
4πε0 a 4πε0 2a 4πε0 a a a

1  1  q2 qA Bq
=
4πε0 2 +  a
 2 a

13. Electrostatic Potential Energy of A System of Charges

(This concept is useful when more than one charges move)
It is the work done by an external agent against the internal electric field required to make a
system of charges in a particular configuration from infinite separation without accelerating it.

13.1 Types of system of charge

(i) Point charge system
(ii) Continuous charge system

Example 28:
If electric potential energy of given system is positive then prove that 2Q > 3q
Q

a a

2Q a –q

Solution:
U(system) = Sum of potential energy of all pairs
k(Q)(2Q) k2Qq kQq kQ
= – – = (2Q – 3q)
a a a a
Given U is positive means U>0
kQ
⇒ (2Q – 3q) > 0] ⇒ 2Q > 3q
a

Electrostatics 29
Example 29:
Figure shows an arrangement of three point charges. The total
q
potential energy of this arrangement is zero. Calculate the ratio .
Q
Solution:
1  –qQ (+q)(+q) Q(–q) 
Usys =  + + =0
4πε0  r 2r r 

q q q 4
–Q + –Q=0 ⇒ 2Q = ⇒ =
2 2 Q 1

Example 30:
Two point charges each of mass m and charge q are released when they are at a distance r
from each other. What is the speed of each charge particle when they are at a distance 2r?
Solution:
According to momentum conservation both the charge particles will move with same speed
now applying energy conservation.

Kq2 1 2 Kq2 Kq2

k1 + k2 + ui = uf + kf ⇒0 + 0 + = 2  mv  + ⇒v=
r 2  2r 2rm

Example 31:
Three equal charges q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side a.

(i) Find out potential energy of charge system.

(ii) Calculate work required to decrease the side of triangle to a/2.
Solution:
(i) U = U12 + U13 + U23

Kq2 Kq2 Kq2 3Kq2

⇒ + + =
a a a a
(ii) Work required to decrease the sides to a/2
W = Uf – Ui

3Kq2 3Kq2 3Kq2

⇒ – =
a/2 a a

30 Electrostatics
14. Electric Potential
In electrostatic field the electric potential (due to some point source charges) at a point P is
defined as the work done by external agent in taking a unit positive point charge from a
reference point (generally taken at infinity) to that point P without changing its kinetic energy.
OR
Electric potential at a point is also equal to the negative of the work done by the electric field
in taking the point charge from reference point (i.e. infinity) to that point.
Mathematical representation
If (W ∞ → P)ext is the work required in moving a point charge q from infinity to a point P, the

electric potential of the point P is

(W∞→P )ext  (–Wele )∞→p ∆U Up – U∞ Up

Vp =  = = = =
q  ∆K =0 q q q q

(W∝ → P)ext can also be called as the work done by external agent against the electric force on a

unit positive charge due to the source charge.

14.1 Properties
(i) Potential is a scalar quantity, its value may be positive, negative or zero.
joule 1 2 –3 –1
(ii) S.Ι. Unit of potential is volt = and its dimensional formula is [M L T Ι ].
coulomb
(iii) Electric potential due to a positive charge is always positive and due to negative charge it
is always negative except at infinite. (taking V∞=0)
(iv) Potential decreases in the direction of electric field.
(v) V = V1 + V2 + V3 + .......

(vi) Potential at reference point may or may not be zero.

14.2 Use of potential

If we know the potential at some point (in terms of numerical value or in terms of formula)
then we can find out the work done by electric force when charge moves from point 'P' to ∞
by the formula Wele ( )p →∞ = qVp

Example 32:
A charge 2µC is taken from infinity to a point in an electric field, without changing its velocity.
If work done against electrostatic forces is –40µJ then find the potential at that point.
Solution:
Wext –40µJ
V= = = –20 V
q 2µC

Electrostatics 31
Example 33:
When charge 10 µC is shifted from infinity to a point in an electric field, it is found that work
done by electrostatic forces is 10 µJ. If the charge is doubled and taken again from infinity to
the same point without accelerating it, then find the amount of work done by electric field
and against electric field.
Solution:
(Wext)∞→p = (–wele)∞→p = (wele)p→∞ = 10 µJ
because ∆KE = 0
(Wext )∞→p 10µJ
Vp = = = 1V
q 10µC
So if now the charge is doubled and taken from infinity then
(Wext )∞→p
1= ⇒ (Wext)∞→P = 20 µJ ⇒ (Wele)∞→P = –20 µJ
20µC

Example 34:
A charge 3µC is released at rest from a point P where electric potential is 20 V then its kinetic
energy when it reaches to infinite is:
Solution:
Wele = ∆K = Kf – 0 (Wele)P → ∞ = qVP = 60 µJ So, Kf = 60 µJ

Example 35:
A charge is moved in an electric field of a fixed charge distribution from point A to another
point B slowly. the work done by external agent in doing so is 100J. What is the change in
potential energy of the charge as it moves from A to B ? What is the work done by the electric
field of the charge distribution as the charge moves from A to B ?
Solution:
Wext =∆U =UB − UA =100J
 
As, Fext = FE for the charge to move slowly, so
WE =
−Wext =
−100J

Example 36:
A particle of mass m and positive charge q is released from point A. Its speed is found to be
'v' when it passes through a point B. Which of the two points is at higher potential? What is
the potential difference between the points?
Solution:
The point A is at higher potential than B as the particle has gained kinetic energy while moving
from A to B.
The kinetic energy acquired by the particle is equal to loss in potential energy. i.e.,
1 1 mv2
(
∆K = q VA − VB ⇒ ) 2
( )
mv2 = q VA − VB ⇒ VA − VB =
2 q

32 Electrostatics
 Example 37:
Suppose an electron in the picture tube of a television set is accelerated from rest through a
potential difference Vb - Va = Vba = +5000 V.
(a) What is the change in electric potential energy of the electron?

( )
= 9.1 × 10−31 kg as a result of this acceleration?
(b) What is the speed of the electron m

Solution:
The electron, accelerated towards the positive plate, will change in potential energy by an
amount ∆PE =−qVba . The loss in potential energy will equal its gain in kinetic energy (energy
conservation).
(a) The charge on an electron is =−e =−1.6 × 10−19 C .
Therefore its change in potential energy is
∆PE = (
−qVba =−1.6 × 10−19 C (+5000 V) = )
−8.0 × 10−16 J

The minus sign indicates that the potential energy decreases. The potential difference, Vba has
a positive sign since the final potential Vb is higher than the initial potential Va. Negative
electrons are attracted towards a positive electrode and repelled away from a negative
electrode.
(b) The potential energy lost by the electrons becomes kinetic energy KE. From conservation
of energy, ∆KE + ∆PE =0 , so
⇒ ∆KE = −∆PE
1
⇒
2
(
mv 2 − 0 =−q Vb − Va =−qVba )
where the initial energy is zero since we are given that the electron started from rest. We
solve for V.

⇒ V =−
2qVba
=−
( )
2 −1.6 × 10−10 C (5000 V)
=4.2 × 107 m / s
m 9.1 × 10 −31
kg

14.3 Potential due to a point charge

r
 
Wext(∞→p) ∫
– (q0E)·∆ r
r
  r
∫
∞ Q P
V= = = – E · dr
qo qo
∞
r
KQ KQ
⇒V= – ∫r
∞
2
(–dr)cos 180º =
r

Example 38:
Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side  calculate potential at the
centre of square. +Q –3Q
Solution:

=VC
(
k Q-3Q-2Q+4Q
= 0
) C

/ 2 –2Q +4Q

Electrostatics 33
14.4 Potential due to a ring
(A) Potential at the centre of uniformly or non uniformly charged ring
Potential due to the small element dq q,R
dq
Kdq Kdq
dV =
R
; Net potential V= ∫ R R
K Kq
V=
R ∫ dq =
R

(B) Potential due to half ring at center is

R
Kq
V=
R +q

dq
(C) Potential at the axis of a ring R
R2 + x 2

Kq x P
V= q
2 2
R +x
V

14.5 Potential Due To Uniformly Charged Spherical shell

As we know
r= r
 
V= – ∫
r→∞
E · dr

(A) At outside point (r > R):

r= r
 KQ  KQ
Vout = –
r→∞
∫
 2  dr ⇒ Vout = r
r

For outside point, the hollow sphere act like a point charge.

(B) Potential at inside point ( r < R )

Suppose we want to find potential at point P, inside the sphere.
Potential difference between Point P and O:
P
 
∫
VP - VO = – Ein · dr Where Ein = 0
O

KQ
So VP – VO = 0 ⇒ VP = VO =
R
KQ KQ
⇒ VIN = =
R (Radius of the sphere)

34 Electrostatics
 (C) Potential due to concentric spherical shells.
1  Q1 Q2 Q3 
=V
4πε0
 + + (
 For r < r1 )
 r1 r2 r3 

1  Q1 Q2 Q3 
=V
4πε0
 + +  , r < r < r2
r3  1
( )
 r r2

1  Q1 + Q2 Q3 
=V 
4πε0  r
+
r3 
(
 , for r2 < r < r3 )
Q1 + Q2 + Q3
=V
4πε0r
(
, for r > r3 )

(D) For a hollow hemisphere of surface charge density σ, potential at centre.

Q σ × 2πR2
=V =
4πε0R 4πε0R
σR
=
2ε0

14.6 Potential Due To Uniformly Charged Solid Non Conducting Sphere

KQ
• for r ≥ R (outside) V= dx
r
x
• for r ≤ R (inside)

V=
KQ 2
(3R – r ) =
2 (
ρ 3R2 – r2 )
2R3 6ε 0
Q
Here ρ=
4 3
πR
3

Example 39:
Two concentric spherical shells of radius R1 and R2 (R2 > R1) are having uniformly distributed
charges Q1 and Q2 respectively. Find out potential
C
R2 B

A R
1
Q2
Q1

(i) at centre point A

(ii) at surface of smaller shell (i.e. at point B)
(iii) at surface of larger shell (i.e. at point C)
(iv) at r ≤ R1
(v) at R1 ≤ r ≤ R2
(vi) at r > R2

Electrostatics 35
Solution:
According to formula
KQ1 KQ2 KQ1 KQ2
(i) VA = + (ii) VB = +
R1 R2 R1 R2
KQ1 KQ2 KQ1 KQ2
(iii) VC = + (iv) for r ≤ R1 V = +
R2 R2 R1 R2
KQ1 KQ2 KQ1 KQ2
(v) for R1 ≤ r ≤ R2 V = + (vi) for r > R2 V = +
r R2 r r

Example 40:
Two hollow concentric nonconducting spheres of radius a and b (a > b) contains charges
Qa and Qb respectively. Prove that potential difference between two spheres is independent of
charge on outer sphere. If outer sphere is given an extra charge, is there any change in
potential difference?
Solution:
KQb KQa
Vinner sphere = + Qa
b a Qb
KQb KQa b a
Vouter sphere = +
a a
KQb KQb
Vinner sphere – Vouter sphere = –
b a
 1 1
∆V = KQb  – 
b a 
Which is independent of charge on outer sphere. If outer sphere is given any extra charge then
there will be no change in potential difference.

Concept Builder-5
–5
Q.1 Two charged particles each having equal charges 2 × 10 C are brought from infinity to within
a separation of 10 cm. Calculate the increase in potential energy during the process and the
work required for this purpose.

Q.2 Plot the following graphs –

(i) Electric field inside a conducting sphere with distance from centre
1
(ii) E versus where E is electric field due to a point charge and r is the distance from charge
r
(iii) Electric potential energy (U) of a pair of 2 like charges with distance (r) between charges.

Q.3 A particle A has charge +q and particle B has charge +4q with each of them having the same
mass m. When allowed to fall from rest through the same electric potential difference, the
VA
ratio of their speeds will become
VB
(1) 1: 2 (2) 2: 1 (3) 1: 4 (4) 4: 1

36 Electrostatics
Q.4 What is the potential at the centre of the triangle?
+2Q

a a

+Q a –3Q

Q.5 Find the potential at origin?

(0, +a) 1C
(–2a,0) (a,0) (4a,0)
4C –2C +3C
(0,–a) –3C

Q.6 A point charge q0 having mass m is placed at the centre of uniformly charged ring of total
charge Q and radius R. If the point charge is slightly displaced with negligible force along axis
of the ring then find out its speed when it reaches to a large distance.

Q.7 Four point charges –Q, –q, 2q and 2Q are placed, one at each corner of the square. The
relation between Q and q for which the potential at the centre of the square is zero is:
(1) Q = –q (2) Q = – 1/q (3) Q = q (4) Q = 1/q

A
Q.8 Two point charges 10 µC and 5 µC are placed at points A and B
respectively with AC = 40 cm. The work done by external force
in displacing the charge 5 µC form B to C, where BC = 30 cm
B
81 9 9 C
(1) 9 J (2) J (3) J (4) J
20 25 40

Q.9 If an electron moves from rest from a point at which potential is 50 volt to another point at
which potential is 70 volt, then its kinetic energy in the final state will be
–10 –18
(1) 3.2 × 10 J (2) 3.2 × 10 J (3) 1 J (4) 1 dyne

Q.10 Charge on the outer sphere is q, and the inner sphere is grounded. Then the charge on the
inner sphere is q’, for (r2 > r1)

r2
r1

r1 r1
(1) Zero (2) q’ = q (3) q’ = q (4) q’ = – q
r2 r2

Electrostatics 37
15. Potential Difference
The potential difference between two points A and B is work done by external agent against
electric field in taking a unit positive charge from B to A without acceleration (or keeping
Kinetic Energy constant or Ki = Kf).
• Mathematical representation
If (WA → B)ext = work done by external agent against electric field in taking the unit charge from A to B
B
 
(WA→B )ext –(WA→B )electric UB – UA ∫
– Fe .dr
B
 
∫
A
VB – VA = = = = = – E . dr
q q q q
∆K =
0 A

Note: Take W and q both with sign

15.1 Properties
(i) The difference of potential between two points is called potential difference. It is also
called voltage.
(ii) Potential difference is a scalar quantity. Its S.I. unit is volt.
(iii) If VA and VB be the potential of two points A and B, then work done by an external agent in
taking the charge q from A to B is
(Wext)AB= q (VB – VA) or (Wel) AB = q (VA – VB).
(iv) Potential difference between two points is independent of reference point.

15.2 Potential difference in a uniform electric field 

  B E
VB – VA = – E · AB
⇒ VB – VA = – |E| |AB| cos θ θ
A
= – |E| d = – Ed d

∆V
d = effective distance between A and B along electric field. or we can also say that E =
∆d
Special Cases:
Case 1. Line AB is parallel to electric field.
d
A B
E

∴ VA – VB = Ed

Case 2. Line AB is perpendicular to electric field.

A
d E
B

∴ VA – VB = 0 ⇒ VA = V B

Note: In the direction of electric field potential always decreases.

38 Electrostatics
Example 41:
1µC charge is shifted from A to B and it is found that work done by an external force is 40µJ
in doing so against electrostatic forces then, find potential difference VA – VB
Solution:
(WAB)ext = q(VB – VA)
⇒ 40 µJ = 1µC (VB – VA)
⇒ VA – VB = – 40 V

Example 42:
A uniform electric field is present in the positive x-direction. Ιf the intensity of the field is
5N/C then find the potential difference (VB –VA) between two points A (0m, 2 m) and B (5 m, 3 m)
Solution:
 
VB – VA = – E . AB

= – (5 î ) · (5 î + ˆj ) = –25V
∆V
The electric field intensity in uniform electric field E =
∆d
Where ∆V = potential difference between two points.
∆d = effective distance between the two points. (projection of the displacement along the
direction of electric field)

Example 43:
Find out following

uniform electric
fieldE = 20N / C
C
2cm
A B
2cm

(i) VA – VB (ii) VB – VC (iii) VC – VA (iv) VD – VC

(v) VA – VD (vi) Arrange the order of potential for points A, B, C and D.
Solution:
–2
(i) ∆VAB =
Ed = 20 × 2 × 10 = 0.4 So, VA – VB = 0.4 V
–2
(ii) ∆VBC =
Ed = 20 × 2 × 10 = 0.4 So, VB – VC = 0.4 V
–2
(iii) ∆VCA =
Ed = 20 × 4 × 10 = 0.8 So, VC – VA = – 0.8 V

(iv) ∆VDC =
Ed = 20 × 0 = 0 So, VD – V C = 0
–2
(v) ∆VAD =
Ed = 20 × 4 × 10 = 0.8 So, VA – VD = 0.8 V

(vi) The order of potential VA > VB > VC = V D

Electrostatics 39
16. Equipotential Surface
If potential of a surface (imaginary or physically existing) is same throughout then such
surface is known as an equipotential surface.

16.1 Properties of equipotential surfaces

(i) When a charge is shifted from one point to another point on an equipotential surface then
work done against electrostatic forces is zero.
(ii) Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
(iii) Two equipotential surfaces do not cross each other.

16.2 Examples of equipotential surfaces

(A) Point charge:

Equipotential surfaces are concentric and spherical as shown in figure. In figure we can see
that sphere of radius R1 has potential V1 throughout its surface and similarly for other
concentric sphere potential is same.
V2
V1

q
R1
R2

(B) Line charge:

Equipotential surfaces have curved surfaces as that of coaxial cylinders of different radii.

V2

V1

(C) Uniformly charged large conducting / non conducting sheets:

Equipotential surfaces are parallel planes.
V1 V2 V3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

40 Electrostatics
Note :
1. In uniform electric field equipotential surfaces are always parallel planes.
2. Closely spaced equipotential surfaces represents stronger electric field.
3. For a dipole, equatorial plane represents one equipotential surface.

4. For uniform electric field, equipotential surfaces are parallel equi-spaced planes
perpendicular to electric lines of forces.

V5 < V4 < V3 < V2 < V1

If a charge 'q' is moved from A to B
External work done
W
=AB (
q V3 − V2 )
work done by electric field
WAB = (
−q V3 − V2 )
5. V5 < V4 < V3 < V2 < V1 < V0

Direction of electric field in the direction of decrease of potential

V0 − V1 V0 − V1
=|E| =
r x sin θ
directed at '90+θ' with x-axis
Where r is perpendicular distance between equipotential surfaces.

Electrostatics 41
Example 44:
Some equipotential surfaces are shown in figure. Calculate electric field with direction?
y(cm)
10V 20V 30V 40V

0 30º 30º 30º 30º

10 20 30 40 x(cm)

Solution:
Here we can say that the electric field will be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces
 ∆V
Also |E| =
∆d
where ∆V = potential difference between two equipotential surfaces
∆d = perpendicular distance between two equipotential surfaces
 10
So, E= = 200 V/m
(10 sin30º ) × 10–2
Now there are two perpendicular directions since we know that in the direction of electric
field electric potential decreases so the correct direction of electric field is making an angle
120° with the x-axis having value E = 200 V/m

Example 45:
Compare field, potential and surface charge density at A, B, and C.
Solution:
Surface of a metal is an equipotential surface (EPS) so charge on irregular shaped metal
distributes to create same potential on surface
⇒ VA = VB = VC Now radius of curvature (R) for straight line = ∞
QA QB QC
RC > RB > RA Now = = or Q ∝ R
RA RB RC +
+ + ++
++ ++
+ ++ + B +
+
+ A ++
+
++
KQ V 1 + ++ + + +
+
+
Electric field E = 2
⇒E= ⇒E∝ ⇒ E A > EB > E C + +
+
R R R +
+ METAL
+
+
+ C +
+++ + +
Q ++ ++++ ++ + +
surface charge density σ ∝
R2
V 1
⇒σ= ∝ ⇒ σA > σB > σ C
R R
So, if there is any possibility of charge leakage, it starts from point A. (corona discharge)
Remember that E and σ at sharp points is more while potential is same
50V
40V
30V
20V

Example 46:
B
Figure shows some equipotential surface produced by some charges. At which
point the value of electric field is greatest?
A C

Solution:
E is larger where equipotential surfaces are closer. ELOF are ⊥ to equipotential surfaces. In
the figure we can see that for point B they are closer so E at point B is maximum.

42 Electrostatics
17. Relation Between Electric Field Intensity and Electric Potential
(A) For uniform electric field
B
(i) Potential difference between two points A and B
 →
VB – VA = – E. AB . A

(B) Non uniform electric field

∂V ∂V ∂V
(i) Ex = – , Ey = – , Ez = –
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂v ˆ ∂v ˆ ∂v 
⇒ E = Ex î + Ey ˆj + Ez k̂ = – ˆi +j +k 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V
Where = derivative of V with respect to x (keeping y and z constant)
∂x
∂V
= derivative of V with respect to y (keeping z and x constant)
∂y
∂V
= derivative of V with respect to z (keeping x and y constant)
∂z

(C) If electric potential and electric field depends only on one coordinate, say r
rB
 ∂V    
(i) E = –
∂r
r̂ ∫ ∫
(ii) dV = – E · dr ⇒ VB – VA = – E . dr
rA
∫
r
 
(iii) The potential of a point ⇒ V = – ∫
∞
E . dr

Example 47:
The electric potential in a region along x-axis varies with x according to the relation
2
V(x) = 4 + 5x . Then the incorrect statement is-
(1) potential difference between the points x = 1 and x = 2 is 15 volt.
(2) force experienced by a one coulomb charge at x = –1 m will be 10 N
(3) the force experienced by the above charge will be towards + x-axis
(4) a uniform electric field exists in this region along the x-axis
Solution:
2
V(x) = 4 + 5x
2 2
V(1) = 4 +5(1) = 9 volt; v(2) = 4 + 5(2) = 24 volt
Potential difference = (24 – 9) volt = 15 volt
dV d 2
E=– =– [4 + 5x ] = –10x
dx dx
EF is variable, depends on x
–1
Electric field at x = –1m is |E| = 10 NC
So, force on 1C charge is 10N. It is towards +x axis.
So, statement (4) is incorrect.

Electrostatics 43
Example 48:
A uniform electric field is along x–axis. The potential difference VA– VB = 10 V between two
points A (2m,3m) and B (4m, 3m). Find the electric field intensity.
Solution:
∆V 10
E= = =5V/m ⇒ It is along + ve x-axis.
∆d 2

Example 49:
2

V = x + y , Find E
Solution:
∂V ∂V ∂V
= 2x, = 1 and =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V 
E = –  ˆi +j +k = –(2x î + ˆj ) Electric field is nonuniform.
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

Example 50:
The electric potential existing in space is V(x, y, z) = B(xy + yz + zx). Find the expression for
the electric field at point P(1, 1, 1) and its magnitude if B=10 S.I. unit.
Solution:
−dV
The formula E = in extended form is written as follows :
dr
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V  ∂V ∂V ∂V
E= − ˆi +j +k  where, , and are partial derivatives of potential V with
 ∂ x ∂ y ∂ z  ∂ x ∂ y ∂z
respect to x, y and z respectively. For partial derivative you should note that if say you are
∂V
calculating , then other variables y and z will be treated as constant.
∂x

ˆ , then −∂V −∂V −∂V
Now, If we write E = ˆiEx + ˆjEy + kEz
= Ex = ,Ey and Ez = . In the question
∂x ∂y ∂z
V= B(xy + yz + zx)
−∂V
So, Ex = = −B(y + z) because variables y and z are treated constant.
∂x
Now, put the values of B, y and z. Given B = 10 and (x, y, z) are (1,1,1) respectively.
−∂V
So, Ex = =−B(y + z) =−10(1 + 1) =−20N / C
∂x
−∂V
Similarly, Ey = −B(x + z) [now treating x and z constant] therefore Ey =
= −10(1 + 1) =−20 N/C
∂y
−∂V
and Ez = = −B(x + y) = −20N / C
∂z

ˆ
therefore, E = Exˆi + Eyˆj + Ezk

or, E = ˆ /C
(−20iˆ − 20ˆj − 20k)N

Now, if we want the magnitude of E , then it's equal to
E2x + E2y + E2z = (−20)2 + (−20)2 + (−20)2 = 20 3

44 Electrostatics
Example 51:

An electric field= ˆ + ˆj30) newton/coulomb exists in the space. If the potential at the
E (i20
origin is taken to be zero, find the potential at (2m, 2m).
Solution:
−dV  
We have E = so, it can be written in vector form as dV =−E ⋅ dr
dr
 
Note, you can write E as Exˆi + Eyˆj + Ezkˆ and dr = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
 
therefore E ⋅ dr = Ex ⋅ dx + Ey ⋅ dy + Ez ⋅ dz
In the given question the z component of E or the point is not given. So you can write
 
E ⋅ dr = Ex ⋅ dx + Ey ⋅ dy
 
Now, dV =−E ⋅ dr =−(20iˆ + 30ˆj) ⋅ (dxiˆ + dyj)
ˆ
or, dV =
−20dx − 30dy
Now we will have to integrate it within limits. Given V=0 when x=0 and y=0 (lower limit) and
we have to calculate V when x = 2 and y = 2 (upper limit)
v x −2 y=
2
therefore, ∫ 0
dV =
=
−20
x 0= ∫dx − 30
y 0 ∫ dy

or, [V]0v =
−20[x]20 − 30[y]20
or, V − 0 =−20(2 − 0) − 30(2 − 0)
or, V=-40-60=-100 volt.

Concept Builder-6

Q.1 Two parallel plates separated by a distance of 5 mm are kept at a potential difference of 50
–15 –11 7
V. A particle of mass 10 kg and charge 10 C enters in it with a velocity 10 m/s. The
acceleration of the particle will be
8 2 5 2 5 2 3 2
(1) 10 m/s (2) 5 × 10 m/s (3) 10 m/s (4) 2 × 10 m/s

Q.2 In moving from A to B along an electric field line, the electric field does
–19 B
6.4 × 10 J of work on an electron. If φ1 , φ2 are equipotential surface, E
then the potential difference (VC – VA) is A C
φ1
(1) –4 V (2) 4 V (3) Zero (4) 64 V φ2

2
Q.3 The electric potential V at any point O (x, y, z all in metres) in space is given by V = 4x volt.
The electric field at the point (1 m, 0, 2 m) in volt/meter is
(1) 8 along negative X-axis (2) 8 along positive X-axis
(3) 16 along negative X-axis (4) 16 along positive Z-axis


Q.4 E (yiˆ + xj)
The potential of an electric field = ˆ is
(1) V = –xy + constant (2) V = –(x + y) + constant
2 2
(3) V = –(x + y ) + constant (4) V = constant

Electrostatics 45
 
Q.5 The electric field intensity at all points in space in given by E = 3 ˆi – ˆj volts/meter. The
nature of equipotential lines in x – y plane is given by
Highpotential Low potential Highpotential Low potential
y y y y

30º 30º 60º 60º

(1) x (2) x (3) x (4) x

Low potential Highpotential Low potential Highpotential

18. Electric Dipole

In some molecules, the centres of (+ve) and (-ve) charge do not coincide. This results in the
formation of electric dipole. Atom is non - polar because in the centre of atom (+ve) and (-ve)
charges coincide. Polarity can be induced in an atom by the application of electric field. Hence
it can be called as induced dipole.

18.1 Dipole Moment

 
Dipole moment P = q x 2   is of Å order
2
(i) Vector quantity directed from (-ve) charge to (+ve) charge
+ –
(ii) Dimension: [LTA] +q  –q
p
Unit: coulomb × meter (or Cm)
(iii) Practical unit is debye
–30
1 debye = 3.3 × 10 C×m
K(P sin θ)

Er = E
r3 2K(Pcos θ)
Er =
18.2 Electric field at general point (r, θ): polar coordinates r3
α
KP 2 
Enet = 3
1 + 3cos θ θ
P
r r A
tan θ
tan α = ; Pcos θ
2
–q θ +q
kpcos θ 1
Vp = ∝
r2 r2 P sinθ

End on or Broad on or
Axial position Equatorial
θ =0º position θ =90º
 P
 E
p 
E
– +
O P r
r 90º
O
+  –
p
1 p
VP = VP = 0
4π ∈0 r 2
  
  1   2p   1   –p 
EP =  EP =   3 
 3   4πε0   r 
 4πε0   r 

46 Electrostatics
18.3 Dipole Placed in uniform Electric Field
 
p = 2q 
  
(A) Fnet =  qE + (–q)E  = 0

  
(B) Torque τ = p × E

+ qE
 
p θ  p
E
θ 
E
–   
qE τ(= p × E)

(C) Work: Work done in rotating an electric dipole from θ1 to θ2 [in uniform field]

dW = τ dθ ⇒W = ∫ dW = ∫ τdθ + 
θ2  
E p E
Wθ →θ =
1 2 ∫ pE sinθ dθ = pE (cosθ
θ1
1 – cosθ2) – 
p
+

E + 
p
–
–
W0 →180 = pE [1 – (–1)] = 2 pE θ =0 θ =90º θ =180º
τ =0(min) τ =pE(max) τ =0(min)
W0 → 90 = pE (1 – 0) = pE W = 0(min) W = pE W = 2pE(max)
If a dipole is rotated from field direction
(θ = 0°) to θ then W = pE (1 – cosθ)
Electrostatic potential energy of a dipole placed in a uniform field is defined as work done in
rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to the given direction i.e.
U = Wθ – W90 = pE (1 – cos θ) – pE
 
= – pE cos θ = – p.E

E is a conservative field so whatever work is done in rotating a dipole from θ1 to θ2 is just
equal to change in electrostatic potential energy.
Wθ →θ = Uθ – Uθ = pE (cos θ1– cos θ2)
1 2 2 1

Angular SHM: When a dipole suspended in a uniform field it will align itself parallel to the
field. Now if it is given a small angular displacement θ about its equilibrium position the
restoring torque will be.
τ = pE sinθ
If θ is small then τ = – pE θ q

τ ∝ (– θ) (Angular S.H.M) p 
θ
But τ = I α E

So, –q
Ια = – pEθ
pE 2
⇒α= (– θ) = – ω θ (where α – angular acceleration & Ι – moment of Inertia)
Ι
pE 2π I
ω= ; T= = 2π
I ω pE

Electrostatics 47
Example 52:
What is the dipole moment of the system shown in figure
–q

a a

2q a –q

Solution:

There are two diploes of P = q (a)

P
A
60º

P

so Pnet = 3p= 3 qa

Example 53:
–7 –7
A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10 C and qB = – 2.5 × 10 C located at points
A(0, 0, –0.15m) and B(0, 0, +0.15m) respectively. What is the net charge and electric dipole
moment of the system?
Solution:
–7 –7
Net charge = 2.5 × 10 – 2.5 × 10 =0
Electric dipole moment
P = (Magnitude of charge) × (Separation between charges)
–7
= 2.5 × 10 [0.15 + 0.15] C m
–8
= 7.5 × 10 Cm
The direction of dipole moment is from B to A.

Example 54:
The electric field due to a short dipole at a distance r, on the axial line, from its mid point is
the same as that of electric field at a distance r', on the equatorial line, from its
r
mid-point. Determine the ratio .
r´
Solution:

1 2p 1 p
=
4πε0 r 3 4πε0 r '3

2 1
or 3
=
r r '3
r3 r 1/3
or 3
= 2 or =2
r' r'

48 Electrostatics
Example 55:
Two charges, each of 5 µC but opposite in sign, are placed 4 cm apart. Calculate the electric
field intensity of a point that is at a distance 4 cm from the mid point on the axial line of the
dipole.
Solution:
We can not use formula of short dipole here because distance of the point is comparable to
the distance between the two point charges.
–6 –2 –2
q = 5 × 10 C, a = 4 ×10 m, r = 4 × 10 m 4cm
K(5µC) K(5µC) –5µC 5µC
Eres = E+ + E– = 2
– P
(2cm) (6cm)2
4cm
144 –1 8 –1
= NC = 10 N C
144 × 10–8

Concept Builder-7

Q.1 Three charges of (+4Q), (–3Q) and (–Q) are placed at the corners A, B and C
+4Q
of an equilateral triangle of side a as shown in the adjoining figure.
A
Then the dipole moment of this combination is a a
Qa
(1) (2) zero B C
13 a
–3Q –Q
2
(3) Qa 13 (4) Qa
13

Q.2 An electrical dipole of moment ‘p’ is placed in an electric field of intensity ‘E’. The dipole
acquired a position such that the axis of the dipole makes an angle θ with the direction of the
field. Assuming the potential energy of the dipole to be zero when θ = 90°, the torque and the
potential energy of the dipole will respectively be:
(1) pE sinθ, 2pE cosθ (2) pE cosθ, –pE sinθ
(3) pE sinθ, –pE cosθ (4)pE sinθ, –2pE cosθ

Q.3 A given charge is situated at a certain distance from an electric dipole in the end-on position
experiences a force F. If the distance of the charge is doubled, the force acting on the charge
will be
(1) 2F (2) F/2 (3) F/8 (4) 4F

Q.4 Two electric dipoles of moment P and 64 P are placed in opposite direction on a line at a
distance of 25 cm. The electric field will be zero at point between the dipoles whose distance
from the dipole of moment P is
25 4
(1) 5 cm (2) cm (3) 10 cm (4) cm
9 13

Electrostatics 49
19. Conductor
19.1 Finding field due to a conductor
Suppose we have a conductor, and at any 'A', local surface charge density = σ. We have to find
electric field just outside the conductor surface.
+ + +
+ +
A E=?
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+

For this lets consider a small cylindrical Gaussian surface, which is partly inside and partly
outside the conductor surface, as shown in figure. It has a small cross section area ds and
negligible height.

(2)ds
(3) E
Ein = 0 (1)
Cylindrical
gaussian
surface

Applying Gauss's theorem for this surface

σds σ qin σds
So, Eds = ⇒E= φnet = =
ε0 ε0 ε0 ε0

Electric field just outside the surface of

flux through flux through flux through
σ surface (1) surface(2) surface(3)
conductor E = direction will be normal
ε0 f1 = Eds  f2 = 0 f3 = 0
(because E is (Eisnormal (as E inside
 σ normal to tocurved the conductor= 0)
to the surface. In vector form E = ˆ
n
ε0 the surfaceof Gaussiansurface)
conductor)
(here = n̂ unit vector normal to the
conductor surface)

19.2 Conductor and it's properties [For electrostatic condition]

(i) Conductors are materials which contains large number of free electrons which can move
freely inside the conductor.
(ii) Ιn electrostatics, conductors are always equipotential surface
(iii) Charge always resides on outer surface of conductor.
(iv) Ιf there is a cavity inside the conductor having no charge then charge will always reside
only on outer surface of conductor.
(v) Electric field is always perpendicular to conducting surface.
(vi) Electric lines of force never enter into conductors.

50 Electrostatics
 (vii) Electric field intensity near the conducting surface is given by formula
 σ
E= ˆ
n A
ε0
 σ
EA = A nˆ C
ε0
B
 σ  σ
EB = B nˆ and EC = C nˆ
ε0 ε0
(viii) When a conductor is grounded its potential becomes zero.
V=0

(ix) When an isolated conductor is grounded then its charge becomes zero.
(x) When two conductors are connected there will be charge flow till their potential becomes
equal.
(xi) Electric pressure: Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is given by formula
σ2
P= where σ is the local surface charge density.
2ε0
(xii) Electric potential is constant throughout the volume of a conductor.
1
(xiii) Charge density is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature. σ ∝
R
(xiv) When a conductor is earthed, there is a flow of charge either from earth to conductor or
conductor to earth till the potential of conductor becomes zero.

Note :
1.

dielectric
Dielectric constant = K
E = E 0 – EQ

2. Two concentric conducting shells

(a) Inner sphere is given charge 'Q' and outer is uncharged.

Electrostatics 51
 (b) Outer sphere given a charge and inner is earthed.

When 'K' is closed, Vin = 0 , so a negative charge appears on its surface.

Qr
q= − , as Vin = 0
R
(iv) A point charge is placed at some distance from sphere

A non-uniformly distributed charge is induced on the sphere.

Enet at O = 0
Eind = −Epoint charge

−q
Eind =
4πε0r2
q
Vin= V=
0
4πε0r
When earthed, V = 0 everywhere on and inside the sphere.
qR
Qind = −
r

20. Sharing Of Charges

Two conducting hollow spherical shells of radii R1 and R2 having q1 q2
R1 R2
charges Q1 and Q2 respectively and separated by large distance, are
joined by a conducting wire
Let final charges on spheres are q1 and q2 respectively.
Potential on both spherical shell become equal after joining, therefore
Kq1 Kq2
=
R1 R2
q1 R1
⇒ = ....(i)
q2 R2
and q1 + q2 = Q1 + Q2 ....(ii)
from (i) and (ii)

52 Electrostatics
 (Q1 + Q2 )R1 (Q1 + Q2 )R2
q1 = ; q2 = ;
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

q1 R1 σ 1 4πR21 R1
ratio of charges = ⇒ =
q2 R2 σ2 4πR22 R2
σ1 R2
Ratio of surface charge densities =
σ2 R1
q1 R1
Ratio of final charges =
q2 R2

Example 56:
Two conducting hollow spherical shells of radii R and 2R carry charges –Q and 3Q respectively.
How much charge will flow into the earth if inner shell is grounded?
3Q
–Q

2R

Solution:
When inner shell is grounded to the Earth then the potential of inner shell
will become zero because potential of the Earth is taken to be zero. 3Q
Kx K3Q –3Q x
+ = 0, x=
R 2R 2
R
the charge that has increased
–3Q –Q
= – (–Q) = 2R
2 2
Q
Hence charge flows into the Earth =
2

Example 57:
Two concentric hollow metal spheres have radii R1 and R2. The outer sphere
is given a positive charge Q and the inner is earthed. What is the charge on
the inner sphere ? (R2 > R1)
Solution:
Let us suppose the charge on the inner sphere be x, then the potential of the inner sphere
1 x Q
will be =  + 
4πε0  R1 R2 
This potential has to be made equal to zero because the inner sphere is grounded
1 x Q
So,  + = 0
4πε0  R1 R2 
R1
∴ x =−Q
R2

Electrostatics 53
21. Mixing Of Identical Charged Tiny Drops
Let, number of tiny drops = N
[For each tiny drop] [For Big drop]
(r, q, σ, E,V) (R, Q, σB, EB, VB)

R
Ntiny drops Bigdrops

(i) Charge conservation Q = Nq

4 3 4 3
(ii) Volume conservation N πr = πR
3 3
1/3
Hence R = N r, Q = Nq
1/3 1/3 2/3
∴ σB = N σ, EB = N E, VB = N V

Example 58:
216 identical drops each charged to the same potential of 50 volts are combined to form a
single drop. The potential of the new drop will be
Solution:
2/3
V=n ×v
2/3
V = (216) × 50 = 36 × 50 = 1800 V

54 Electrostatics
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-5

1. (4) 2. (2) 1. Work done ⇒ 36 Joule

3. –40 N (attraction) 4. 351 N ∆U = 36 joule

5. (2) 6. (4) E

2. (i) Econd = 0
CONCEPT BUILDER-2

r
1. (1) 2. (1)
3. (3) 4. (1) E
5. (2)
kQ 1 2 2
(ii) E = 2
; = x; E = KQx ∝ x
r r
CONCEPT BUILDER-3
x

1. (3) 2. (3)
U
3. (1) 4. (1)
5. a = 2g KQ1Q2 1
(iii) U = ∝

6.

Ep =
3
(
9 × 10 –iˆ – 6ˆj – kˆ ) N/C r r
r
38 38

( )

7. E21 3
= 2 ˆi + 7ˆj N/C 3. (1) 4. vc = 0
8. (1) 9. (3) 45
5. – × 109 V
–q 4a
–q
10. (i) Q = ; (ii) Q =
3 4 2kQq0
6. v= m/s 7. (1)
mR
CONCEPT BUILDER-4 8. (4) 9. (2)
10. (4)
1. (4)
2. Electron wins the race CONCEPT BUILDER-6
3. (A) φE = 0 (B) φE = 0
(C) φE = 0 (D) φE = 0 1. (1) 2. (2
4. 240 Nm /C
2
5. (4) 3. (1) 4. (1)
6. (2) 7. (3) 5. (3)
φ1 1 Q
8. (i) = (ii) φ1 =
φ2 3 5ε0 CONCEPT BUILDER-7
Q 4Q –Q
1. (3) 2. (3)
9. 2Q –Q Q 3Q –3Q 2Q 3. (3) 4. (1)

Electrostatics 55
 Exercise - I

Charge and Properties 6. A point charge q1 exerts a force F upon

another point charge q2. If a third
1. A body has 80 microcoulomb of charge.
charge q3 be placed quite near the
Number of additional electrons on it
charge q2 then the force that charge q1
will be:
–5 15 exerts on the charge q2 will be:
(1) 8 × 10 (2) 80 × 10
14 –17
(1) F (2) > F
(3) 5 × 10 (4) 1.28 × 10
(3) < F (4) zero

2. Which of the following charge cannot

7. A charge Q is divided in two parts Q1
present on oil drop in Millikan's
and Q2 and these charges are placed at
experiment:
–19 –19
a distance R. There will be maximum
(1) 4.0 × 10 C (2) 6.0 × 10 C
repulsion between them when
–19
(3) 10.0 × 10 C (4) all of them Q–Q Q
(1) Q1
= = , Q2
R R
3. What equal charges would to be placed 2Q Q
(2) Q1
= = , Q2
on earth and moon to neutralize their 3 3
3Q Q
gravitational attraction (Use mass of (3) Q1
= = , Q2
4 4
25 23
earth = 10 kg, mass of moon = 10 kg) Q
(4) Q1 = Q2 =
(1) 8.6 × 10 C
13
(2) 6.8 × 10
26
C 2
3 6
(3) 8.6 × 10 C (4) 9 × 10 C
8. The force of repulsion between two
point charges is F, when these are at a
4. If in Millikan's oil drop experiment
distance of 0.1 m apart. Now the point
charges on drops are found to be 8µC, charges are replaced by spheres of
12µC, 20µC, then quanta of charge is: diameter 5cm having the charge same
(1) 8µC (2) 4µC as that of point charges. The distance
(3) 20µC (4) 12µC between their centre is 0.1 m, then the
force of repulsion will:
Coulomb's Law and Super Position of (1) increases (2) decreases
Forces (3) remains same (4) 4 F

5. Coulomb’s law for the force between 9. Two charges 4q and q are placed at a

electric charges most closely resembles distance  apart. An another charged

with: particle Q is placed in between them

(1) Law of conservation of energy (at mid point). If resultant force on q is

(2) Newton’s law of gravitation zero then the value of Q is:

(1) q (2) – q
(3) Newton’s 2nd law of motion
(3) 2q (4) – 2q
(4) The law of conservation of charge

56 Electrostatics
10. A total charge of 20µC is divided into 15. Force between two identical spheres
two parts and placed at some distance charged with same charge is F. If 50%
apart. If the charges experience charge of one sphere is transferred to
maximum coulombian repulsion, the
second sphere then new force will be:
charges should be:
3 3
(1) 5µC, 15µC (2) 10µC, 10µC (1) F (2) F
4 8
40 20
(3) 12µC,8µC (4) µC, µC 3
3 3 (3) F (4) none
2

11. Two point charges placed at a distance

r in air exert a force F on each other. 16. Two balls carrying charges +7µC and
The value of distance R at which they –5µC attract each other with a force F.
experience force 4F when placed in a If a charge –2µC is added to both, the
medium of dielectric constant 16 is: force between them will be:
(1) r (2) r/4
F
(3) r/8 (4) 2r (1) F (2)
2
(3) 2F (4) zero
12. Two point charges of +2µC and +6µC
repel each other with a force of 12 N. If
each is given an additional charge of Electric Field Due to Point Charges, Null
–4µC, then force will become: Point and Field Line
(1) 4N (attractive) (2) 60 N (attractive)
(3) 4 N (Repulsive) (4) 12 N (attractive)
17. If an electron is placed in a uniform
electric field, then the electron will:
13. A negative charge is placed at some
(1) experience no force.
point on the line joining the two +Q
charges at rest. The direction of motion (2) move with constant velocity in the
of negative charge will depend upon the: direction of the field.
(1) position of negative charge alone. (3) move with constant velocity in the
(2) magnitude of negative charge alone. direction opposite to the field.
(3) both on the magnitude and position
(4) accelerate in direction opposite to
of negative charge.
field.
(4) magnitude of positive charge.

14. Two point charge q1 and q2 are placed 18. The electric field in a certain region is
at a distance of 50 cm from each other  K ˆ
given by E = ( ) i . The dimensions of K
in air, and interact with a certain force. x3
Now the same charges are put in an oil are:
whose relative permittivity is 5. If the –3 –1
(1) MLT A
interacting force between them is still
–2 –3 –1
the same, their separation now is: (2) ML T A
4 –3 –1
(1) 16.6 cm (2) 22.3 cm (3) ML T A
(3) 35.0 cm (4) 28.4 cm (4) dimensionless

Electrostatics 57
19. Two point charges a & b, whose 22. The linear charge density on upper half
magnitudes are same are positioned at a of a segment of ring is λ and at lower
certain distance from each other with a half, it is –λ. The direction of electric
at origin. Graph is drawn between field at centre O of ring is:
electric field strength at points between + A
+
+
+
a & b and distance x from a. E is taken B
–
– D O
positive if it is along the line joining from –
–
C
a to b. From the graph, it can be
(1) along OA (2) along OB
decided that
E (3) along OC (4) along OD

x
a b Electric Field Due to Straight Wire, Sheet,
Ring
(1) a is positive, b is negative
(2) a and b both are positive 23. A ring of radius R is charged uniformly
(3) a and b both are negative with a charge + Q. The electric field at
(4) a is negative, b is positive any point on its axis at a distance r from
the circumference of the ring will be:
20. Two charges are placed as shown in fig. KQ
KQ
(1) (2)
Where should be a third charge be r r2
placed so that it remains in rest KQ
(r ) KQr
1/2
2
(3) –R2 (4)
condition:– r 3
R3
9e 16e
70cm
24. Semicircular ring of radius 0.5 m. is
(1) 30cm from 9e uniformly charged with a total charge
(2) 40cm from 16e of 1.4 × 10
–9
C. The electric field
(3) 40cm from 9e intensity at centre of this ring is:
(4) (1) or (2) (1) zero
(2) 320 V/m.
21. Charge 2Q and –Q are placed as shown (3) 64 V/m.
in figure. The point at which electric (4) 32 V/m.
field intensity is zero will be:
–Q +2Q 25. Two infinite linear charges are placed
A B parallel at 0.1 m apart. If each has
(1) Somewhere between –Q and 2Q. charge density of 5µ C/m, then the
(2) Somewhere on the left of –Q. force per unit length of one of linear
(3) Somewhere on the right of 2Q. charges in N/m is:
(4) Somewhere on the right bisector of (1) 2.5 (2) 3.25
line joining –Q and 2Q. (3) 4.5 (4) 7.5

58 Electrostatics
26. There is a uniform electric field in 30. A charge q is placed at the centre of
x-direction. If the work done by the cubical vessel (with one face open)
external agent in moving a charge of
as shown in figure. The flux of the
0.2 C through a distance of 2 metre
electric field through the surface of the
slowly along the line making an angle of
60° with x-direction is 4 joule, then the vessel is:
magnitude of E is:
(1) 3N/C (2) 4 N/C
d d
(3) 5 N/C (4) 20 N/C

27. The maximum electric field intensity on d

the axis of a uniformly charged ring of
(1) zero (2) q/ε0
charge q and radius R will be:
1 q 1 2q q
(1) (2) (3) (4) 5q/6ε0
4πε0 3 3R2 4πε0 3R2 4ε0
1 2q 1 3q
(3) (4)
4πε0 3 3R2 4πε0 2 3R2 31. Eight charges, 1µC, –7µC, – 4µC, 10µC,
2µC, –5µC, -3µC and 6µC are situated
Electric Flux, Density, Gauss's Law and
at the eight corners of a cube of side
Gaussian Surface, Application of Gauss's
Law 20 cm. A spherical surface of radius 80
cm encloses this cube. The centre of
28. The total flux associated with given
cube will be where 'a' is side of cube: the sphere coincides with the centre of

1 9
the cube. Then the total outgoing flux
( = 4π × 9 × 10 )
∈0 from the spherical surface (in unit of
2µC 1µC volt meter) is:
a
3 3
4µC 3µC (1) 36π × 10 (2) 684π × 10
6µC (3) zero (4) None of these
5µC
a
8µC a 7µC
4 2
32. Which one of the following pattern of
(1) 162 π × 10 Nm /C
3 2
electric line of force can't possible:
(2) 162 π × 10 Nm /C
5 2
(3) 162 π × 10 Nm /C
6 2
(1)
(4) 162 π × 10 Nm /C

29. A point charge is placed at a distance

a/2 perpendicular to the plane and
(2)
above the centre of a square of side a.
The electric flux through the square is:
q q
(1) (2) (3)
∈0 π ∈0
q q
(3) (4) (4)
4 ∈0 6 ∈0

Electrostatics 59
33. Total charge on a sphere of radii 10 cm 37. A closed cylinder of radius R and length
is 1 µC. The maximum electric field due L is placed in a uniform electric field E,
to the sphere in N/C will be: parallel to the axis of the cylinder. Then
–5 3 the electric flux through the cylinder
(1) 9 × 10 (2) 9 × 10
5 15 must be -
(3) 9 × 10 (4) 9 × 10 2 2
(1) 2πR E (2) (2πR + 2πRL)E
(3) 2πRLE (4) zero
34. Which of the following represents the
correct graph for electric field intensity 38. In a region of space the electric field is
and the distance r from the centre of a 
ˆ . The electric
given by E = 8 ˆi + 4ˆj + 3k
hollow charged metal sphere or solid
flux through a surface of area of 100
metallic conductor of radius R:
units in x–y plane is:
(1) 800 units (2) 300 units
E (3) 400 units (4) 1500 units
E
(1) (2)
r
r Electrostatics Potential Energy

39. Which statement is true:

E E
(i) A ring of radius R carries a uniformly
(3) (4) distributed charge +Q. A point charge –q
r r
is placed on the axis of the ring at a
distance 2R from the centre of the ring
35. A sphere of radius R and charge Q is
and released from rest. The particle
placed inside an imaginary sphere of
executes a simple harmonic motion
radius 2R whose centre coincides with
along the axis of the ring.
the given sphere. The flux related to (ii) Electrons move from a region of
imaginary sphere is:– higher potential to that of lower
Q Q potential.
(1) (2)
∈0 2 ∈0 (1) only (i) (2) only (ii)
4Q 2Q (3) (i), (ii) (4) none of them
(3) (4)
∈0 ∈0
40. As shown in figure, on bringing a charge
Q from point A to B and from B to C,
36. The intensity of an electric field at
the work done are 2 joule and – 3 joule
some point distant r from the axis of
respectively. The work done in bringing
infinite long pipe having charges per
the charge from C to A will be:
unit length as q will be: C
2
(1) proportional to r
3 A B
(2) proportional to r
(3) inversely proportional to r (1) – 1 joule (2) 1 joule
2 (3) 2 joule (4) 5 joule
(4) inversely proportional to r

60 Electrostatics
41. In an electron gun, electrons are 46. Two points (0, a) and (0, – a) have
accelerated through a potential charges q and –q respectively then the
difference of V volt. Taking electronic electrical potential at origin will be-
charge and mass to be respectively e (1) zero (2) kq/a
and m, the maximum velocity attained 2
(3) kq/2a (4) kq/4a
by them is:

2eV 2eV 47. The charges of same magnitude q are

(1) (2)
m m placed at four corners of a square of
2
(3) 2 m/eV (4) (V /2em) side a. The value of potential at the
centre of square will be:
42. If a charge is shifted from a low
(1) 4kq/a (2) 4 2kq / a
potential region to high potential
region. The electrical potential energy: (3) 4kq 2a (4) kq / a 2

(1) Increases
(2) Decreases 48. A circle of radius R is drawn in a
(3) Remains constant uniform electric field E as shown in the
(4) May increase or decrease. fig. VA, VB, VC and VD are respectively the
potential of point A, B, C and D at the
43. You are given an arrangement of three periphery of the circle then
point charges q, 2q and xq separated A
by equal finite distances so that
electric potential energy of the system D B

is zero. Then the value of x is:

C
2 1
(1) – (2) –
3 3 (1) VA > VC, VB = VD
2 3 (2) VA < VC, VB = VD
(3) (4)
3 2
(3) VA = VC, VB < VD

Electric Potential due to a Point (4) VA = VC, VB > VD

Charge, Ring and Infinite Long Wire

49. Figure represents a square carrying
44. The dimension of potential difference charges +q, +q, –q, –q at its four
are: corners as shown. Then the potential
2
(1) ML T C
–2 –1
(2) MLT C
–2 –1 will be zero at points:
–2 –2 2 –1 –1 +q P +q
(3) MT C (4) ML T C

A C
45. An object is charged with positive B
charge. The potential at that object will
–q Q –q
be:
(1) positive only (1) A, B, C, P and Q
(2) negative only (2) A, B and C
(3) zero always (3) A, P, C and Q
(4) may be positive, negative or zero. (4) P, B and Q

Electrostatics 61
 Potential due to sphere or shell, 54. The work done to take an electron from
Potential Difference in a uniform rest where potential is – 60 volt to
another point where potential is – 20
Electric Field, Work Done in moving
volt is given by:
Charge in Electric Field (1) 40 eV (2) – 40 eV
(3) 60 eV (4) – 60 eV
50. Under the influence of charge, a point
charge q is carried along different paths 55. In H atom, an electron is rotating
from a point A to point B, then work around the proton in an orbit of radius
done will be: r. Work done by an electron in moving
B once around the proton along the orbit
will be:
III (1) ke/r (2) ke /r
2 2
IV
II I (3) 2πre (4) zero

A
56. Choose the incorrect statement:
(1) maximum for path four (1) the potential energy per unit
(2) maximum for path one positive charge in an electric field
(3) equal for all paths at some point is called the electric
(4) minimum for path three potential.
(2) the work required to be done to
51. A semicircular ring of radius 0.5 m is move a point charge from one point
uniformly charged with a total charge to another in an electric field
–9 depends on the position of the
of 1.5 × 10 . The electric potential at
points.
the centre of this ring is:
(3) the potential energy of the system
(1) 27 V (2) 13.5 V
will increase if a positive charge is
(3) 54 V (4) 45.5 V
moved against Coulombian force.
(4) the value of fundamental charge is not
52. A particle of charge Q and mass m equivalent to the electronic charge.
travels through a potential difference V
from rest. The final momentum of the Relation between Electric Field and
particle is: Potential Equipotential Surface
mV
(1) (2) 2Q mV 57. The fig. shows lines of constant potential
Q
in a region in which an electric field is
2QV present. The value of the potential are
(3) 2mQV (4)
m given. The magnitude of the electric
field is greatest at the point:
53. A 5C charge experiences a force of 2000 A B
N when moved between two points
separated by a distance of 2 cm in a
C
uniform electric field. The potential 50V
40V 30V
20V 10V
difference between the two points is:
(1) 8 volt (2) 80 volt (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) A & C
(3) 800 volt (4) 8000 volt

62 Electrostatics
58. Three equal charges are placed at the 62. The electric potential and electric field
three corners of an equilateral triangle at any given position due to a point
as shown in the figure. The statement charge are 600 V and 200 N/C
which is true for electric potential V respectively. Then magnitude of point
and the field intensity E at the centre charge would be:
of the triangle: (1) 3 µC (2) 30 µC
q (3) 0.2 µC (4) 0.5 µC

o 63. The electric field in a region is directed

outward and is proportional to the
q q
distance r from the origin. Taking the
(1) V = 0, E = 0 (2) V = 0, E ≠ 0 electric potential at the origin to be
(3) V ≠ 0, E = 0 (4) V ≠ 0, E ≠ 0 zero, the electric potential at a
distance r (outside point):
59. Electric field at a distance x from origin (1) is uniform in the region
100 (2) is proportional to r
is given as E = 2
, then potential 2
x (3) is proportional to r
difference between points situated at (4) increases as one goes away from
x = 10 m and x = 20 m: the origin
(1) 5 V (2) 10 V
(3) 15 V (4) 4V 64. The electric field and the electric
potential at a point are E and V

60. The electric potential V is given as a respectively

function of distance x (metre) by V = (1) If E = 0, V must be zero.

2 (2) If V = 0, E must be zero.
(5x –10x–9) volt. Value of electric field
(3) If E ≠ 0, V cannot be zero.
at x = 1 m is:–
(4) None of these
(1) 20 V/m (2) 6 V/m
(3) 11 V/m (4) zero
Electric Dipole

61. The variation of potential with distance

65. For the given figure the direction of
r from a fixed point is shown in Figure.
electric field at A will be:
The electric field at r = 5 cm, is:
L X
5
A Y
V in volt

Z
Q –Q
r incm C
0 2 4 6 B

(1) (2.5) V/cm (2) (–2.5) V/cm (1) towards AL (2) towards AY
(3) (–2/5) V/cm (4) (2/5) V/cm (3) towards AX (4) towards AZ

Electrostatics 63
66. An electric dipole is placed in an 71. An electric dipole is made up of two
electric field generated by a point charge: equal and opposite charges of 2 × 10
–6

(1) the net electric force on the dipole

coulomb at a distance of 3 cm. This is
must be zero. 5
kept in an electric field of 2 × 10 N/C,
(2) the net electric force on the dipole
may be zero. then the maximum torque acting on the
(3) the torque on the dipole due to the dipole:
–1
field must be zero. (1) 12 × 10 Nm
(4) the torque on the dipole due to the (2) 12 × 10
–3
Nm
field may be zero. –3
(3) 24 × 10 Nm
–1
67. The force on a charge situated on the (4) 24 × 10 Nm
axis of a dipole is F. If the charge is
shifted to double the distance, the 72. The electric potential in volt due to an
acting force will be: electric dipole of dipole moment
(1) 4F (2) F/2 –8
2 × 10 C-m at a distance of 3m on a
(3) F/4 (4) F/8 0
line making an angle of 60 with the

68. The electric potential at a point due to axis of the dipole is:
an electric dipole will be: (1) 0
   
P. r P. r (2) 10
(1) k (2) k
r3 r2 (3) 20
   
P×r P×r (4) 40
(3) k (4) k
r3 r2
73. If an electric dipole is kept in a non-
69. A small electric dipole is of dipole uniform electric field, then it will
moment p. The electric potential at a
experience:
distance 'r' from its centre and making
(1) only torque
an angle θ from the axis of dipole will be:
(2) no torque
kp sin θ kpcos θ
(1) (2) (3) a resultant force and a torque
r2 r2
(4) only a force
kp kp
(3) 1 + 3cos2 θ (4) 1 + 3 sin2 θ
r3 r3
Conductor, Sharing of Charge
70. At any point on the right bisector of
line joining two equal and opposite 74. 64 charged drops coalesce to form a
charges: bigger charged drop. The potential of
(1) the electric field is zero.
bigger drop will be times that of
(2) the electric potential is zero.
smaller drop:
(3) the electric potential decreases
(1) 4
with increasing distance from
centre. (2) 16
(4) the electric field is perpendicular to (3) 64
the line joining the charges. (4) 8

64 Electrostatics
75. 27 smaller drop combine to form a 79. Two conductors of the same shape and
bigger drop if potential on smaller drop size. One of copper and the other of
is V then potential on bigger drop will aluminium (less conducting) are placed
be- in an uniform electric field. The charge
(1) 9V induced in aluminium
(2) 3V (1) will be less than in copper.

(3) 27V (2) will be more than in copper.

(4) 1/3V (3) will be equal to that in copper.

(4) will not be connected with copper.

76. For an electrostatic system which of

80. The electric field near the conducting
the statement is always true:
surface of a uniform charge density σ
(a) electric lines are parallel to metallic
will be -
surface.
(1) σ / ∈0 and parallel to surface.
(b) electric field inside a metallic
(2) 2σ / ∈0 and parallel to surface.
surface is zero.
(c) electric lines of force are (3) σ / ∈0 and perpendicular to surface.

perpendicular to equi-potential (4) 2σ / ∈0 and perpendicular to

surface. surface.
(1) (a) and (b) only
(2) (b) and (c) only 81. A neutral metallic object is placed near
(3) (a) and (c) only a finite metal plate carrying a positive
(4) (a), (b) and (c) charge. The electric force on the object
will be:
77. The dielectric constant of a metal is: (1) towards the plate

(1) ∞ (2) away from the plate

(2) 0 (3) parallel to the plate

(3) 1 (4) zero

(4) none of these

82. The net charge given to an isolated

78. You are travelling in a car during a conducting solid sphere:

thunder storm, in order to protect (1) must be distributed uniformly on

the surface.
yourself from lightening would you
(2) may be distributed uniformly on the
prefer to:
surface.
(1) Remain in the car.
(3) must be distributed uniformly in the
(2) Take shelter under a tree.
volume.
(3) Get out and be flat on the ground
(4) may be distributed uniformly in the
(4) Touch the nearest electrical pole.
volume

Electrostatics 65
 Exercise - II
1. An electric dipole is kept on the axis of 5. A charged particle 'q' is shot towards
a uniform charged ring at large distance another charged particle 'Q', which is
from the centre of the ring. The fixed, with a speed 'v'. It approaches 'Q'
direction of the dipole moment is along upto a closest distance r and then
the axis. The dipole moment is p, returns. If q were given a speed of '2v',
charge of the ring is Q & radius of the
the closest distance of approach would
ring is R. The force on the dipole is
be:
pQ 4pQ q Q
(1) (2) v
3πε0 3R2 3πε0 3R2 r

pQ (1) r (2) 2r
(3) (4) Zero
3πε0R2 (3) r/2 (4) r/4

2. A thin semi-circular ring of radius r has 6. Assume that an electric field E = 30x î
2

a positive charge q distributed uniformly exists in space. Then, the potential


over it. The net field E at the centre O difference VA – VO, where VO is the
is:
potential at the origin and VA the
ĵ
potential at x = 2 m, is-
(1) 120 J (2) –120 J
θ
O
î (3) –80 J (4) 80 J

q ˆj q ˆj
(1) (2) – 7. Two identical charged spheres are
2 2
4π ε0r 4π ε0r2
2

suspended by strings of equal lengths.

q ˆj q ˆj
(3) – (4) The strings make an angle of 30º with
2π2 ε0r 2
2π2 ε0r 2
each other. When suspended in a liquid
–3
3. A charge Q is placed at each of the of density 0.8 g cm , the angle remains
opposite corners of a square. A charge the same. If density of the material of
q is placed at each of the other two the sphere is 1.6 g cm , the dielectric
–3

corners. If the net electrical force on Q constant of the liquid is

is zero, then Q/q equals: (1) 4 (2) 3
(1) –1 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 1
1
(3) – (4) – 2 2
2 8. Two points P and Q are maintained at
the potentials of 10 V and –4V,
4. Four charges equal to –Q each are
respectively. The work done in moving
placed at the four corners of a square
100 electrons from P and Q.
and a charge q is at its centre. If the
–17
system is in equilibrium, the value of q is: (1) 9.60×10 J
–16
Q Q (2) –2.24×10 J
(1) – (1 + 2 2) (2) (1 + 2 2)
4 4 (3) 2.24×10
–16
J
Q Q
(3) – (1 + 2 2) (4) (1 + 2 2) (4) –9.60×10
–17
J
2 2

66 Electrostatics
9. An electric dipole is placed at an angle 12. Three point charges +q, –2q and + q are
of 30° to a non – uniform electric field. placed at points (x = 0, y = a, z = 0),
The dipole will experience (x = 0, y = 0, z = 0) and (x = a, y = 0, z = 0),
(1) a translational force only in a respectively. The magnitude and
direction perpendicular to the field
direction of the electric dipole moment
(2) a torque as well as a translational
vector of this charge assembly are:
force
(1) 2 qa along + y direction.
(3) a torque only
(4) a translational force only in the (2) 2 qa along the line joining points
direction of the field (x = 0, y = 0, z = 0) and (x = a, y = a,
z = 0).
10. A particle of charge –q & mass m (3) qa along the line joining points (x = 0,
moves in a circle of radius r around an y = 0, z = 0) and (x = a, y = a, z = 0).
infinitely long line charge of linear charge
(4) 2 qa along + x direction.
density +λ, then time period will be.
1
Where k = 13. A thin conducting ring of radius R is
4πε0
given a charge +Q. The electric field at the
+λ
centre O of the ring due to the charge
–q on the part AKB of the ring is E. The
r
electric field at the centre due to the
charge on the part ACDB of the ring is:
m 2 4π2m
(1) T = 2πr (2) T = A
2kλq 2kλq K

1 2kλq 1 m
(3) T = (4) T = C B
2πr m 2πr 2kλq O

D
11. Two charges q1 and q2 are placed 30 cm
(1) 3E along KO
apart, as shown in the figure. A third
(2) E along OK
charge q3 is moved along the arc of a
(3) E along KO
circle of radius 40 cm from C to D. The
change in the potential energy of the (4) 3 E along OK

q3
system is k, where k is:
4πε0 14. The electric potential at a point (x, y, z)
q3 2 3
is given by V = – x y – xz + 4
C

The electric field E at that point is:

(1) E = î (2xy+ z ) + ˆj x + k̂ 3xz
40cm 3 2 2


(2) E = î 2xy + ˆj (x + y ) + k̂ (3xz – y )
2 2 2
q2
q1
A B D 
(3) E = î z + ˆj xyz + k̂ z
3 2

(1) 8q2 (2) 8q1 

(4) E = î (2xy – z ) + ˆj xy + k̂ 3z x
3 2 2
(3) 6q2 (4) 6q1

Electrostatics 67
 3R 19. The electric flux from a cube of edge 
15. The electric field at a distance from
2 is φ. What will be its value if edge of
the centre of a charged conducting cube is made 2 and charge enclosed is
spherical shell of radius R is E. The halved:
R (1) φ/2 (2) 2φ
electric field at a distance from the
2 (3) 4φ (4) φ
centre of the sphere is:
(1) zero (2) E 20. Each of the two point charges are
E E doubled and their distance is halved.
(3) (4)
2 3 Force of interaction becomes n times,
where n is:
16. A conducting sphere of radius R is
(1) 4 (2) 1
charged to a potential of V volt. Then
(3) 1/16 (4) 16
the electric field at a distance r (>R)
from the centre of the sphere would
21. Two point charges repel each other with
be:
a force of 100 N. One of the charges is
RV V increased by 10% and other is reduced
(1) (2)
r2 r by 10%. The new force of repulsion at
2
rV R V the same distance would be-
(3) 2
(4) 3
R r (1) 100 N (2) 121 N
(3) 99 N (4) None of these
17. The variation of electric potential with
distance from a fixed point is shown in 22. A positive point charge q is carried
figure. What is the value of electric from a point B to a point A in the
field at x = 2m: electric field of a point charge +Q at O.
Y If the permittivity of free space is ε0,
6 the work done in the process is given
4 by (where a = OA and b = OB):
V(Volt)
2 qQ  1 1  qQ  1 1 
(1) + (2) −
0 1 2 3 4
X 4πε0  a b  4πε0  a b 
x(m)
qQ  1 1 qQ  1 1
(1) Zero (2) 6/2 (3)  − 2 (4)  + 2
4πε0  a 2
b  4πε0  a 2
b 
(3) 6/1 (4) 6/3

23. A spherical charged conductor has σ

18 In a certain region of surface there exists
surface charge density. The electric
a uniform electric field of 2 × 103 k̂ field on its surface is E. If the radius of
V/m. A rectangular coil of dimensions the sphere is doubled keeping the
10 cm × 20 cm is placed in x-y plane. surface charge density unchanged,
The electric flux through the coil is: what will be the electric field on the
(1) Zero surface of the new sphere:
(2) 30 V-m E E
(1) (2)
(3) 40 V-m 4 2
(4) 50 V-m (3) E (4) 2 E

68 Electrostatics
24. Three equal and similar charges are 28. A proton and an electron are released
placed at (–a, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0) and (+a, 0, 0). infinite distance apart and they
What is the nature of equilibrium of the attracted towards each other. Which of
charge at the origin:
the following statement about their
(1) Stable when moved along the Y-axis
kinetic energy is true:
(2) Stable when moved along Z-axis
(1) Kinetic energy of electron is more
(3) Stable when moved along X-axis
(4) Unstable in all of the above cases than that of proton
(2) Kinetic energy of electron is less
25. Two conducting spheres each of radius than that of proton
R carry charge q. They are placed at a (3) Kinetic energy of electron = kinetic
distance r from each other, where r >> 2R.
energy of proton
The neutral point lies at a distance r/2
(4) None of the above is true as it
from either sphere. If the electric field
depending on the distance between
at the neutral point due to either
sphere be E, then the total electric the particles
potential at that point will be:
(1) r E/2 (2) r E 29. The electric field strength due to a ring
(3) RE/2 (4) RE of radius R at a distance x from its
centre on the axis of ring carrying
26. A ring of radius R carries a charge +q. A
1 Qx
test charge –q0 is released on its axis charge Q is given by E =
4 π ε0 (R + x2 )3/2
2
at a distance 3 R from its centre. How
At what distance from the centre will
much kinetic energy will be acquired by
the test charge when it reaches the the electric field be maximum -
centre of the ring: (1) x = R
1 qq0 (2) x = R/2
(1)
4 π ε0 R
(3) x = R/ 2
1 qq0
(2) (4) x = 2R
4 π ε0 2R

1 qq0
(3) 30. Two conducting spheres of radii r1 and
4 π ε0 3 R
r2 are charged such that they have the
1 qq0
(4) same electric field on their surfaces.
4 π ε0 3R
The ratio of the electric potential at

27. Two spheres of radii r1 and r2 are at the their centres is:
same potentials. If their surface (1) r1 / r2
densities of charges be σ1 and σ2
(2) r1/r2
respectively, then σ1/σ2:
(3) r12/r22
(1) r1/r2 (2) r2/r1
(3) (r1/r2)2 (4) (r2/r1)2 (4) None of the above

Electrostatics 69
31. Five equal and similar charges are 34. A and B are two points on the axis and
placed at the corners of a regular the perpendicular bisector respectively
hexagon as shown in the figure. What is of an electric dipole. A and B are far away
the electric field and potential at the from the dipole and at equal distances

centre of the hexagon: from it. The fields at A and B are EA

q q and EB are respectively such that:
   
(1) EA = EB (2) EA = 2EB
q
   1
(3) EA = −2EB (4) EA = EB
q q 2

5 q 5 q 35. A long string with a charge of λ per unit
(1) ,
4 π ε 0  4 π ε 0 2 length passes through an imaginary
1 q 5 q cube of edge . The maximum possible
(2) ,
4 π ε 0  4 π ε 0 2 flux of the electric field through the
1 q 5 q cube will be -
(3) ,
4 π ε0  4 π ε0 
2
(1) λ / ε0
1 q 1 q (2) 2 λ / ε0
(4) ,
4 π ε 0  4 π ε 0 2
(3) 6 λ2 / ε0

(4) 3 λ / ε0
32. Two point charges Q and –3Q are
placed certain distance apart. If the
 36. If a positive charge is shifted from a
electric field at the location of Q be E ,
low-potential region to a high-potential
then that at the location of –3Q will be:
  region, the electric potential energy -
(1) 3E (2) −3E
(1) increases
 
(3) E / 3 (4) −E / 3 (2) decreases
(3) remains the same
33. A charge +Q at A (See figure) produces (4) May increase or decrease
electric field E and electric potential V
at D. If we now put charges –2Q and 37. A particle of mass 0.002 kg and a charge
+Q at B and C respectively, then the 1µC is held at rest on a frictionless
horizontal surface at a distance of 1m
electric field and potential at D will be:
from a fixed charge of 1mC. If the particle
D C
is released, it will be repelled. The speed
a of the particle when it is at a distance
of 10m from the fixed charge is:
120º
A a B (1) 60 ms–1
(1) E and 0 (2) 0 and V (2) 75 ms–1
(3) 90 ms–1
V E V
(3) 2 E and (4) and (4) 100 ms–1
2 2 2

70 Electrostatics
38. A charge Q is placed at each of two 43. Two equal positive charges are kept at
opposite corners of a square. A charge
points A and B. The electric potential at
q is placed at each of the two opposite
corners of the square. If the resultant the points between A and B (excluding
electric field on Q is zero, then: these points) is studied while moving
q
(1) Q = − (2) Q = −2 2 q from A to B. The potential:
2 2
(1) Continuously increases
(3) Q = –2q (4) Q = 2 2 q
(2) Continuously decreases
39. Electric potential is given by: (3) Increases then decreases
V = 6x – 8xy2 – 8y + 6yz – 4z2
(4) Decreases then increases
Electric field at the origin is:
(1) −6 ˆi + 8 ˆj (2) 6 ˆi − 8 ˆj

(3) ˆi + ˆj (4) Zero 44. An electron moves with velocity v in

x-direction. An electric field acts on it

40. A hollow conducting sphere of radius R
in y-direction. The force on the
has charge (+Q) on its surface. The
electric potential within the sphere at a electron acts in:
R
distance r = from the centre is: (1) +ve direction of Y-axis
3
1 Q (2) –ve direction of Y-axis
(1) Zero (2)
4 π ε0 r (3) +ve direction of Z-axis
1 Q 1 Q
(3) (4) (4) –ve direction of Z-axis
4 π ε0 R 4 π ε 0 r2

41. The electric field outside a charged 45. Two identical simple pendulums A and
long straight wire is given by
B, are suspended from the same point.
5000
E= − V m−1 . It is radially inward. The bobs are given positive charges,
r
The value of VB – VA is: with A having more charge than B. They
[Given rB = 60 cm and rA = 30 cm]
(1) 5000 loge2 volt (2) 0 V diverge and reach equilibrium, with
(3) 2 V (4) 2500 V A and B making angles θ1 and θ2 with

the vertical respectively. Which of the

42. A particle has a mass 400 times than
that of the electron and charge is following is correct:
double than that of a electron. It is (1) θ1 > θ2
accelerated by 5 V of potential difference.
Initially the particle was at rest. Then (2) θ1 < θ2
its final kinetic energy will be: (3) θ1 = θ2
(1) 5 eV
(4) The tension in A is greater than that
(2) 10 eV
(3) 100 eV in B
(4) 2000 eV

Electrostatics 71
 Exercise - III
Passage Type Question :- Statements Type Question :-
In the diagram (given below) the broken 4. Statement I : Electrons move away
lines represent the paths followed by
from a region of lower potential to a
particles W,X, Y and Z respectively
region of higher potential.
through the constant field E. The
–
numbers below the field represents Statement II : Since an e has negative
meters- charge.
(1) If both Statement–I and statement–II
X
are true, and Statement–II is the

Y correct explanation of Statement–I.

W (2) If both Statement-I and Statement-II

Z
are true but Statement-II is not the
correct explanation of Statement–I.

0 1 2 3 4 5 (3) If Statement-I is true but Statement-II

is false.
1. If the particles begin and end at rest, (4) If Statement-I is false but
and all are positively charged, the same
Statement-II is true.
amount of work was done on which
particles.
(1) W and Z (2) W, Y and Z 5. Statement I : If a point charge q is

(3) Y and Z (4) W, X, Y and Z placed in front of an infinite grounded

conducting plane surface, the point
2. If the particles started from rest and all charge will experience a force.
are positively charge which particles
Statement II : The force is due to the
must have been acted upon by a force
induced charge on the conducting
other than that produced by the
electric field. surface which is at zero potential.
(1) W and Y (2) X and Z (1) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
(3) X,Y and Z (4) W, X,Y and Z are true, and Statement-II is the
correct explanation of Statement–I.
3. If the particles are positively charged,
(2) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
which particles increased their
electrical potential energy - are true but Statement-II is not the
(1) X and Z correct explanation of Statement –I.
(2) Y and Z (3) If Statement-I is true but Statement-II
(3) W, X, Y and Z is false.
(4) Since the electric field is constant
(4) If Statement-I is false but Statement-II
none of the particles increased their
is true.
electrical potential energy.

72 Electrostatics
6. Statement I : Work done in moving a 8. Statement I : The no. of lines of force

charge between any two points in an emanating from 1µC charge in vacuum
5
is 1.13 × 10 .
electric field is independent of the path
Statement II : This comes from Gauss's
followed by the charge, between these
theorem in electrostatics.
points. (1) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
Statement II : Electrostatic forces are are true, and Statement-II is the
non conservative. correct explanation of Statement–I.
(2) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
(1) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
are true but Statement-II is not the
are true, and Statement-II is the
correct explanation of Statement–I.
correct explanation of Statement–I. (3) If Statement-I is true but Statement-II
(2) If both Statement-I and Statement-II is false.
are true but Statement-II is not the (4) If Statement-I is false but Statement-II
is true.
correct explanation of Statement–I.

(3) If Statement-I is true but Statement-II

9. Statement-1 : For a mass M kept at the
is false. centre of a cube of side ‘a’, the flux of
(4) If Statement-I is false but Statement-II gravitational field passing through its

is true. sides is 4 πGM.

and
Statement-2 : If the direction of a field
7. Statement I : Force between two
due to a point source is radial and its
charges decreases when air separating dependence on the distance ‘r’ from
the charges is replaced by water. 1
the source is given as , its flux
Statement II : Medium intervening the r2
through a closed surface depends only
charges has no effect on force.
on the strength of the source enclosed
(1) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
by the surface and not on the size or
are true, and Statement-II is the shape of the surface.
correct explanation of Statement–I. (1) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is
true; Statement-2 is a correct
(2) If both Statement-I and Statement-II
explanation for Statement-1
are true but Statement-II is not the
(2) Statement-1 is true. Statement-2 is
correct explanation of Statement–I. true; Statement-2 is not a correct
(3) If Statement-I is true but Statement-II explanation for Statement-1
is false. (3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is
false.
(4) If Statement-I is false but Statement-II
(4) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is
is true.
true.

Electrostatics 73
10. Statement-1 : For a charged particle 12. Statement-1 : For practical purposes
moving from point P to point Q, the net the earth is used as a reference at zero
work done by an electrostatic field on
potential in electrical circuits.
the particle is independent of the path
Statement-2 : The electrical potential
connecting point P to point Q.
Statement-2 : The net work done by a of a sphere of radius R with charge Q
conservative force on an object moving uniformly distributed on the surface is
along a closed loop is zero. Q
(1) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is given by
4πε0R
true; Statement-2 is a correct
(1) statement-1 is True, statement-2 is
explanation for Statement-1
(2) Statement-1 is true. Statement-2 is True; statement-2 is a correct
true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for statement-1
explanation for Statement-1 (2) statement-1 is True, statement-2 is
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is True; statement-2 is NOT a correct
false. explanation for statement-1
(4) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is
(3) statement-1 is True, statement-2 is
true.
False
11. An insulating solid sphere of radius R has
(4) statement-1 is False, statement-2 is
a uniformly positive charge density ρ.
True
As a result of this uniform charge
distribution there is a finite value of
electric potential at the centre of the 13. Match the following:
sphere, at the surface of the sphere Column I Column II
and also at a point out side the sphere.
i Infinite sheet a Uniform non-
The electric potential at infinity is zero.
Statement 1 : When a charge 'q' is taken of charge having zero electric field
from the centre to the surface of the positive charges. intensity in the
sphere, its potential energy changes by vicinity.
qρ ii At the center b Uniform
.
3 ∈0
of Non-conducting decreasing
Statement 2 : The electric field at a
uniformly charged potential
distance r (r < R) from the centre
solid sphere. in the vicinity.
ρr
of the sphere is .
3 ∈0 iii Inside a c maximum
(1) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is positively charged magnitude of
true, Statement 2 is the correct conducting sphere potential
explanation for Statement 1 taking infinity as
(2) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is
a reference point.
true, Statement 2 is not the correct
explanation of Statement 1 (1) i → a,b,ii → c,iii → c
(3) Statement 1 is true, Statement 2 is
(2) i → a,c,ii → a,iii → c
false
(4) Statement 1 is false, Statement 2 is (3) i → b,c,ii → a,iii → a
true. (4) i → b,c,ii → a,iii → c

74 Electrostatics
14. Match the following: 15. Match the following.

Column I Column II Column I Column II

i Positively a At the surface, i Electric field a Constant

charged electric field outside a

Spherical is continuous conducting

conductor. and maximum. charged sphere

ii Spherical non b at the surface,

conductor electric field ii Electric b directly

having uniform is dis potential proportional to

volume charge continuous. outside distance from

distribution. a conducting centre

iii Positively c Electric field charged sphere

charged ring. is uniform

iv Infinite thin d at the center, iii Electric field c inversely

sheet of electric field inside a non- proportional to

positive charge is zero. conducting distance from

charged sphere center

(1) i → a,b,ii → d,iii → a,iv → c
(2) i → a,c,ii → a,d,iii → d,iv → c
iv Electric d inversely
(3) i → b,d,ii → a,iii → c,iv → d
(4) i → b,d,ii → a,d,iii → d,iv → c potential inside proportional to

a charged the square of

conducting distance from

sphere center

(1) i-d, ii-c, iii-a, iv-b

(2) i-a, ii-b, iii-d, iv-c
(3) i-d, ii-c, iii-b, iv-a
(4) i-c, ii-d, iii-b, iv-a

Electrostatics 75
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. Two pith balls carrying equal charges 4. In a region, the potential is represented
are suspended from a common point by V (x, y, z) = 6x – 8xy –8y + 6yz,
by strings of equal length, the where V is in volts and x, y, z are in
equilibrium separation between them is metres. The electric force experienced

r. Now the strings are rigidly clamped by a charge of 2 coulomb situated at

point (1, 1, 1) is: [AIPMT_2014]
at half the height. The equilibrium
separation between the balls now (1) 6 5N (2) 30 N

become: [NEET_2013] (3) 24 N (4) 4 35N

y 5. The electric field in a certain region is

r
y/2 acting radially outward and is given by
r'
E = Ar. A charge contained in a sphere
 r   2r 
(1)  (2)  of radius 'a' centered at the origin of
 
 32  3 the field, will be given by:
 2r   r 
2 [AIPMT_2015]
(3)   (4)   2 3
 3  2 (1) A ε0 a (2) 4 πε0 Aa
3 2
(3) ε0 Aa (4) 4 πε0 Aa
2. A, B and C are three points in a uniform
6. If potential (in volts) in a region is
electric field. The electric potential is:
expressed as V (x, y, z) = 6xy – y + 2yz,
[NEET_2013]
the electric field (in N/C) at point (1, 1, 0)
A 
B
E is: [AIPMT_2015]
C
(
(1) – 6iˆ + 9ˆj + kˆ) (
(2) – 3iˆ + 5ˆj + 3kˆ )
(3) – (6iˆ + 5ˆj + 2kˆ ) (4) – (2iˆ + 3ˆj + kˆ )
(1) maximum at B
(2) maximum at C
(3) same at all the three points A, B and C
7. Two identical charged spheres suspended
(4) maximum at A
from a common point by two massless
strings of lengths , are initially at a
3. A conducting sphere of radius R is given
distance (d<<) apart because to their
a charge Q. The electric potential and
mutual repulsion. The charges begin to
the electric field at the centre of the
leak from both the spheres at a
sphere respectively are: [AIPMT_2014]
constant rate. As a result, the spheres
Q
(1) Zero and approach each other with a velocity v.
4π ∈0 R2
Then v varies as a function of the
Q distance x between the spheres, as:
(2) and zero
4π ∈0 R [NEET_2016]
1
Q Q
(3) and (1) v ∝ x2 (2) v ∝ x
4π ∈0 R 4π ∈0 R2 1
–
(4) Both are zero (3) v ∝ x 2 (4) v ∝ x–1

76 Electrostatics
8. Suppose the charge of a proton and an 11. A toy car with charge q moves on a
electron differ slightly. One of them is frictionless horizontal plane surface
–e, the other is (e +∆e). If the net of under the influence of a uniform
electric field E Due to the force qE, its
electrostatic force and gravitational
velocity increases from 0 to 6 m/sec in
force between two hydrogen atoms
one second duration. At that instant
placed at a distance d (much greater the direction of the field is reversed.
than atomic size) apart is zero, then ∆e is The car continues to move for two
of the order of [Given mass of hydrogen more seconds under the influence of
mh = 1.67 × 10
–27
kg] [NEET_2017] this field. The average velocity and the
average speed of the toy car between 0
–20 –23
(1) 10 C (2) 10 C to 3 seconds are respectively
–37 –47
(3) 10 C (4) 10 C [NEET_2018]
(1) 2 m/s, 4 m/s (2) 1 m/s, 3 m/s
(3) 1 m/s, 3.5 m/s (4) 1.5 m/s, 3 m/s
9. The diagrams below show regions of
equipotential surfaces.
20V 40V 20V 40V 10V 30V 12. Two point charges A and B, having
40V
20V
charges +Q and –Q respectively, are
A B A B A B A B
10V
placed at certain distance apart and
30V
10V 30V 10V 30V 20V 40V force acting between them is F. If 25%
(a) (b) (c) (d)
charge of A is transferred to B, then
A positive charge is moved from A to B
force between the charges becomes:
in each diagram, then for q moving
[NEET_2019]
from A to B: [NEET_2017]
(1) Maximum work is required to move 16F
(1)
9
q in figure (c).
(2) In all the four cases the work done 4F
(2)
3
is the same.
(3) Minimum work is required to move (3) F
q in figure (a) 9F
(4)
(4) Maximum work is required to move 16
q in figure (b).
13. A hollow metal sphere of radius R is
10. An electron falls from rest through a uniformly charged. The electric field
vertical distance h in a uniform and due to the sphere at a distance r from
vertically upward directed electric field
the centre: [NEET_2019]
E. The direction of electrical field is
(1) zero as r increases for r < R,
now reversed, keeping its magnitude
the same. A proton is allowed to fall increases as r increases for r > R
from rest in through the same vertical (2) decreases as r increases for r < R
distance h. The time fall of the and for r > R
electron, in comparison to the time fall (3) increases as r increases for r < R
of the proton is [NEET_2018]
and for r > R
(1) smaller (2) 5 times greater
(4) zero as r increases for r < R,
(3) 10 times greater (4) equal
decreases as r increases for r > R

Electrostatics 77
14. Two parallel infinite line charges with 18. In a certain region of space with
linear charge density +λ C/m and –λ volume 0.2 m3, the electric potential is
C/m are placed at a distance of 2R in found to be 5 V throughout. The
free space. What is the electric field magnitude of electric field in this region
mid-way between the two lines charges is: [NEET_2020]
[NEET_2019] (1) 1 N/C (2) 5 N/C

λ λ (3) Zero (4) 0.5 N/C

(1) N/C (2) N/C
π ∈0 R 2π ∈0 R
19. A short electric dipole has a dipole
2λ
(3) zero (4) N/C moment of 16 × 10–9 C m. the electric
π ∈0 R
potential due to the dipole at a point at
a distance of 0.6 m from the centre of
15. Two metal spheres, one of radius R and the dipole, situated on a line making an
the other of radius 2R respectively have angle of 60° with the dipole axis is:
the same surface charge density σ.  1 
9 2 2
They are brought in contact and  4πε = 9 × 10 Nm / C  [NEET_2020]
 0 
separated. What will be the new
(1) 400 V (2) Zero
surface charge densities on them
(3) 50 V (4) 200 V
[NEET_2019(Odisha)]
5 5 5 5 20. The electric field at a point on the
(1) σ 1 = σ, σ2 = σ (2) σ 1 = σ, σ2 = σ
6 2 2 6
equatorial plane at a distance r from
5 5 5 5
(3) σ 1 = σ, σ2 = σ (4) σ 1 = σ, σ2 = σ the centre of a dipole having dipole
2 3 3 6 
moment P is given by (r >> separation
of two charges forming the dipole, ∈0
16. A sphere encloses an electric dipole
permittivity of free space)
with charge ± 3 × 10–6 C. What is the
[NEET_2020(Covid)]
total electric flux across the sphere:  
 P  2P
[NEET_2019(Odisha)] (1) E = (2) E =
4πε0r3 4πε0r3
(1) –3 × 10 –6
Nm /C
2
(2) zero  
 P  P
(3) 3 × 10–6 Nm2/C (4) 6 × 10–6 Nm2/C (3) E = – (4) E = –
4πε0r2 4π ε0 r3

17. A spherical conductor of radius 10 cm

21. The acceleration of an electron due to
has a charge of 3.2 × 10–7 C distributed
the mutual attraction between the
uniformly. what is the magnitude of
electron and a proton when they are 1.6
electric field at a point 15 cm from the Å a part is, (me ≈ 9 × 10–31 kg, e = 1.6 ×
centre of the sphere? [NEET_2020] 1
10–19 C) (Take = 9 × 109 Nm2 C–2 )
 1 9 2 2
 4πε0
 4πε = 9 × 10 Nm / C 
 0  [NEET_2020(Covid)]
(1) 1.28 × 106 N/C (2) 1.28 × 107 N/C (1) 10 24
m/s 2
(2) 1023 m/s2
(3) 1.28 × 104 N/C (4) 1.28 × 105 N/C (3) 1022 m/s2 (4) 1025 m/s2

78 Electrostatics
22. The variation of electrostatic potential 25. Twenty seven drops of same size are
with radial distance r from the centre charged at 220 V each. They combine
of a positively charged metallic thin to form a bigger drop. Calculate the
shell of radius R is given by the graph potential of the bigger drop.
[NEET_2020(Covid)] [NEET_2021]
(1) 660 V (2) 1320 V
V V (3) 1520 V (4) 1980 V
(1) (2)

R
r
R
r
26. Six charges +q, –q, +q, –q, +q and –q
are fixed at the corners of a hexagon of
V V side d as shown in the figure. The work
(3) (4) done in bringing a charge q0 to the
r r centre of the hexagon from infinity is:
R R
[NEET_2022]

23. Two charged spherical conductors of

radius R1 andR2 are connected by a
wire. Then the ratio of surface charge
densities of the spheres (σ1/σ2) is:
[NEET_2021]
R1 R2 (1) Zero
(1) (2)
R2 R1 −q2
(2)
4πε0d
 R1  R21
(3) R  (4)
 2 R22 −q2  1 
(3)  6− 
4πε0d  2

24. A dipole is placed in an electric field as q2  1 

(4)  6− 
shown. In which direction will it move? 4πε0d  2
[NEET_2021]
27. The ratio of coulomb's electrostatic
force to the gravitational force between
 an electron and a proton separated by
E
+ – some distance is 2.4 × 1039. The ratio of
1
the proportionality constant, K =
4πε0
(1) towards the left as its potential to the Gravitational constant G is nearly
energy will increase. (Given that the charge of the proton
(2) towards the right as its potential and electron each = 1.6 × 10–19 C, the
energy will decrease. mass of the electron = 9.11 × 10–31 kg,
(3) towards the left as its potential the mass of the proton = 1.67 × 10–27 kg :)
energy will decrease. [NEET_2022]
(4) towards the right as its potential (1) 10 20
(2) 1030
energy will increase. (3) 1040 (4) 10

Electrostatics 79
28. An electric dipole is placed at an angle 31. According to Gauss law of
of 300 with an electric field of intensity electrostatics, electric flux through a
2 × 10 NC . It experiences a torque
5 —1
closed surface depends on:
equal to 4 Nm. Calculate the magnitude [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
of charge on the dipole, if the dipole (1) the area of the surface
length is 2 cm. [NEET_2023] (2) the quantity of charges enclosed by
(1) 6 mC (2) 4 mC the surface
(3) 2 mC (4) 8 mC (3) the shape of the surface
(4) the volume enclosed by the surface
 
29. If ∫
s
E ⋅ dS =
0 over a surface, then:
32. A charge Q µC is placed at the centre
[NEET_2023]
(1) The magnitude of electric field on of a cube. The flux coming out from

the surface is constant. any one of its faces will be (in SI unit):

(2) All the charges must necessarily be [NEET_2023(Manipur)]

inside the surface. Q
(1) × 10−6
(3) The electric field inside the surface 0

is necessarily uniform. 2Q
(2) × 10−3
(4) The number of flux lines entering 30
the surface must be equal to the Q
(3) × 10−3
number of flux lines leaving it. 60

Q
(4) × 10−6
30. An electric dipole is placed as shown in 60
the figure. [NEET_2023]
33. If a conducting sphere of radius R is
charged. Then the electric field at a
distance r(r > R) from the centre of the
The electric potential (in 102 V) at point
sphere would be, (V = potential on the
P due to the dipole is ε0. permittivity of
surface of the sphere)
1
free space and = K ): [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
4π0

 5
(1)   qK rV
 8 (1)
R2
 8
(2)   qK R2V
 5 (2)
r3
 8
(3)   qK RV
 3 (3)
r2
 3
(4)   qK V
 8 (4)
r

80 Electrostatics
 ANSWER KEYS

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 1 2 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 3 3 4 3 4 3 2 4 4 3 3 3 4 1 3 4 2 4 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 4 1 1 4 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 4 4 2 3 1 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 3 3 4 2 4 4 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 3 3
Que. 81 82
Ans. 1 1

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 4 2 4 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 2 3 3 1 3 4 1 3 1 1 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45
Ans. 1 2 4 2 3

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 3 3 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 4 2 1 4 3

Exercise – IV (Previous year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 1 2 4 2 3 3 3 2 1 2 4 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Ans. 3 2 2 2 4 1 1 2 4 4 2 4 3

Electrostatics 81
 3 Current Electricity
1. Electric Current
Definition : The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called electric
current.
Consider a small area A held perpendicular to the direction of flow of charges as shown in
figure. Let, Positive charges q+ are flowing from left to right and negative charge q– are flowing

from right to left across the area. The net amount of charge flowing through the area in the
interval t from left to right q = |q+| + |q–|
A
q+

q–

Here, the quotient = i, is defined as the current across the area in the direction left to right.
Charg e dq
Current i = = ,
Time dt
q
if flow is uniform i=
t
S.I. Unit : Ampere (A)
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
0 0 0 1
Dimension : (M L T A )
Q ne
If n electrons pass through any cross section in every t seconds then i = =
t t
–19
where e = 1.6 × 10 coulomb.

1.1 Average & Instantaneous Current

1. Average current
If ∆Q charge flows through any cross section of conductor in the interval t to t + ∆t, then
∆Q Q2 − Q1
average current in that interval is defined as the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t; Iav = =
∆t t2 − t 1

2. Instantaneous current
If the limit of ∆t is tending to zero, then the current is defined to be instantaneous current
at time t.
∆Q dQ
I = Lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt

Current Electricity 1
 Key Points

Instantaneous current through a cross-section

dQ
I=
dt
Charge passed through the cross section in the interval t to t + dt
dQ = Idt
Total charge in the interval t1 to t2
t2 I
Q= ∫ Idt = Area below I versus t graph in the interval t1 to t2 as shown
t1

in figure.
Average current in the interval t1 to t2
t2 t
t1 t2
∆Q
∫ Idt
t1 Area below I versus t graph
Iav = = =
∆t t2
Time − interval
∫ dt
t1

1.2 1 Ampere
If 1 coulomb of charge flows per second then 1 ampere of current is said to be flowing.
18
1 ampere of current means the flow of 6.25 × 10 electrons per second through any cross
section of conductor

1.3 Direction of current flow

By convention, direction of current is taken as direction of motion of positively charged
particles and opposite to the direction of negatively charged particles.
Order of currents in domestic appliances is 1A.
Order of current in our nerves is 1 µA.
4
Order of current in lightening is 10 A.
Electric current is a scalar quality Although in diagrams, we represent current in a wire by an
arrow but the arrow simply indicate the direction of flow of positive charges in the wire.
Current is a scalar quantity because it does not obey vector law of addition.

1.4 Current in difference situation :

• Due to translatory motion of charge
In n particle each having a charge q, pass through a given area in time t + +
nq + +
then i = .
t + +
If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit area, the
current associated with cross-sectional area A is i = nqA
If there are n particle per unit volume each having a charge q and moving with velocity v,
the current through, cross section A is i = nqvA

2 Current Electricity
 • Due to rotatory motion of charge
r q
If a point charge q is moving in a circle of radius r with speed v
(frequency ν, angular speed ω and time period T) then
q qv qω
i qv=
corresponding currents = = =
T 2πr 2π

1.5 Flow of charge in conductors

E
Net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero at any
instant of time. In conductor the current is caused by
+ –
free electron. The no. of electron (negative charge) and 
F
proton (positive charge) in a conductor is same. Hence
the net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero. l
• Value of the current is same throughout the conductor, irrespective of the cross section of
conductor at different points.
• For a given conductor current does not change with change in cross-sectional area. In the
following figure i1 = i2 = i3

i1 i2 i3

• Electric field outside a current carrying conductor is zero, but it is non-zero inside the
conductor.

Key Points

• In solids, the charge carriers are free electrons.

• In liquids, the charge carriers are positive and negative ions.
• In gases, the charge carriers are positive ions and free electrons.
• In semiconductors, the charge carriers are holes and free electrons.
• The conventional direction of flow of current is opposite to the direction of flow of
electrons.

Example 1:
–19
If a charge of 1.6 × 10 coulomb flows per second through any cross section of any
conductor, the current constituted will be :
–19 –19 –19 –19
(1) 2.56 × 10 A (2) 6.25 × 10 A (3) 1.6 × 10 A (4) 3.2 × 10 A
Solution:
q
From definition of current i =
t
–19
Here q = 1.6 x 10 C and t = 1 sec
1.6 × 10 –19
–19
∴i= = 1.6 × 10 ampere
1

Current Electricity 3
Example 2:
The no. of electrons flowing per second through any cross section of wire, if it carries a
current of one ampere, will be :
18 18 18 18
(1) 2.5 × 10 (2) 6.25 × 10 (3) 12.5 × 10 (4) 5 × 10
Solution:
q ne
I= = [ q = ne, from quantization of charge]
t t
I×t 1× 1 18
⇒n = = = 6.25 × 10
e 1.6 × 10–19

Example 3:
The no. of electron passing through a heater wire in one minute, if it carries a current of
8 ampere, will be:
20 21 20 21
(1) 2 × 10 (2) 2 × 10 (3) 3 × 10 (4) 3 × 10
Solution:
It 8 × 60 21
n= = = 3 × 10
e 1.6 × 10–19

Example 4:
–11
In hydrogen atom, the electron moves in an orbit of radius 5 × 10 m with a speed of
6
2.2 × 10 m/sec. the equivalent current will be :
(1) 1.12 mA (2) 4.32 mA (3) 3.32 mA (4) 7.12 mA
Solution:
Time taken by the electron in 1 revolution is
2πr Q Qv
T= ; current I =
=
v T 2πr
where R is the radius of orbit and v is the speed.
2.2 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19
I= = 1.12 mA
 22 
2 ×   × (5 × 10 )–11

 7 

Example 5:
2
If charge flowing through a conductor is given by q = 1.5 t + t. The current flow at t = 2
second will be –
(1) 4A (2) 5A (3) 6A (4) 7A
Solution:
dq
We know i =
dt
2 dq
Here q = 1.5 t + t ∴ = 3t + 1
dt
 dq 
Now I=   = 3 × 2 + 1 = 7 Amp.
 dt at t =2s

4 Current Electricity
Example 6:
A conductor of non–uniform cross–sectional area, has cross–sectional area at three points as
2 2 2
A1 = 2 cm , A2 = 4 cm and A3 = 6 cm . If a current of 5 ampere is passed through A1. Value of
current, when passed through A2 and A3 respectively as–
(1) 10 A, 15 A (2) 20 A, 30 A (3) 2.5 A, 1.66 A (4) 5A, 5A
Solution:
(4) Current will remain same. (Independent of cross sectional area)

2. Current Density
Current density is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to current per unit area
surrounding that point.
I
It is denoted by J i.e. J =
A
I = Electric current and A = Area of cross section. Here, area A is normal to current I.
If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, but makes an angle θ with the normal
to current, then
I I A cos θ
J= = ∆Q •P 
Anormal A cos θ J
θ
 
⇒ I = J A cosθ = J.A ∆Q A
    I = A
n̂
dI = J.dA ⇒ I = J.dA ∫ ∆t (a) (b)

Electric current is the flux of current density.

It is a vector quantity. It’s direction is the direction of motion of the positive charges at that point.
2 2
Unit : ampere / meter (A/m )
0 –2 0
Dimension : [M L T A]

Example 7:
2 16
An electron beam has an aperture 1.0 mm . A total of 6.0 × 10 electrons go through any
perpendicular cross section per second. Find (a) the current and (b) the current density in the
beam.
Solution:
(a) The total charge crossing a perpendicular cross section in one second is
16 –19 –3
q = ne = 6.0 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 C = 9.6 × 10 C
The current is
q 9.6 × 10–3 C –3
i= = = 9.6 × 10 A
t 1s
As the charge is negative the current is opposite to the direction of motion of the beam.
(b) The current density is
i 9.6 × 10–3 A
J= = = 9.6 × 103 Am–2
A 1.0mm2

Current Electricity 5
3. Mechanism of Current Flow in Conductors
In atoms and molecules, negatively charged electrons and positively charged nuclei are bound
to each other and thus are not free to move in electric field.
In some materials, the electrons will still be bound so when electric field is applied, they will
not accelerate to develop current. These materials are generally called insulators.
In bulk matter, these molecules are so closely packed that electrons no longer are attached
to individual nuclei. If an electric field is applied some of the electrons are practically free to
move within the bulk material to develop currents in them. These materials are generally
called conductors and these electrons are known as free electrons.
In the absence of electric field, the electrons move A B
randomly and follow a zig-zag path. During their random + ––
++  – –
motion they collide with fixed ions such that their speed E –––
+++ – –
– ––
before collision is equal to speed after collision but the ++ –
+ + – –
+ ––
direction of velocity after collision is completely random. –

Therefore, number of electrons in any direction will be equal to the number of electrons
travelling in opposite direction, so there is no net electric current.

When electric field E is applied, inside the conductor due to electric force the path of electron
in general become curved (parabolic) instead of straight lines and electrons drift opposite to

the field. So the electrons will be accelerated due to the field E from end B to A. The motion
constitute an electric current.

4. Factors Responsible for Current Flow

5
4.1 Thermal Speed (order of vT =10 m/s)
Conductor contain a large number of free electrons, which are in continuous random motion.
Due to random motion, the free electrons collide with positive metal ions with high frequency
and undergo change in direction at each collision. So, the thermal velocities are randomly
distributed in all possible directions are, individual thermal velocities of the free electrons at
any given time. the total number of free electrons in the conductor = N
  
  u1 + u2 + ..... + uN 
average velocity u avg.
= = 0
 N 

4.2 Drift Velocity

Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the
positive terminal under the effect of the applied electric field.

4.3 Relaxation Time

–14
Average time elapsed between two successive collisions. It is of the order of 10 s. It is a
temperature dependent characteristic of the material of the conductor. It decreases with
increases in temperature.

6 Current Electricity
4.4 Relation Between Drift Velocity & Relaxation Time
When the ends of a conductor are connected to a source of emf, an electric field E is
V
established in the conductor, such that E =


where V = the potential difference across the
conductor and  = the length of the conductor.
 
The electric field E exerts an electrostatic force –eE
on each electron in the conductor.

 –eE
The acceleration of each electron a =
m V
m = mass of electron, e = charge of electron
  
so velocity of each electron v= u + at Under the actionof electric
   
So v av =vd =< u + at > fieldrandommotionof an
   electron with superimposed drift
⇒ v d =< u > +a < t >
since the average thermal velocity of free electrons is zero.

   eE
v d = aτ ⇒ vd –
= τ
m
–4
order of drift velocity is 10 m/s

4.5 Mean free path (λ)

The mean distance travelled by a conduction electron during relaxation time is known as
mean free path λ. Mean free path of conduction electron is calculated as:
λ = Thermal velocity × Relaxation time
(order of λ = 10Å)

4.6 Relation between current density, conductivity and electric field

Let the number of free electrons per unit volume in a conductor = n
Total number of electrons in dx distance = n(Adx)
Total charge ∆Q = n(Adx)e
Cross sectional area = A 
∆Q ∆x A
Current = = nAe ⇒ Ι = neAv d •
∆t ∆t
I I dx
Current density J = = nevd
A
 eE   eE 
⇒ J = ne  τ  vd =  τ
m m
 ne2 τ 
⇒J=  E
 m 
  ne2 τ 1
again, for ohmic conductor J = σE ⇒ σ = =
m ρ
Here, σ is conductivity & ρ is resistivity.
σ and ρ depends only on the material of the conductor and its temperature.
 
(i) Direction of current density J is same as that of electric field E .

(ii) If electric field is uniform (i.e. E = constant ) current density will be constant [as σ = constant]
(iii) If electric field is zero (as in electrostatics inside a conductor), current density and hence
current will be zero.

Current Electricity 7
4.7 Mobility (µ)
It is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field

| vd |
µ=
|E|
2 –1 –1
Its SI unit is m V s & Dimension is [M–1L0T2A1]
2 –1 –1
Its practical unit is cm V s
eEτ eτ vd
We have Vd = ⇒ µ= =
m E m
Mobility of free electrons is independent of electric field and dimension of conductor.

Example 8:
A wire has a non-uniform cross-sectional area as shown in figure. A steady current i flows
through it. Which one of the following statement is correct

A B

(1) The drift speed of electron is constant

(2) The drift speed increases on moving from A to B
(3) The drift speed decreases on moving from A to B
(4) The drift speed varies randomly
Solution:
1
For a conductor of non-uniform cross-section v d ∝
Area of cross-section

Example 9:
A copper wire of length 1m and radius 1mm is joined in series with an iron wire of length 2m
and radius 3mm and a current is passed through the wire. The ratio of current densities in the
copper and iron wire is
(1) 18 : 1 (2) 9 : 1 (3) 6 : 1 (4) 2 : 3

Solution:
2 2
i 1 Jc Ai  ri  3 9
We know J = when i = constant J ∝ ⇒ = =  =   =
A A Ji Ac  rc   1 1
Example 10:
The total momentum of electrons in a straight wire of length  = 1000 m carrying a current
I = 70A, will be – (in Ns)
–6 –6 –6 –6
(1) 0.40 × 10 (2) 0.20 × 10 (3) 0.80 × 10 (4) 0.16 × 10
Solution:
We know I = neAvd where vd → drift velocity
n → no. density of electron.
Total no. of electron N = nA
Total momentum (P) of electron = Nmvd
I Im 70 × 1000 × 9.3 × 10–31
or P = (nAm) × = ⇒ P= = 0.40µ Ns
neA e 1.6 × 10–19

8 Current Electricity
Example 11:
Find the resistivity of a metal carrying an electric field E = 10 V/m causing a current density
5 2
J = 3 × 10 A/m .
Solution:

E 10 –5
ρ= = = 3.33 × 10 ohm-m
J 3 × 105

Example 12:
–3 –3
An electric field E = 5 × 10 V/m sets a current i = 1 amp along a wire of radius = 10 m.
– 28 3
Find τ. (no. density of e = 3×10 /m )
Solution:

J [1 / π(10–3 )2 ] 9 –1
σ= = = 0.064 × 10 (Ω-m)
E 5 × 10–3

mσ (9.1 × 10–31 )(0.064 × 109 ) –14

Then τ = = = 7.5 × 10 s
ne2
(3 × 10 )(1.6 × 10 )
28 –19 2

Example 13:
What are the possible paths of free electrons inside a conductor ?
Solution:
In the absence of electric field inside conductor, Free electrons are unaccelerated, so their
path between consecutive collisions is zig-zag.
In the presence of electric field inside conductor, free electrons are accelerated so their path
is generally curved.

Example 14:
28 –3
The number density of electrons in copper is 8.5 × 10 m . Find the current flowing through a
2
copper wire of length 0.2 m, area of cross section 1mm , when connected to a battery of 3V.
–6 2 –1 –1 –19
Given that electron mobility = 4.5 × 10 m V s and charge on electron = 1.6 × 10 C.
Solution:
2 –6 2 28 –3 –6 2 –1 –1
Here, V = 3 volt;  = 0.2 m; A = 1 mm = 10 m ; n = 8.5 × 10 m ; µ = 4.5 × 10 mV s and
–19
e = 1.6 × 10 C

V 3 –1
The electric field set up across the conductor, E= = = 15 Vm
 0.2
Now, the current through the wire,
28 –6 –6 –19
Ι=nAµEe = 8.5 × 10 × 10 × 4.5 × 10 × 15 × 1.6 × 10 = 0.92 A

Current Electricity 9
 Concept Builder-1

6
Q.1 10 positrons are flowing normally through an area in forward direction and same amount of
electrons are flowing in backward direction in the interval of 10 ms. find the current through
the area.

6
Q.2 An electron moves in a circle of radius 10 cm with a constant speed of 4 × 10 m/s find the
electric current at a point on the circle.
2
Q.3 A current of 1.8 A flows through a wire of area of cross-section 0.5 mm . Find the current
density in the wire.

28 3
Q.4 The diameter of a copper wire is 2mm. If a steady current of 6.25 A is caused by 8.5 × 10 /m
electrons flowing through it. The drift velocity of conduction electrons will be –

Q.5 Mobility of free electrons in a current carrying conductor is proportional to ?

1
(1) Vd (2) (3) J (4) ρ
Vd

5. Ohm’s law
If the physical circumstances of the conductor (length, temp., mechanical strain etc.) remains
constant, then the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its two ends i.e., i ∝ V
V
⇒ V = iR or =R
i
When R is a proportionality constant, known as electric resistance.
i

l E
j i V
V For Ohmic resist ance
Thepotentialdrop the slope of i − V graph,
along the wireis di / dV,
V = iR is cons tan t

5.1 Limitations of Ohm’s Law

The proportionality of V and I does not hold for certain materials and devices used in electric
circuits.
V
Following are few types of deviations.

(i) V ceases to be proportional to I for a good conductor at high temperature

l
or high current

10 Current Electricity
 l

–2
V
(ii) Value of current is different for same potential difference on 2
reversing the direction of V in semiconductors
l(µA)
Characteristic
curve of diode

1mA
(iii) Value of potential is different for same current

V
5V 10V
Variation of current
v /s voltage for GaAs

Key Points

• Unit of resistance R: ohm(Ω)

1 ohm = 1 volt /1 ampere
1 2 –3 –2
• Dimension of resistance R: [M L T A ]
• This is true for metallic conductors only which have free electrons
• The law is not applicable for ionized gases, transistors, semi–conductors etc.
I I
Semi
conductor
(i) Conductor (ii)

V V

Example 15:
Find the ratio of the resistances of the conductors 1 and 2.
Solution:
V v 1
R1 =   = tan 60°
 i 1 2
V 60º
R2 =   = tan 30°
 i 2 30º
i

R1 tan60º 3
Hence, = = =3
R2 tan30º 1 / 3

Example 16:
In a wire of length 4m and diameter 6mm, a current of 120 ampere is passed. The potential
difference across the wire is found to be 80 volt. The resistance of wire will be –
(1) 0.15 ohm (2) 0.25 ohm (3) 0.667 ohm (4) none

Current Electricity 11
Solution:
From the definition of resistance
V 80
R= = = 0.667 Ω
I 120

6. Electrical Resistance
Definition : The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current
through it, is known as the resistance.
Cause of resistance of a conductor : It is due to the collisions of free electrons with the ions
or atoms of the conductor while drifting towards the positive end of the conductor.
In short, the resistance is the property of conductor which produces hinderance to the
current flow, causing the potential drop across the conductor.

6.1 Dependence of Resistance

Resistance of conductor does not depend upon the current i flowing through it and the
potential difference (P.D.) along the conductor. However, it depends upon
1
(a) length i.e. R ∝  (b) area i.e. R ∝
A
(c) resistivity i.e. R ∝ ρ
l
Then R = ρ
A
where ρ = resistivity of the conductor
R is in Ohm(Ω)
• Unit of ρ is Ω–m
1 3 –3 –2
• Dimension of ρ is [M L T A ]
1 –1
• Inverse of resistivity is called conductivity (σ) of the material σ = (unit : mho m )
ρ
1
• Inverse of resistance is called conductance (G) G = (unit : mho)
R
• Resistivity is also defined as the ratio of the intensity of the electric field E at any point
within the conductor and the current density J at that point
E
ρ= or J∝E
J

Key Points

• Resistivity is characteristic property of the material of the conductor. It does not depend
upon length, area etc. of the conductor. Although it depends on temperature. It increases
with increase in temperature.
• Value of resistivity is least for conductors and high for insulators.
• ρalloy > ρsemiconductor > ρconductor

12 Current Electricity
 Effect of Stretching a Wire on Its Resistance
R1 21
• If the length of wire is changed, then =
R2 22
R1 r24
• If the radius of wire is changed, then =
R2 r14
R1 A22
• If the area of wire is changed, then =
R2 A21
• If x% change is brought in length of a wire, it’s resistance will change by 2x%. This is true
for x < 5% only.
th
• If a conductor is stretched such that it’s radius is reduced to 1/n of it’s original values,
4 4
then resistance will increases n times similarly resistance will decrease n times if radius
is increased n times by contraction.
L LA ρV ρm
• Keeping volume of the conductor constant, its resistance R =ρ =ρ 2 = 2 =2
A A A Ad
Where m = mass and d = density of material

Example 17:
Resistance of a conductor of length  and area of cross section A is R. If its length is doubled
and area of cross section is halved then find its new resistance.
Solution:
Initial length =  , Area = A

So, initial resistance R = ρ
A
A
Final length ’ = 2  , Area A’ =
2
' 2 
New resistance R’= ρ =ρ = 4ρ = 4R
A' A A
 
2

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 A potential difference of 200 volt is maintained across a conductor of resistance 100 ohm.
Calculate the number of electrons flowing through it in one second. Charge on electron,
–19
e = 1.6 × 10 C.

Q.2 In a wire of length 8m and diameter 3mm, a current of 10 ampere is passed. The potential
difference across the wire is found to be 6 volt. The resistance of wire will be–

Q.3 Resistivity of a conductor of length  and area of cross section A is ρ. If its length is doubled
and area of cross section is halved, then its new resistivity will be

Q.4 A wire of resistance 5 ohm is drawn out so that its length is increased to twice its original
length. Calculate its new resistance.

Q.5 A given piece of wire length  , cross sectional area A and resistance R is stretched uniformly
to a wire of length 2. What will be the new resistance.

Current Electricity 13
7. Temperature Dependence of Resistance
ρ
If the temperature of a conductor increases, the atoms of the lattice
vibrate with more amplitude and velocities. Furthermore, the
conduction electron move with greater speeds. ρ0

Since σ ∝ τ and v increases with temperature and τ decreases. So, we θ
O (º C)
can say that σ decreases or ρ increases with temperature.
ρ = ρ0 (1 + αθ)upto
• It is experimentally verified that the resistivity of a conductor certain temperature
varies linearly with temperature upto certain temperature. If ρ0 =
resistivity at 0°C, the resistivity at θ°C is given as
ρθ = ρ0 (1+αθ)
where α = temperature coefficient of resistivity given as
ρθ – ρ0 –1 –1
α= and its unit is K or °C .
ρ0 θ

dρ
In differential form, α=
ρdθ
Then, resistance Rθ at any temperature θ can be given as Rθ = R0(1 + αθ) where R0 = resistance
At 0°C and α = average temperature coefficient of resistance.
• The alloys have very small value of α. Hence, their resistance does not change appreciably
with increase or decrease in temperature. Therefore, the alloys can be used for making
resistances of constant value.

7.1 Superconductivity
At a very low temperature, the resistivity of a metal is considerably ρ / ρ0
lesser than that at room temperature. Some metal lose their resistances
1.0
completely at temperature near 0 K (absolute zero). This property of a
conductor is called super conductivity and the material is called 0.5
“super-conductor”. The temperature at which a material becomes O T
TC
superconductor is called critical temperature TC.
• A superconducting ring can retain electric currents of hundreds of amperes for a year
without any external source.

Example 18:
The resistance of a wire at 20oC is 20 Ω and at 500oC is 60Ω. At which temperature resistance
will be 25Ω
(1) 50oC (2) 60°C (3) 70°C (4) 80°C
Solution:
R1 (1 + α t 1 ) 20 1 + 20α 1
By using
= = ⇒ =⇒ α
R2 (1 + α t2 ) 60 1 + 500α 220
 1 
1+ × 20 
20  220 
Again by using the same formula for 20Ω and 25Ω ⇒ = ⇒ t = 80oC
25  1 
1+ × t
 220 

14 Current Electricity
 Key Points

• R2 = R1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)]. This formula gives an approximate value.

• Resistance of the conductor decreases linearly with decrease in temperature and
becomes zero at a specific temperature. This temperature is called critical or transition
temperature, at this temperature conductor becomes a superconductor.
• There is no loss of energy in a circuit formed by superconductors. Current passed in loop
formed by superconductor will continue flowing for infinite time if there is no resistance
in the loop.
• Resistivity of a material is found to depend on the temperature. In conductors
m 1 1
resistivity ρ = , where ρ ∝ and ρ ∝ .
ne τ
2
n τ
• When the temperature of conductor increases, average speed of free electrons increases.
As a result collision frequency increases or relaxation time decreases. In metals n is not
dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and ρ increases with rise in temperature.
• For semiconductors, α is negative as their resistivity decreases with rise in temperature (n
increases with rise in temperature)
ρ

T
Temperature dependence of resistivity ρ of a semiconductor is shown in above figure.
• Metals : For metals their temperature coefficient of resistance α > 0. So resistance increases
with temperature.
Physical explanation : Collision frequency of free electrons with the immobile positive ions
increases
• Solid non-metals : For these α = 0. So resistance is independence of temperature.
Physical explanation : Complete absence of free electron.
• Semi-conductors : For semi-conductor α < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature rise.
Physical explanation : Covalent bonds breaks, liberating more free electron and conduction
increases.
• Electrolyte : For electrolyte α < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature rise.
Physical explanation : The degree of ionisation increases and solution becomes less viscous.
• Ionised gases : For ionised gases α < 0 i.e. resistance decreases with temperature rise.
Physical explanation : Degree of ionisation increases.
• Alloys : For alloys α has a small positive values. So with rise in temperature resistance of alloys
is almost constant. Further alloy resistances are slightly higher than the pure metals resistance.
Alloys are used to made standard resistances, wires of resistance box, potentiometer wire,
meter bridge wire etc.
Commonly used alloys are : Constantan, mangnin, Nichrome etc.
• Super conductors : At low temperature, the resistance of certain substances becomes
exactly zero. (e.g. Hg below 4.2 K or Pb below 7.2 K).

Current Electricity 15
8. Combination of Resistors
8.1 Series Combination
The combination of resistors will be termed as series, if same amount of current is flowing
through the resistors.
V1 = ΙR1, V2 = ΙR2, V3 = ΙR3
Sum of the voltages across resistances is equal to the voltage applied across the circuit i.e.
V = V 1 + V2 + V3 ⇒ V = ΙR1 + ΙR2 + ΙR3
R1 R2 R3
V
= R1 + R2 + R3 = R V1 V2 V3
I
I
Where, R = equivalent resistance
V
In series combination, the potential drop across the
circuit is divided in the ratio of resistance
i.e. V1 : V2 : V3 = R1 : R2 : R3 & V1 + V2 + V3 = V
R1 R2 R3
so V1 = V; V2 = V & V3 = V
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3

8.2 Parallel Combination R1

i1
“Resistors will be parallel if the potential drop across
i2 R2
them is same”
A B
Current in each resistance is inversely proportional to R3
i i3
the value of resistance i.e.
V V V
i1 = , i2 = , i3 = V
R1 R2 R3
Current flowing in the circuit is sum of the currents in
individual resistances i.e.
V V V
i = i1 + i2 + i3 ⇒ i = + +
R1 R2 R3

i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1  i 1
= + + ⇒ = + +  = 
V R1 R2 R3 R R1 R2 R3  V R
where R = equivalent resistance

Key Points

(i) There is same drop of potential across each resistance in parallel combination.
(ii) The equivalent resistance of parallel combination is lower than the value of lowest resistance
in the combination.
If n identical resistances (i.e. each R) are connected
(i) in series, their equivalent resistance will be Rs = nR
(ii) in parallel, their equivalent resistance will be Rp = R/n
Rs
(iii) = n2
Rp

16 Current Electricity
Example 19:
Two resistances 12Ω and 4Ω are supplied to you. Find the maximum and minimum resistance
that can be achieved by using them.
Solution:
R1 = 12Ω, R2 = 4 Ω
Maximum resistance is obtained, when they are used in series
RS = R1 + R2 = (12 + 4)Ω = 16Ω
Minimum resistance is obtained when they are in parallel
–1 –1
 1 1   1 1 48
RP =  +  =
 +  == 3Ω
 R1 R2   12 4  16

Example 20:
A wire of resistance 10 Ω is bent to form a complete circle. It’s resistance between two
diametrically opposite points will be (in Ω)
(1) 3.5 (2) 5 (3) 2.5 (4) 1.5
Solution:
The configuration is similar to
5Ω
5Ω
A C
A C
5Ω
5Ω
5×5
Hence, equivalent resistance= Ω = 2.5Ω
5+5

Example 21:
Find the equivalent resistance and current supplied by the battery in the diagram shown –
4Ω c 4Ω e 4Ω
a

6V 3Ω 3Ω 2Ω

b
d f h
Solution:
Solving the circuit one by one as follows.
4Ω c 4Ω e 4Ω c
4Ω c 4Ω
a a e a

3Ω 3Ω 6Ω ⇒ 2Ω ⇒ 6V 2Ω
6V 6V 3Ω

b b b
d f h d f d

6V
Hence current supplied by the battery = =1A
6Ω

Current Electricity 17
 Concept Builder-3

Q.1 The current voltage graph for a given metallic wire at two different temperatures T1 and T2 are
shown in fig. Which is true –
T1
T2
I

V
(1) T1 = T2 (2) T1 > T2 (3) T1 < T2 (4) None

Q.2 An electric cable contains a single copper wire of radius 9 mm. It’s resistance is 5 Ω. This
cable is replaced by six insulated copper wires, each of radius 3 mm. The resultant resistance
of cable will be
(1) 7.5 Ω (2) 45 Ω (3) 90 Ω (4) 270 Ω

Q.3 Four resistances 10 Ω, 5 Ω, 7 Ω and 3 Ω are connected so that they form the sides of a
rectangle AB, BC, CD and DA respectively. Another resistance of 10 Ω is connected across the
diagonal AC. The equivalent resistance between A & B is
(1) 2 Ω (2) 5 Ω (3) 7 Ω (4) 10 Ω

Q.4 Resistance R, 2R, 4R, 8R..................... ∞ are connected in parallel. What will be their equivalent
resistance ?

Q.5 Find the resistance across AB.

R=
2 10Ω

R=
1 12Ω

A B

R=
3 15Ω

Q.6 Find the resistance across AB.

R=
1 10Ω
A
R=
2 15Ω
R=
3 10Ω

R=
4 30Ω

Q.7 What will be the resultant resistance between the points A and B in the following diagram ?
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω
A

2Ω 2Ω 2Ω 1Ω

18 Current Electricity
9. Cell : EMF, Internal Resistance & Terminal Voltage
9.1 Cell & Battery P N

The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is

known as electric cell.
• A cell neither creates nor destroys charge but maintains the flow of A B
charge present at various parts of the circuit by supplying energy Electrolyte
needed for their organised motion.
• Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current.
• Mainly cells are of two types :
(i) Primary cell : Cannot be recharged
(ii) Secondary cell : Can be recharged
• The direction of flow of current inside the cell is from negative to positive electrode while
outside the cell is form positive to negative electrode.
• A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.
• An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes, called anode (P) and cathode (N) immersed in
an electrolyte solution. Electrodes exchange charges with the electrolyte.
Battery can be considered as combination of multiple cells
l R
When there is no current, the electrolyte is at same potential C D
throughout, so the potential difference between P and N is known P N
as electromotive force (emf) of the cell and denoted by ε. emf is a
potential difference not a force. When a resistance R is connected
across the cell as shown in figure, a current I flows from C to D. A A B

steady current flows from P to N through the resistance R and

flows from N to P through the electrolyte. the electrolyte through
which current passes has a finite resistance r known as internal
resistance of the cell.
ε r
A cell can be represented P N as

9.2 Parameter of Cell:

(a) Electro Motive Force (EMF)
The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit (including the
cell) is called the EMF of the cell. The potential difference across the terminals of a cell
W
when it is not giving any current is called EMF of the cell. E =
Q
• emf depends on: • emf does not depend on:
(i) nature of electrolyte (i) area of plates
(ii) metal of electrodes (ii) distance between the electrodes
(iii) quantity of electrolyte
(iv) size of cell

Current Electricity 19
 (b) Terminal Voltage (V)
• When current is drawn through the cell or current is
E r
supplied to cell then, the potential difference across its
terminals is called terminal voltage.
ter minal voltage
When i current is drawn from cell, then terminal voltage is
less than it’s emf E. R

i r
V=E–ir
E
Where V = terminal voltage, r = internal resistance of battery
• When current is supplied to the cell, the terminal voltage is greater than the emf E i.e.
V=E+ir
i + – r
E
• Units of both emf and terminal voltage are volt.

(c) Internal Resistance (r)

The resistance offered by the cell to the flow of current through it is called internal
resistance of the cell.
• Distance between two electrodes ↑ r ↑
• Area dipped in electrolyte ↑ r ↓
• Concentration of electrolyte ↑ r ↑
• Temperature ↑ r ↓

Example 22:
A cell of emf 10 V and internal resistance 5Ω is connected across a 10V,5Ω
resistance 15Ω. Find potential difference across AB.
Solution:
Above circuit can be redrawn as Current Ι through R is from A to B. A B
Network is simple series network. 15Ω

Total resistance = R + r = (15 + 5) Ω = 20Ω ε =10V r = 5Ω

ε 10V
Current Ι = = = 0.5 A
R+r 20Ω
Potential difference across AB A B
I R= 15Ω
VA – VB = ΙR = (0.5 A) × 15Ω = 7.5 V

Example 23:
What is the relationship between potential difference across the terminals of a cell and emf
of the cell?
Solution:
When the cell is discharging then potential difference across its terminals is less than emf i.e.
V = ε – Ir.
When the cell is being charged by passing current l through it, potential difference across its
terminals is more than emf i.e. V = ε + Ir.

20 Current Electricity
9.3 Combination of Cell:
(a) Series Combination
When the cells are connected in series the total e.m.f. of the series combination is equal
to the sum of the e.m.f.’s of the individual cells and internal resistance of the cell also
come in series. Equivalent internal resistance
r = r1 + r2 + r3+...

Equivalent emf E = E1 + E2 + E3 +... E1 r1 E2 r2 En rn

Enet
Current I = R
rnet + R

nE
If all n cells are identical then I =
nr + R
E
• If nr >> R, I =
r
nE
• If nr << R, I =
R

(b) Parallel Combination

When the cells are connected in parallel, the cells can be replaced with a single cell of
emf Enet & internal resistance rnet.
E1 r1
Internal resistance is
E2 r2
1 1 1
= + + ....
rnet r1 r2 E3 r3

E1 E2 E4 r4
+ + .....
r1 r2
and Enet =
1 1
+ + ..... R
r1 r2

If m identical cell connected in parallel then total internal resistance of this combination

r
rnet =
m
Total e.m.f. of this combination ET = E

Current in the circuit

ET E mE
=I = =
r r mR + r
R+ R+
m m
E
If r << mR ; I =
R
mE
If r >> mR ; I =
r

Current Electricity 21
 (c) Mixed Combination

Total number of identical cells in this circuit is nm. If n cells are connected in series and

there is m such branches in the circuit.

E r E r E r
The internal resistance of the cells connected in a
E r E r E r
row = nr
I
nr E r E r E r
Total internal resistance of the circuit rnet =
m R

( There are such m rows)

Total e.m.f. of the circuit = total e.m.f. of the cells connected in a row i.e. ET or Enet = nE

Enet nE
I= =
R + rnet nr
R+
m

Current in the circuit is maximum when external resistance in the circuit is equal to the

nr
total internal resistance of the cells R =
m

Example 24:

Find the current I through the 10Ω resistance in the network shown in figure.
r1 = 2Ω

A B
ε1 =10V
r2 = 1Ω

ε2 =5V

I R= 10Ω

Solution:

Across A and B two cells are used in parallel so above circuit can be redrawn as

ε 1r2 + ε2r1 10 × 1 + 5 × 2 20
εeq = = = V
r1 + r2 1+2 3 εeq req
A B
r1r2 1× 2 2
req = = = Ω
r1 + r2 1+2 3

current through R I R= 10Ω

20
εeq 20 5
I= = 3 = A= A
R + req 2 32 8
10 +
3

22 Current Electricity
Example 25:
The reading in the ammeter is –
+ –
2V
I1

2Ω 2Ω A 2Ω
I2
+ –
2V

(1) 1 A (2) 2 A (3) 0.67 A (4) 1.5 A

Solution:
The circuit can be redrawn as 2V,2Ω
so the current flowing through the load will be (as based on parallel
2Ω
combination of cells) A
Er E 2
=I = = = 0.67 Amp
r r 2
R+ R+ 2+ 2V,2Ω
m m 2

10. Kirchhoff’s Rule

Kirchhoff in 1842 gave two laws for solving complicated electrical circuits. These laws are as
follows–

10.1 First Law

In an electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of the current meeting at any junction in the circuit
is zero.
OR
Sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to sum of the i2 i3
currents leaving the junction
⇒ Σi = 0
i1
i1 – i2 – i3 – i4 + i5 = 0 or i1 + i5 = i2 + i3 + i4 i5
i4
This law is based on law of conservation of charge. In other words,
when a steady current flows in a circuit then their is neither accumulation of charge at point
in the circuit nor any charge is removed from there.

Example 26:
The value of current i in the following circuit is.
4A
(1) 2.7 A (2) 3.7 A 2A
A B
(3) 3 A (4) 4A 3A
C
i

Solution: 1.3A
i = ((4 + 3) – 2 – 1.3) = 3.7 A

Current Electricity 23
10.2 Second Law
In a ‘closed’ mesh of a circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and the
resistance in each part of the mesh is equal to the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.’s in that mesh.
i.e. ΣiR = ΣE
This law is based on ‘law of conservation of energy’.

10.3 Sign Conventions

i R
A B
If the current is flowing through the resistance R from A to B, then potential difference across
AB is VA – VB = iR (i is determined to be positive).

Similarly potential difference across BA is, VB – VA = – iR (i is determined to be negative).

i ε
P N
r
then, potential difference across the cell
V = VP – VN = ε – ir

i ε
P N
r

If the current is flowing from P to N

then V = VP – VN = ε + ir

Example 27:
In the circuit shown in figure, find the current through A 6Ω B 3Ω C
the branch BD
15 V
(1) 5 A 3Ω
30 V
(2) 0 A
D
(3) 3 A
(4) 4 A
Solution:
The current in the circuit are assumed as shown in the fig. 6Ω i1 B 3Ω i1 – i2 C
A
Applying KVL along the loop ABDA, we get
3Ω 30 V
– 6i1 – 3 i2 + 15 = 0 or 2i1 + i2 = 5 …… (i) 15 V
i2
Applying KVL along the loop BCDB, we get
i1 D
– 3(i1 – i2) – 30 + 3i2 = 0 or – i1 + 2i2 = 10 …… (ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii) for i2, we get i2 = 5 A

24 Current Electricity
11. Wheat Stone Bridge
• The configuration in the adjacent figure is called wheat stone B i –i
1 g

bridge. P Q
i1 ig
• If ig = 0 i.e. current in galvanometer is zero, then bridge is
A i2 G C
said to be balanced. R S
P R
• For ig = 0 (i) VD = VB (ii) = i2 + ig
Q S i= i1 + i2 i
D
(P + Q)(R + S) + –
• Equivalent resistance in balanced condition = E
P +Q+R + S
P R
• If < then VB > VD and current will flow from B to D.
Q S
P R
• If > ,then VB < VD and current will flow from D to B.
Q S
• Meter bridge and post office box work on this principle.

Example 28:
In the following figures, the resistance between A and B will respectively be –
C
R R
R
A R B C B
A B
A D
R R R
R R
D R
(1) R/2, R (2) 2R, R (3) R, R (4) 3R, R
Solution:
R R
This is a balanced bridge (P/Q = R/S)
For this bridge, we can ignore the resistor between b and d. A B
Hence both the above fig can be put as fig (iii).
Equivalent resistance in balanced condition R R
2R × 2R Fig. (iii)
= RAB
= = R
2R + 2R

Concept Builder-4

Q.1 In the network shown in the above figure, find the current through 3Ω and 10Ω resistances.
10Ω

A B 3Ω C
15Ω

10V 1Ω

Q.2 A battery of emf 6 volts and internal resistance 0.4Ω is being charged. The potential
difference between terminal of the battery is 7 V, then what is the current supplied to the
battery?

Current Electricity 25
Q.3 Calculate the value of r if potential drop across 10Ω resistance is 4V.
6V,r

10Ω

10Ω

Q.4 Kirchhoff’s first and second laws respectively show the conservation of
(1) Charge and energy (2) Energy and charge (3) Mass and charge (4) Charge and mass

Q.5 Calculate equivalent resistance across AC

C

8
2 1

6 A 3

B D
4

Q.6 In the adjoining network of resistors, each is of resistance 10 ohm, the equivalent resistance
between points A and B is –

10Ω 10Ω
10Ω

A
10Ω B
10Ω

12. Shorting / Equipotential Points

Equipotential Points
In a current carrying electrical network, two points are said to
be equipotential if they are at same potential. Between the
points 1 and 2, R=0
1 2
if ∆V = iR = 0.
⇓
∆V = 0
V1 = V2 (equipotential)
Then we have two cases, if R = 0, ∆V = 0 (i ≠ 0) and if i = 0 (R is 1 2

finite) ∆V = 0. The first case tells that when we connect any

two points by an ideal conductor, the potential difference
between them becomes zero. It is called “short circuiting”. The
second case tells that, if we connect any two points by a non-zero resistor and find no
current along the resistor, we can call these points equipotential. After finding equipotential
points join them to a single point to simplify the given circuit.

26 Current Electricity
 E

R R

C D
Example 29: Find RAB. E
R R

A
B
Solution: R R
Since C and D are connected with a zero resistor they are equipotential.
E
Then superimpose C and D to obtain the simplified circuit as shown. Since C D
no current flows in the branches CE and ED, R R

hence RAB = R + R = 2R
A B

13. Electric Symmetry b

If the branches ab and ac have same i/2
resistances, and same current, same R c
potential will be dropped along them. hence a i/2
the branches ab and ac are electrically
R
symmetrical. In this case, case, the points b
and c are equipotential points. Then you can join these points

14. Earthing of a Circuit Point

If any Node/junction of the circuit is earthed, the potential of that node/junction becomes
zero. i.e. the same node/junction becomes the reference potential.

Example 30:
B
A C
From the fig. determine 10V 16V
i 1Ω 0.5Ω
(i) potential at A
(ii) potential at C 0.5Ω
4Ω
(iii) reading of the voltmeter connected across the 10V
F G
battery D

Solution:
The current in circuit is (consider loop (CBAFGDC)
E2 – E1 16 – 10
Ι= = = 1A
r1 + r2 + R1 + R2 1 + 0.5 + 4 + 0.5
(i) VA – VF = IR = 4 volt
Because VF = 0(grounded), therefore VA= 4 volt
(ii) VD – VC = 1 × 0.5 = 0.5 volt
∴ VD = 0 (grounded).
So VC = – 0.5 volt
(iii) The 10V battery is being charged therefore
V = E + Ir = 10 + 1 × 1 = 11 volt

Current Electricity 27
15. Electrical Energy & Power
15.1 Electric Energy
When a potential difference is applied across a wire, current starts flowing in it. The free
electrons collide with the positive ions of the metal and lose energy. Thus, energy taken from
the battery is dissipated. The battery constantly provides energy to continue the motion of
electrons and hence electric current in the circuit. Thus, energy taken from the battery gets
transferred into heat. This energy is called electrical energy. This effect is also called ‘Heating
Effect of Current’.
If, R = Resistance of wire
I = Current in wire
V = Potential difference across wire.
Flow of charge in ‘dt’ time = Idt.
Energy dissipated dW = Vdq = VIdt,
 V = IR,

2 V2
∴ dW = VIdt = I Rdt = dt = Vdq (joule)
R
This energy is equal to work done by battery or heat produced in the wire.
Joule can be converted into calorie by using
1 calorie = 4.2 Joules

15.2 Electrical Power

The rate of loss of energy in an electrical circuit is called electrical power. It is denoted by ’P’
dW 2 V2
P= = I R = IV =
dt R
units of power = joule/sec, watt, horse power
1 watt = 1 joule/sec, 1 HP = 746 watt
unit of electrical energy = watt second, kilowatt hour
5
1 kilowatt hour (kwh) = 36 × 10 Joule
15.3 Power Loss in Transmission Lines
Consider a device of resistance R to be operated at voltage V and current through is I, then
power of devices P = VI. If resistance of connecting wires from power station to the device,
then
2 P2Rc
Pc = I Rc =
V2
Therefore, to drive a device of power P, the power wasted in the connecting wires
1
Pc ∝ ∝ Rc
V2
As the distance of power station is very large, Rc is considerable. So to decrease Pc, these
wires carry current at enormous values of V and this is the reason for high voltage danger
signs on transmission lines. These voltages are lowered to a value suitable for use by a device
known as transformer.

28 Current Electricity
 Key Points

• Fuse Wire : Fuse wire is used in a circuit to control the maximum current flowing in a circuit.
It is a thin wire having high resistance and is made up of a material with low melting point.
3/2 0
Current capacity Ι ∝ r , Ι ∝ 

• House wiring circuits are in parallel therefore the voltage across each bulb is constant. The
2
power of the bulb is given by the formula : P = V /R. For constant voltage P ∝ (1/R) therefore,
the great the resistance, the smaller is the power.
• Ιf we take two bulbs of 60W and 100W, then the resistance of 60W bulb will be more than the
resistance of 100 W bulb.
The filament of 60W bulb is thinner than the filament of 100 watt bulb.

Example 31:
Three resistances each of 2 ohm is joined as
2Ω
shown in the figure and each one can have 2Ω

maximum power of 18 watt (otherwise it will

2Ω
melt). The maximum power the whole circuit
can take is:
(1) 27 W (2) 9 W (3) 81 W (4) 18 W
Solution:
2
Electric power expended in a wire of resistance R is P = i R

P   18 
∴ maximum current in any wire of the circuit i =   =   = 3A
R  2
This circuit has two 2Ω wires in parallel and a third 2Ω wire in series with this parallel
combination.
2Ω × 2Ω
Hence the equivalent resistance of the whole circuit is R’ = + 2Ω = 3Ω.
2Ω + 2Ω
2 2
∴ maximum power expended in the whole circuit is Pmax = i R’ = (3) × 3 = 27 watt

Example 32:
A current of 5.0 A flows through an electric press of resistance 11Ω. Calculate the energy
consumed by the press in 5 minutes.
Solution:
Here I = 5.0 A; R = 11 Ω;
t = 5 min = 5 × 60 = 300 s
Electric energy consumed in 5 min
2 2 4
= I Rt = (5.0) × 11 × 300 = 8.25 × 10 J

Current Electricity 29
16. Connection of Electrical Appliances
16.1 Rating
If 220V and 40W is written on an electrical instrument then this is called it’s standard Ratings.
It means that if 220V is applied across this instrument then 40W of power will be generated.
Thus the resistance will be given by
V2 (220)2
R= = = 1210 Ω
P 40

16.2 Series Combination

1 1 1 1 V, P1 V, P2 V, P3
• If total power dissipated is P, then = + + .....(1)
P P1 P2 P3
• In this combination, the bulb with least power will glow
most and bulb with highest power will glow least or we can
say that bulb with highest R will glow brightest and bulb
with least R will glow least. V
V, P1
16.3 Parallel Combination
• Net power dissipation P = P1 + P2 + P3.......(2) V, P2
• Bulb with least power will glow least or the bulb in which
maximum current is flowing will glow brightest and vice– V, P3

versa.
Note:
(1) These formulae eq. (1) & (2) are applicable only if the
V
voltage ratings of all the instruments are equal along with
the power source. If voltage ratings are different then circuit is solved by considering
equivalent resistances of the instruments as follows.
(2) Replace the instrument by it’s equivalent resistance. If standard rating is (V&P) then it
2
resistance is R = V /P
(3) Find the currents and voltages in different branches using Kirchhoff’s first and second laws.
V12 V22 V22
(4) If rating of a bulb is changed from (V1,P1) to (V2,P2) then = = R or P2 = P1
P1 P2 V12

Key Points

• Two identical heater coils gives total heat Hs when connected in series and Hp when
connected in parallel than Hp/Hs = 4 [In this, it is assumed that supply voltage is same]
• If a heater boils m kg water in time T1 and another heater boils the same water in time T2,
then both connected in series will boil the same water in time Ts = T1 + T2 and if in parallel
Tp = T1T2 / (T1 + T2)
• Instruments based on heating effect of current, works on both A.C. and D.C. Equal value of
A.C. (RMS) and D.C. produces, equal heating effect. That’s why brightness of bulb is same
whether it is operated by A.C. or same value D.C.

30 Current Electricity
 Concept Builder-5

A 6Ω 2Ω

Q.1 Calculate equivalent Resistance across AB

3Ω 1Ω

B
R

R 2R R
2R
2R
Q.2 Find RAB. A B
2R
2R
R 2R R

Q.3 A lamp of 100 W works at 220 volt. What is its resistance and current capacity ?

Q.4 A 220 volt 100 watt bulb is connected to a 110 volt source. The power consumed by the bulb
will be
(1) 25 W (2) 20 W (3) 484 W (4) 120 W

Q.5 Ιf heat generated in 5 ohm resistor due to current flowing

i 6Ω 9Ω
in it is 45 J/s then find the rate of heat generated in 2 ohm
resistor and potential different across 6 ohm resistor. i 2Ω
A B
(1) 32 J/s, 6V (2) 16 J/s, 3V D
i2 5Ω
(3) 8 J/s, 1V (4) 64 J/s, 12V

Q.6 A 60 W –200 V bulb and 100 W – 220 V bulb are connected in parallel to mains supply. Which
bulb will draw more current ?

17. Power Distribution by Cell

(i) When a load resistance ‘R’ is connected with a battery of EMF 'ε' & internal resistance ‘r’. then
ε
(a) Current through the load I= I R
R+r
Power delivered at the load
2 ε2R
P=IR= ε r
(R + r)2
I
Power delivered at load is maximum, when
dP
=0 P
dR
Solving above equation R = r ε2
2 2 4r
ε2r ε ε
Pmax = = =
(r + r)2
4r 4R
r R
(b) P versus R graph will be

Current Electricity 31
Example 33: P(in W )

The power delivered across a variable load varies with load resistor
40W
as shown. Find out its emf & internal resistance
Solution:
R= 10Ω
For maximum power delivery R(in Ω)

r = R = 10Ω
ε2
Pmax = 40W = ⇒ ε = 40 V
4r

Measuring Devices
18. Current & Voltage Measurement
In D.C. circuits, we talked about emf, voltage, current and resistance. We measure the
V
unknown resistance by using Ohm’s law as R = . The voltage across any circuit element can
I
be measured by “voltmeter” and current along any branch can be measured by “ammeter”.
The emf of a cell can be measured by “potentiometer”. Generally, we measure the voltage and
current in a circuit element X by connecting the voltmeter and ammeter in two possible ways.
The basic instrument that can be used for measuring both voltage and current is called
“galvanometer”. A galvanometer can be used as an ammeter and voltmeter by attaching it
with a suitable resistance.
V

X X A

18.1 Galvanometer
This device measures the current by means of magnetic force which will be discussed in next
chapter. The maximum current that can flow through the galvanometer is current ig and the
corresponding voltage drop across the galvanometer is Vg.
ig + –
Vg G
Then = Galvanometric resistance = G.
ig Vg

(A) Shunt:
G
The small resistance connected in parallel to
galvanometer coil, in order to control current
flowing through the galvanometer is known as
S K
shunt.
(B) Merits of Shunt:
• To protect the galvanometer coil from burning
• It can be used to convert any galvanometer into ammeter of desired range.
(C) Demerits of Shunt: Shunt resistance decreases the sensitivity of galvanometer.

32 Current Electricity
18.2 Ammeter
• Ammeter is a shunted galvanometer which is used to measure current in a circuit.
• It is always connected in series so that the entire current passes through it.
• In principle, the current in the circuit must not change when a current measuring device
like ammeter is introduced in the circuit therefore, AN IDEAL AMMETER MUST HAVE ZERO
RESISTANCE.
• However in practice, a moving coil meter has some resistance. Due to this the current in
circuit is modified (reduced) when a moving coil ammeter is connected in circuit.

18.3 Voltmeter
Voltmeter is a device used to measure p.d. across two points in an electrical circuit. It is
connected in parallel to these points. i.e. in parallel to the circuit.

18.4 Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter

• A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter of a given range by connecting low
resistance in parallel to its coil.
G
I Ig

Is
S

Is = I – Ig

Ig G
• From fig. Ιg G = (Ι – Ιg)S or S=
I –Ig
• Higher is the range of Ι of ammeter, lower is the value of S required for conversion of
galvanometer into ammeter.
The effective resistance of the ammeter is
GS
RA =
G+S
For an IDEAL AMMETER, RA = 0

Example 34:
If only one hundredth part of total current flowing in the circuit is to be passed through a
galvanometer of resistance GΩ, Then the value of shunt resistance required will be-
(1) G/10 (2) G/100 (3) G/99 (4) G/999
Solution:
G G G
S= = = Ω
n – 1 100 – 1 99

Example 35:
A galvanometer has a coil of resistance of 60Ω and shows a full-scale deflection for
50 µA current. To convert this galvanometer into an ammeter of range 10 mA, required shunt
resistance will be–
(1) 0.30 Ω (2) 0.20 Ω (3) 0.6 Ω (4) 0.40 Ω

Current Electricity 33
Solution:
Given Ιg = 50 µA = 50 × 10–6 A
Ig G 50 × 10–6 × 60
Ι = 10 mA = 10 × 10–3 A, G = 60 Ω thus S= = =0.30 Ω
I –Ig 10 × 10–3 – 50 × 10–6

Example 36:
In the circuit shown below, if the value of R is increased then what will be the effect on the
reading of ammeter if the internal resistance of cell is not negligible-
R'
(1) The reading of A will decrease
(2) The reading of A will increase A
(3) The reading of A will remain unchanged R
(4) The reading of A will become zero.
Solution: E
+ –
Current in the ammeter r
 
R  E  E
I =   I
R + R'  RR'   R' 
r+ R'+ r  1 + 
 R + R'   R
On increasing the value of R, the denominator will decrease and consequently the value of I
will increase.
Both R & R’ are connected in parallel. If R increases then current in R’ increases

Example 37:
In the circuit shown below fig. if the resistance of voltmeter is 4KΩ, then the error in the
reading of voltmeter will be-
+ – (•) K
4V

4KΩ 4KΩ

(1) 50% (2) 68% (3) 17% (4) 33.3%

Solution:
The potential difference between A and B in the absence of voltmeter = 2 Volt.
Current flowing in the circuit
E 4 2
Ι= Ι= = A K
R1RV 4×4 3 + –
R2 + 4+ (•)
R 1 + RV 4+4 4V
⇒ Potential difference measured by voltmeter B
A 4KΩ 4KΩ
2 4 R1 R2
V’AB = ΙR’ = × 2 = V
3 3
4KΩ
⇒ Error in the reading of voltmeter
RV V
4 2
= VAB – V’AB = 2 – = V
3 3
4
–2
Vf – Vi
⇒ % error = ×100 = 3 × 100 = –33.3 %
Vi 2

34 Current Electricity
18.5 Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:
• A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance R in series
with the galvanometer.
• From fig.
V
V
Ιg (R + G) = V or R = –G
Ig
• Higher is the range of V of the voltmeter, higher is the value of
R required for conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter. Ig R G
• The effective resistance of the voltmeter is RV = R + G
Voltmeter
For an IDEAL VOLTMETER, RV = ∞.

Example 38:
A voltmeter, an ammeter and a resistance are connected in series to an accumulator. There is
a deflection in the voltmeter but the deflection in ammeter is negligible. Why?
Solution:
The voltmeter being in series, the resistance of the circuit becomes very high and so the
current very low. This current on passing through the coil of the voltmeter produces some
deflection, but in ammeter most of its part goes through the shunt of the ammeter and so
the current going in the coil of the ammeter is too small to produce any deflection.

19. Meter Bridge

It is an instrument based on the balanced Wheatstone bridge to measure the unknown
resistance X. It is fitted between the tapping points B and C and a known resistance R is fitted
between the tapping points A and B. The slider D is moved along the meter bridge wire AC till
ig will be zero at any point D, (say).
RAD 1
Then, = , where 1 and 2 are the lengths of the resistance RAD and RDC measured by the
RDC 2
1
scale. If 1 + 2 = 1 m, 1 = y, we have 2 = (1 – y). After finding the value of , equate it with
2
the ratio R/X to obtain the unknown resistance.
R y
=
x (1 − y)
if y in cm
R y
=
x 100 – y
R X

B
A B C R X
A C
G G
D R AD RCD
A C
D
1 2 ε

E K

Current Electricity 35
Example 39:
R=
1 15Ω R2= 10Ω
In the meter bridge shown in figure. find the length AB for null deflection
in galvanometer. G
Solution:
Let AB =  cm then BC = (100 – ) cm A C
B
R1 RAB 
At zero deflection of galvanometer, = =
R2 RBC 100 – 
15  3 
⇒ = ⇒ =
10 100 –  2 100 – 
⇒ 5 = 300 ⇒  = 60 cm
Example 40: + –
Let the meter bridge wire AB shown in figure is 40 cm long. When
F
the sliding contact (jockey) is pressed at F, the galvanometer A B
shows zero (null) deflection. The balancing length AF is- G
(1) 8 cm (2) 16 cm 8Ω 12Ω
(3) 24 cm (4) 40 cm
Solution:
For balancing point to be at F,
length AF 8  8
= or = or  = 16 cm
lengthFB 12 40 –  12

Concept Builder-6

Q.1 The shunt required for 10% of main current to be sent through the moving coil galvanometer
of resistance 99Ω will be-
(1) 0.9 Ω (2) 11 Ω (3) 90 Ω (4) 9.9 Ω

Q.2 What value of shunt is required to measure a current of 10.1 amp by using a galvanometer of
1
rating amp, 6Ω?
10
Q.3 A galvanometer having 30 divisions has a current sensitivity of 20 µA/divisions. It has a
resistance of 25 Ω. To convert it into an ammeter measuring upto 1A and voltmeter reading
upto 1 volt, the resistances required will be respectively–

Q.4 In the meter bridge, the balancing length AB = 20 cm. The unknown resistance X is equal to
1Ω

G D

A C
B

Q.5 An unknown resistance R1 is connected in series with 10Ω. When the combination is
connected to left gap of a meter bridge and R2 is connected to right gap, balance point from
left end is at 50 cm. When the 10Ω is removed the balance point shifts to 40 cm. The value of
R1 is

36 Current Electricity
20. Experiments
20.1 The resistivity of the material of a given wire using a meter bridge.

Meter bridge : The resistance of a metal wire depends on its length, area of cross-section and

resistivity of the metal. The formula is


R= ρ
A
B
P Q
I I
G
A C
R S
D

Here, ρ is the resistivity. Its unit is Ω-m (ohm-meter). To measure its resistivity, we use a

meter bridge. The working of a meter bridge is based on balanced Wheatstone bridge

principle.

The circuit shown is called Wheatstone bridge.

P R
When = , there is no flow of current in the branch BD. i.e., galvanometer shows zero
Q S

deflection.

Arrangement : The arrangement consists of a 100 cm long wire connected between A and C. It

is tapped at point B by a sliding contact called jockey. R is a known resistance. S is the

resistance wire whose resistivity is to be determined. A cell and a variable resistance RH are

connected to supply current in the circuit.

R S
P

G
P B Jockey Q
A C
 100 – 
100 cm

RH
+ –

E K

Current Electricity 37
Procedure : Following steps are used in the experiment.
1. Plug the key and slide the jockey on wire AC to locate point B where the galvanometer
does not show deflection. Note down the length .
P R
2. Compute the resistance S using the formula = .
Q S
Here,

P=
ρwire ×
A
100 − 
Q=
ρwire ×
A
 100 −  
∴ S=
R .
  
3. Compute the value of S by determining different values of length . This can be done by
using different values of R.
4. Calculate the percentage error in measurement of S.
5. Compute the resistivity by measuring length and area of cross-section of resistance wire S
A
using the formula ρ =S .


Concept Builder-7

1. The resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit area of cross-section is called
(1) Conductance (2) Capacitance
(3) Specific resistance (4) Conductivity

2. A meter bridge works on the principle of

(1) Balanced Wheatstone bridge (2) Kirchhoff's voltage law
(3) Kirchhoff's current law (4) Principle of superposition

3. Choose the correct statement regarding meter-bridge

(1) A meter bridge works on the principle of null-deflection.
(2) The meter bridge usually consists of a wire of length 1 m and of uniform cross-sectional
area.
(3) The meter bridge is used for the precise measurement of low resistance
(4) All of these

4. in a meter bridge, there are two unknown resistances R1 and R2. The ratio of R1 and R2, if the
galvanometer shows a null deflection at 30 cm from one end.
(1) 2 : 7 (2) 5 : 4 (3) 3 : 7 (4) 2 : 9

38 Current Electricity
5. A resistance wire connected in the left gap of the meter bridge balances a 12 Ω resistance in
the right gap. This happens at a point where the bridge wire is divided in the ratio 2 : 1.
Assuming length of wire to be 1 m, Calculate the approximate length of 1 Ω resistance wire
(1) 2.1 cm (2) 4.2 cm (3) 6.1 cm (4) 5.9 cm

6. In an experiment to find the resistivity of material using meter bridge, the null point was
found to be at 60 cm as shown. The value of resistance Q is
P=6Ω Q

G
wire
60 cm

(1) 2 Ω (2) 4 Ω (3) 5 Ω (4) 6 Ω

7. In an experiment to find the resistivity of material using meter bridge, the resistance of wire is
16 Ω. The resistivity of material of wire of length 1 m and radius 1 mm is
(1) 16π × 10−7 Ωm (2) 16π × 10−6 Ωm
(3) 4π × 10−7 Ωm (4) 4π × 10−6 Ωm

8. The best material used for making connecting wires among given options is
(1) Tungsten (2) Iron (3) Nichrome (4) Copper

9. The wire of meter-bridge needs to have

(1) High specific heat and low temperature coefficient of resistance
(2) Low specific heat and low temperature coefficient of resistance
(3) Low specific heat and high temperature coefficient of resistance
(4) High specific heat and high temperature coefficient of resistance
10. The device used to measure small electric current in a circuit
(1) Meter bridge (2) Voltmeter
(3) Galvanometer (4) Resistance

20.2 The resistance of a given wire using Ohm's law.

According to ohm's law, the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across the ends of the conductor provided the
physical conditions like temperature and mechanical strain etc are kept constant.
V = IR, where R is a constant called resistance
Arrangement : The figure shows the arrangement used to measure resistance of a wire. It
consists of a cell of emf E, connected to a fixed resistance R and a variable resistance RH. An

Current Electricity 39
 ammeter is connected in the circuit to measure current/and a voltmeter is connected across
the fixed resistance R to measure potential difference V,
V
Rn

Ammeter
A

S
E

Procedure : Following steps are to be followed.

1. Close the switch S and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
2. Repeat the above process for different values of variable resistance RH.
3. Plot a graph between V and / by taking V along y-axis and I along x-axis.
4. Slope or gradient of this graph is constant. This shows that V ∝ I

Concept Builder-8

1. The Ohm's law for a metallic conductor can be represented by

Potential Difference
(1) = Resistance
Current
(2) Current = Resistance × Potential difference
Resistance
(3) Current =
Potential difference
(4) Both (2) and (3)

2. According to Ohm's law current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends provided that
(1) Temperature of the conductor remains constant
(2) Dimensions of conductor remains constant
(3) Temperature and physical conditions keep changing
(4) Both (1) and (2)

40 Current Electricity
3. Choose the correct statement among the following
(1) Resistance of a material is independent of current passing through it.
(2) Resistance of a material is its tendency to oppose passage of free electrons
(3) Every material generally has resistance
(4) All of these

4. The resistance of a conductor increases with increase in

(1) Current (2) Potential difference
(3) Temperature (4) Both (1) and (2)

5. The resistance of a wire depends on

(1) Length of the wire
(2) Area of cross-section of the conductor
(3) Nature of material and temperature across conductor
(4) All of these

6. An electrical instrument that is used for controlling the current by varying the resistance is
(1) Voltmeter (2) Ammeter (3) Galvanometer (4) Rheostat

7. Ammeter and voltmeter readings were recorded as 0.5 A and 1 V during the experiment to
determine the resistance of a given wire using Ohm's law. The correct value of the resistance
is
(1) 1 Ω (2) 10.5 Ω (3) 2 Ω (4) 4.5 Ω

8. To measure potential difference across an element in a circuit

(1) Voltmeter is connected in parallel to the element
(2) Voltmeter is connected in series to the element
(3) Ammeter is connected in parallel to the element
(4) Ammeter is connected is series to the element

9. For the given V-I graphs it can be concluded that

R3
R2

V (v)
R1

O I (A)

(1) R1 > R2 > R3 (2) R1 < R2 > R3 (3) R1 = R2 = R3 (4) R3 > R2 > R1

10. The shape of V vs / graph for a ohmic conductor is

(1) Parabola (2) Straight line (3) Hyperbola (4) None of these

Current Electricity 41
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-6

–11
1. 3.2 × 10 amp
–12 1. S = 11Ω
2. 1.01 × 10 amp
2
2. S = 0.06 Ω
3. 3.6 A/mm
3. S = 0.015 Ω, R = 1641.67 Ω
4. 0.15 mm/s
1
5. (1) 4. x= Ω
4
5. R1 = 20Ω
CONCEPT BUILDER-2
19
1. 1.25 × 10 2. R = 0.6 Ω
3. ρ remains the same 4. 20Ω CONCEPT BUILDER-7
5. R' = 4R
1. (3) 2. (1)
CONCEPT BUILDER-3 3. (4) 4. (3)
1. (3) 2. (1) 5. (2) 6. (2)
3. (2) 4. Req = R/2 7. (2) 8. (4)
5. RAB = 18Ω 6. RAB = 13.5 9. (1) 10. (3)
Ω
7. RAB = 2Ω
CONCEPT BUILDER-8
CONCEPT BUILDER-4
1. (1) 2. (4)
3
1. I10 = A; I3 = 1A 2. I = 2.5 A 3. (4) 4. (3)
5
Ω Ω

5. (4) 6. (4)
3. r = 2.5 Ω 4. (1)
7. (3) 8. (1)
5. Req = 2Ω 6. Req = 10Ω
9. (4) 10. (2)

CONCEPT BUILDER-5
28
1. Req = 2Ω 2. R
27
3. R = 484 Ω, I = 0.45 A
4. (1) 5. (1)
6. 100 W, 220 V will draw more current

42 Current Electricity
 Exercise - I

Electric Current, Average Current, Types 5. A steady current is passing through a

of Current, Instantaneous & Average linear conductor of non-uniform cross-
Current section. The net quantity of charge
crossing any cross-section per second
1. A current of 5 A exist on a 10 ohm
is:
resistance for 4 min. How much charge
(1) independent of area of cross-
pass through any cross-section of the
section
resistor in this time?
(1) 12 coulombs (2) 120 coulombs (2) directly proportional to the length
(3) 1200 coulombs (4) 12000 coulombs of conductor
(3) directly proportional to the area of
–2
2. A charge of 2 × 10 C moves at cross-section
30 revolution per second in a circle of
(4) inversely proportional to the lengths
diameter 0.80 m. The current linked
of conductor
with the circuit will be:
(1) 0.1 A (2) 0.2 A
(3) 0.4 A (4) 0.6 A 6. A current (I) flows through a uniform
wire of diameter (d) when the mean
3. The current in a conductor varies with drift velocity is v. The same current will
2
time t is Ι = 2t + 3t where Ι is in flow through a wire of diameter d/2
ampere and t in seconds. Electric made of the same material then the
charge flowing through a section of mean drift velocity of the electron is -
conductor during t = 2 sec to t = 3 sec. is: (1) v/4 (2) v/2
(1) 10 C (2) 24 C (3) 4v (4) 2v
(3) 33 C (4) 44 C

7. A wire of non-uniform cross-section is

Current Density, Drift Velocity, Free
carrying a steady current along the wire:
Charge Density, Mean Relaxation Time,
(1) current and current density are
Mean Free Path
constant
4. The drift velocity of electrons in a (2) only current is constant
conducting wire is of the order of (3) only current density is constant
1 mm/s, yet the bulb glows very quickly
(4) neither current nor current density
after the switch is put on because:
is constant
(1) The random speed of electrons is
5
very high, of the order of 10 m/s
8. A cross–sectional area of a copper wire
(2) The electrons transfer their energy
–6 2
very quickly through collisions is 3 × 10 m . The current of 4.2 amp is
(3) Electric field is set up in the wire flowing through it. The current density
very quickly, producing a current 2
in amp/m through the wire is –
through each cross section, almost (1) 1.4 × 10
3
(2) 1.4 × 10
4

instantaneously 5 6
(3) 1.4 × 10 (4) 1.4 × 10
(4) All of above

Current Electricity 43
 Ohm's Law, Resistance, Conductance, 13. When a potential difference (V) is
Mobility applied across a conductor, the thermal
speed of electrons is -
9. The current in a copper wire is (1) zero
increased by increasing the potential
(2) proportional to T
difference between its end. Which one
(3) proportional to T
of the following statements regarding n,
(4) proportional to V
the number of charge carriers per unit
volume in the wire and v the drift
14. Specific resistance of a wire depends on
velocity of the charge carriers is correct:
the
(1) n is unaltered but v is decreased
(1) length of the wire
(2) n is unaltered but v is increased
(3) n is increased but v is decreased (2) area of cross–section of the wire

(4) n is increased but v is unaltered (3) resistance of the wire

(4) material of the wire
10. A potential difference V exists between
the ends of a metal wire of length . 15. The resistance of wire is 20Ω. The wire

The drift velocity will be doubled if - is stretched to three times its length.
(1) V is doubled Then the resistance will now be –
(2)  is doubled (1) 6.67 Ω (2) 60 Ω

(3) The diameter of the wire is doubled (3) 120 Ω (4) 180 Ω

(4) The temperature of the wire is

doubled 16. The dimensions of a manganin block
are 1 cm × 1 cm × 100 cm. The electrical
–7
11. There is a current of 1.344 amp in a resistivity of manganin is 4.4 × 10
copper wire whose area of cross- ohm–meter. The resistance between
section normal to the length of the the opposite rectangular faces is –
2
wire is 1mm . If the number of free (1) 4.4 × 10
–7
ohm
3 22
electrons per cm is 8.4 × 10 , then the (2) 4.4 × 10
–3
ohm
drift velocity would be: –5
(3) 4.4 × 10 ohm
(1) 1.0 mm per sec –1
(4) 4.4 × 10 ohm
(2) 1.0 metre per sec
(3) 0.1 mm per sec
17. When the resistance wire is passed
(4) 0.01 mm per sec
through a die the cross–section area
decreases by 1%, the change in
12. When the resistance of copper wire is
resistance of the wire is -
0.1 Ω and the radius is 1 mm, then the
(1) 1% decrease
length of the wire is (specific resistance
–8 (2) 1% increase
of copper is 3.14 × 10 ohm x m):
(3) 2% decrease
(1) 10 cm (2) 10 m
(4) 2% increase
(3) 100 m (4) 100cm

44 Current Electricity
18. In the following diagram two 23. A cylindrical copper rod is reformed to
parallelepiped A and B are of the same twice its original length with no change
thickness. The arm of B is double that in volume. The resistance between its
of A. Compare these resistances and ends before the change was (R). Now
find out the value of RA/RB is: its resistance:
(1) 8R (2) 6R
i i i
A a B
2a (3) 4R (4) 2R
t a
t 2a
24. Length of a hollow tube is 5m, it’s
(1) 1 (2) 2
outer diameter is 10 cm and thickness
1 of it’s wall is 5 mm. If resistivity of the
(3) π (4) 4
2
material of the tube is 1.7 × 10–8 Ω×m
then resistance of tube will be:
19. The resistance of a semi-conductors:
(1) 5.6 × 10–5 Ω (2) 2 × 10–5 Ω
(1) increases with increase of
(3) 4 × 10–5 Ω (4) None of these
temperature
(2) decreases with increase of
–1
temperature 25. A wire of resistance 0.5Ω m is bent
(3) does not change with change of into a circle of radius 1m. The same
temperature wire is connected across a diameter AB as
(4) first decreases and then increases shown in fig. The equivalent resistance is:
with increase of temperature
A B
i i
20. Ohm’s law is valid when the
temperature of the conductor is: π
(1) π Ω (2) Ω
(1) constant (2) very high π+2
(3) very low (4) varying π
(3) Ω (4) (π + 1) Ω
π+4
21. A certain piece of copper is to be
moulded into a wire of minimum 26. Read the following statements carefully:
resistance. Its length and diameter Y : The resistively of semiconductor
should be respectively: decreases with increases of temperature.
(1) , d (2) 2, d Z : In a conducting solid, the rate of
(3) /2, 2d (4) 2, d/2 collisions between free electrons and ions
increases with increase of temperature.
22. A wire has a resistance of 10Ω. A Select the correct statement (s) from
second wire of the same material is the following:
having length double and radius of
(1) Y is true but Z is false
cross-section half that of the wire. The
(2) Y is false but Z is true
resistance of the second wire is:
(3) Both Y and Z are true
(1) 20Ω (2) 40Ω
(4) Y is true and Z is the correct reason for Y
(3) 80Ω (4) 10Ω

Current Electricity 45
27. A wire is cut into 4 pieces, which are 31. A steady current is passing through a
put together side by side to obtain one linear conductor of non-uniform cross-
conductor. If the original resistance of section. The current density in the
the wire was R. The resistance of the conductor is:
bundle will be: (1) independent of area of cross-section
(1) R/4 (2) R/8 (2) directly proportional to area of
(3) R/16 (4) R/32 cross-section
(3) inversely proportional to area of
28. The current -voltage variation for a wire cross-section
of copper of length (L) and area (A) is (4) inversely proportional to the square
shown in fig. The slope of the line will root of area of cross-section
be:
32. The sides of a rectangular block are
V 2cm, 3cm and 4 cm. The ratio of
maximum to minimum resistance
I
between its parallel faces is -
(1) less if experiment is done at a
(1) 4 (2) 3
higher temperature
(3) 2 (4) 1
(2) more if a wire of silver of same
dimensions is used
33. When a piece of aluminium wire of
(3) will be doubled if the lengths of the
finite length is drawn through a series
wire is doubled
of dies to reduce its diameter to half
(4) will be halved if the length is
its original value, its resistance will
doubled
become-
(1) two times
29. When there is an electric current
(2) four times
through a conducting wire along its
(3) eight times
length, then an electric field must exist:
(4) sixteen times
(1) outside the wire but normal to it
(2) outside the wire but parallel to it
(3) inside the wire but parallel to it Resistivity, Temperature Dependence of
(4) inside the wire but normal to it Resistivity, Concept of Super Conductors

30. Consider two conducting wires of same 34. The resistance of some substances
length and material, one wire is solid become zero at very low temperature,
with radius r. The other is a hollow then these substances are called –
tube of outer radius 2r while inner (1) good conductors
radius r. The ratio of resistance of the (2) super conductors
two wires will be: (3) bad conductors
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1 (4) semi conductors
(3) 3 : 1 (4) 4 : 1

46 Current Electricity
35. If the temperature of iron and silicon 39. A potential difference of 200 V is
wires is increased from 30°C to 50°C, applied to a coil at a temperature of
the correct statement is – 15°C and the current is 10A. What will
(1) resistance of both wires increase be the mean temperature of the coil
(2) resistance of both wires decrease
when the current has fallen to 5A, the
(3) resistance of iron wire increases
applied voltage being the same as
and the resistance of silicon wire
before -
decreases
(4) resistance of iron wire decreases 1 –1
(Given α = C at 0°C)
and the resistance of silicon wire 234
increases (1) 254° (2) 256°
(3) 258° (4) 264°
36. When the temperature of a metallic
conductor is increased, its resistance - Combination of Resistors
(1) always decreases
(2) always increases
40. Net resistance between X and Y is –
(3) may increase or decrease
(4) remains the same
X R R R R
37. The temperature (T) dependence of
resistivity (ρ) of a semiconductor is Y R R R R
represented by -
(1) R (2) 2R
R
(1) ρ (2) ρ (3) (4) 4R
2

O T T 41. Net resistance between X and Y is -

X Y
30Ω 10Ω
(3) ρ (4) ρ 10Ω 30Ω 20Ω
30Ω
O T T

38. A carbon and an aluminium wire 30Ω

connected in series. If the combination 20Ω
has resistance of 30 ohm at 0°C, what
(1) 5 Ω (2) 10 Ω
is the resistance of carbon and
(3) 15 Ω (4) 60 Ω
aluminium wire at 0°C so that the
resistance of the combination does not 42. Net resistance between X and Y is -
change with temperature:
–3 –1
[αc = –0.5 × 10 (C°) and αAl = 4 × 10 (C°) ]
–3 –1 7Ω 5Ω
X Y
2Ω 6Ω
10 80 80 10
(1) Ω, Ω (2) Ω, Ω
3 3 3 3 (1) 4 Ω (2) 4.55 Ω
(3) 10 Ω, 80 Ω (4) 80 Ω, 10 Ω (3) 2 Ω (4) 20 Ω

Current Electricity 47
43. The equivalent resistance between the 46. For following circuit, the value of total
terminal point P and Q is 4Ω in the resistance between X and Y in ohm is -
given circuit, then find out the
R R
resistance of R in ohms:
P R Q X 2R Y

R R R
R R
(1) R (2) 4 R
R (3) 5 R (4) 6 R
(1) 7 (2) 4
(3) 2 (4) 5 47. The equivalent resistance in series
combination is-
44. Eight resistances each of resistance 5Ω (1) smaller than the largest resistance
are connected in the circuit as shown (2) larger than the largest resistance
in figure. The equivalent resistance (3) smaller than the smallest resistance
between A and B is – (4) larger than the smallest resistance

48. Five resistance are connected as shown

A in the adjoining figure. The equivalent
resistance between A and B is:
7Ω
B D C

8 16 3Ω
10Ω
(1) Ω (2) Ω 5Ω
3 3
10Ω
A B
15 19
(3) Ω (4) Ω (1) 35Ω (2) 5Ω
7 2
(3) 15/4Ω (4) 25Ω
45. For following diagram, the
49. The equivalent resistance between
galvanometer shows zero deflection,
points (A) and (B) in the adjoining fig. is
then the value of R is:
R one ohm. What is the value of middle
100Ω 100Ω resistance -
C
G 1Ω 2Ω
R
A B
200Ω 40Ω

1Ω 1Ω
E
D
(1) 52 Ω
(1) 9Ω
(2) 50 Ω
(2) 1Ω
(3) 100 Ω
(3) 6Ω
(4) 25 Ω
(4) 3Ω

48 Current Electricity
50. The effective resistance (in Ω) between 53. Twelve wires of equal resistance (R) are
(B) and (C) is connected to form a cube. The
A effective resistance between two
10Ω 10Ω diagonal ends will be:
(1) 5/6 R (2) 6/5 R
E F (3) 3R (4) 12 R
10Ω
10Ω 10Ω

B C Introduction of Cells, EMF, Internal

(1) 60 Resistance, Terminal P.D., Grouping of
(2) 40 Cells
(3) 80/3
(4) 160/9 54. In the following circuit the resultant
emf between AB is -
E3
51. Four identical resistances are joined as
shown in fig. The equivalent resistance
A B
between points A and B is R1. The E1 E2 E4
equivalent resistance between points A
E3
and C is R2 then ratio of R1/R2 is -
(1) E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
1Ω
A B (2) E1 + E2 + 2E3 + E4
(3) E1 + E2 + (E3/2) + E4
1Ω 1Ω
(4) E1 + E2 + (E3/4) + E4

D C
1Ω 55. A cell of e.m.f (E) and internal
(1) 1 : 1 resistance (r) is connected in series
(2) 4 : 3 with an external resistance (nr) then
(3) 3 : 4 the ratio of the terminal p.d. to E.M.F
(4) 1 : 2 is-
(1) 1/n (2) 1/(n+1)
52. Five resistances are connected as (3) n/(n+1) (4) (n+1)/n
shown in fig. The effective resistance
between the points A and B is - 56. The terminal potential difference of a
C cell, when cell is short circuited is-
2Ω (1) E (2) E/2
3Ω
(3) zero (4) E/3
A B
7Ω
57. Five dry cell each of e.m.f 1.5V are
4Ω 6Ω
connected in parallel. The e.m.f of the
D combination is-
(1) 10/3Ω (2) 20/3 Ω (1) 7.5 V (2) 0.3 V
(3) 15Ω (4) 6Ω (3) 3V (4) 1.5 V

Current Electricity 49
58. The internal resistance of cell is 0.1Ω 63. The number of dry cells, each of e.m.f.
and its emf is 2V. When a current of 2A 1.5 volt and internal resistance 0.5 Ω
is being drawn from it, the potential that must be joined in series with a

difference across its terminals will be - resistance of 20 ohm so as to send a

current of 0.6 ampere through the
(1) more than 2V (2) 2V
circuit is -
(3) 1.8V (4) none of these
(1) 2 (2) 8
(3) 10 (4) 12
59. A dry cell has an e.m.f of 1.5V and
internal resistance 0.5Ω. If the cell
64. Two batteries of different e.m.f. and
sends a current of 1A through an internal resistance are connected in
external resistance, the p.d. of the cell series with each other and with an
will be - external load resistor. The current is
(1) 1.5V (2) 1V 3.0 amp. When the polarity of one
(3) 0.5V (4) 0V battery is reversed, the current
becomes 1.0 amp. The ratio of the
60. Five cells each of e.m.f (E) and internal e.m.f. of the two batteries is -

resistance (r) are connected in series. If (1) 2.5 (2) 2.0

(3) 1.5 (4) 1.0
one cell is connected wrongly, then the
equivalent e.m.f and internal resistance
65. When a cell is connected to 1 ohm
of the combination is -
resistance, 1 ampere current flows
(1) 5E and 5r (2) 3E and 3r
through the circuit. When 3 ohm
(3) 3E and 5r (4) 5E and 4r resistance is used then 0.5 amp current
flows, then internal resistance of the
61. A cell of e.m.f (E) volt and internal
cell is:
resistance (r) ohms is connected to an (1) 1 Ω (2) 1.5 Ω
external resistance of (r) ohms. The (3) 2 Ω (4) 2.5 Ω
potential difference across the
terminals of the cell will be Kirchhoff’s Law, (KVL & KCL), Wheat
(1) E volt (2) E/2 Volt Stone Bridge
(3) E/4 volt (4) 2E volt 66. In the adjoining fig. there is no
deflection in the galvanometer. Then R
62. The potential difference between
is equal to -
points A and B is -
2Ω RΩ
2V,1Ω
3V,1Ω G
10Ω 30Ω
A B

4V,1Ω

(1) 2 V (2) 6 V
(1) 2Ω (2) 30Ω
(3) 4 V (4) 3 V
(3) 6Ω (4) (2/3)Ω

50 Current Electricity
67. Fig represents a part of a closed circuit. Electrical Energy, Power Distribution for
The potential difference between (A) Series Parallel Combination, Maximum
and (B) i.e. VA – VB is - Power
3A 1Ω 6Ω
A – + B
3V 70. In the circuit shown in figure the value

(1) 24 V of R is-
R 1A
(2) 0 V
12V
(3) 6 V
4Ω 2Ω
(4) 18 V

68. In the following figure the current

(1) 8 Ω (2) 6 Ω
through 4 ohm resistor is -
(3) 10 Ω (4) 12 Ω
20Ω 4Ω

71. Two cells of same emf E and internal

1.4A
resistance r are connected in parallel
with a resistance of R. To get maximum
50Ω 10Ω power in the external circuit, the value
(1) 1.4 A of R is:
E
(2) 0.4 A + –
r
(3) 1.0 A
(4) 0.7 A E
+ –
r
69. In the arrangement of resistances
R
shown in the circuit, the potential
difference between points B and D will r
(1) R =
be zero, when the unknown resistance 2
X is: (2) R = r
B (3) R = 2 r
4Ω
X (4) R = 4r
12Ω
A C
1Ω
72. Two bulbs, one of 50 watt and another
1Ω
of 25 watt are connected in series to
3Ω 1Ω
D the mains, the ratio of the current
+ – through them is:
(1) 2 : 1
(1) 4Ω
(2) 1 : 2
(2) 3Ω
(3) 1 : 1
(3) 2Ω
(4) can’t be determined without the
(4) 1Ω
p.d. of the main supply

Current Electricity 51
73. Constant voltage is applied between 79. In fig the ratio of power dissipated in
the two ends of a uniform metallic resistors R1 and R2 is
wire. The heat developed is doubled if: V = 10volt
(1) both the length and radius of the
wire are halved R1 = 2Ω R 2 = 8Ω
(2) both the length and radius of the
(1) 1 : 4 (2) 4 : 1
wire are doubled
(3) 1 : 2 (4) 2 : 1
(3) the radius of wire is doubled
(4) the length of the wire is doubled
80. A house is served by a 220V supply line.
74. Two electric bulbs rated P1 watt V volt In a circuit protected by a fuse marked
9A. The maximum number of 60W lamps
and P2 watt V volt are connected in
in parallel that can be turned on is:
parallel across V volt mains then the
(1) 44 (2) 20
total power is:
(3) 22 (4) 33
(1) P1 + P2 (2) PP
1 2

PP (P1 + P2 ) 81. Two bulbs 25 watt, 220 volt and

(3) 1 2
(4)
(P1 + P2 ) PP
1 2 100 watt, 220 volt are connected in
series across a 440 volt line:
75. Lamps used for the house lightening (1) only 100 watt bulb will fuse
are connected in: (2) only 25 watt bulb will fuse
(1) series (2) parallel (3) both bulbs will fuse
(3) mixed grouping (4) arbitrary manner (4) none of the bulb will fuse

76. Two electric bulbs whose resistances 82. All bulbs in figure below are identical,
are in the ratio of 1 : 2 are connected in which bulb light most brightly -
parallel to a constant voltage source.
The power dissipated in them have the 3 4 5
1
ratio:
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 1 : 1
2
(3) 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 4

77. An electric bulb is rated 220 volt and

(1) 1 only (2) 2 only
100 watt. The resistance of the filament
(3) 3 and 4 only (4) 1 and 5
of the electric bulb is:
(1) 2.2 Ω (2) 2.2 × 10 Ω
4
83. In the figure shown, a cell of emf E and
(3) 484 Ω (4) 100 Ω internal resistance r is connected to a
variable resistor R. The (i) current in the
78. Three electric bulbs 40W, 60W and circuit and (ii) heat produced in the resistor
100W are designed to work on a 220V R will be maximum, respectively for:
mains. Which bulb will glow most E
brightly if they are connected in series r
across 220V mains:
(1) 100W bulb R
(2) 60W bulb
(3) 40 W bulb (1) (i) R = r, (ii) R = 0 (2) (i) R = 0, (ii) R = r
(4) all bulbs will glow equally brightly (3) (i) R = r, (ii) R = r (4) (i) R = 0, (ii) R= 0

52 Current Electricity
84. Two bulbs of 500 watt and 200 watt 88. A uniform wire connected across a
are manufactured to operate on supply produces heat H per second. If
220 volt line. The ratio of heat the wire is cut into n equal parts and
produced in 500 watt and 200 watt, in all the parts are connected in parallel
two cases, when first they are joined in across the same supply, the heat
series and secondly in parallel, will be - produced per second will be:
5 2 5 5 H
(1) , (2) , (1)
2 5 2 2 n
2 5 2 2 (2) nH
(3) , (4) ,
5 2 5 5 2
(3) n H
H
85. In the circuit below, ammeter (A) reads (4)
n2
0.5A. Bulbs L1 and L2 are brightly lit, but
L3 is not lit. What is the reason for L3 89. Two electric bulbs 40 W, 200 V and
not being lit ? 100 W, 200 V are connected in series.
A Then the maximum voltage that can be

L1 L2
applied across the combination,
L3
without fusing either bulb is:
(1) 280V
(1) The ammeter is faulty (2) 400V
(2) The filament of L3 is broken (3) 3000V
(3) The resistance of L3 is much lower (4) 200V
than that of L1 and L2
90. The resistance of 3Ω and 6Ω are joined
(4) There is a break in the connecting
in series and connected across a
wire between L2 and L3
battery of emf 10 V and internal
86. How much electrical energy in kilo-watt resistance 1Ω. The power dissipated by
hour is consumed in operating ten battery is:
50 watt bulbs for 10 hours per day in a (1) 3 W (2) 8 W
month of 30 days ? (3) 9 W (4) 10 W
(1) 1500 (2) 15000
(3) 15 (4) 150 91. A 24 V battery of internal resistance 4Ω
is connected to a variable resistor. The
87. Two bulbs 100 W, 250 V and 200 W, rate of heat production in the resistor
250 V are connected in parallel across is maximum when the current in the
a 500 V line. Then - circuit is:
(1) 100 W bulb will fused (1) 2 A
(2) 200 W bulb will fused (2) 3 A
(3) Both bulbs will be fused (3) 4 A
(4) No bulb will fused (4) 6 A

Current Electricity 53
 Meter Bridge, Ammeter, Voltmeter 96. In Wheat stone’s bridge P = 9 ohm,
Q = 11 ohms, R = 4 ohm and S = 6 ohms.
92. A galvanometer having a coil resistance How much resistance must be put in
of 60 Ω shows full scale deflection parallel to the resistance (S) to balance
the bridge
when a current of 1.0 A passes through
(1) 24 ohms (2) (44/9) ohm
it. It can be converted into an ammeter
(3) 26.4 ohms (4) 18.7 ohms
to read currents upto 5.0 A by :
97. In the circuit shown in fig, the reading
(1) putting in parallel a resistance of 240 Ω
of voltmeter is -
(2) putting in series a resistance of 15 Ω 2V
+ –
(3) putting in series a resistance of 240 Ω r=0
(4) putting in parallel a resistance of 15 Ω
8Ω
V
2Ω
93. A milli voltmeter of 25 milli volt range 8Ω
is to be converted into an ammeter of (1) 1.33 V (2) 0.8 V
25 ampere range. The value (in ohm) of (3) 2.0 V (4) 1.6 V
necessary shunt will be: 98. Five identical lamps each resistance
(1) 0.001 R = 1100Ω are connected to 220V as
(2) 0.01 shown in fig. The reading of ideal
(3) 1 ammeter (A) is -

(4) 0.05
220V R R R R R

94. A galvanometer can be changed into

ammeter by connecting: A
(1) high resistance in parallel (1) 1/5 A (2) 2/5 A
(2) high resistance in series (3) 3 /5 A (4) 1 A

(3) low resistance in parallel 99. In meter bridge the balancing length
(4) low resistance in series from left and when standard resistance
of 1 Ω is in right gap is found to be 20 cm.
The value of unknown resistance is:
95. A galvanometer of 50 ohm resistance has
(1) 0.25 Ω (2) 0.4 Ω
25 divisions. A current of 4 × 10–4 ampere
(3) 0.5 Ω (4) 4 Ω
gives a deflection of one division. To
convert this galvanometer into a 100. If the reading of ammeter A1, in figure is

voltmeter having a range of 25 volts, it 2.4 A, what will the ammeter A2 and A3
read?
should be connected with a resistance
(Neglecting the resistances of ammeters)
of:
20Ω
A1
(1) 2500 Ω as shunt 10Ω
Ι
A3
(2) 2450 Ω as shunt
A2
(3) 2550 Ω in series
30Ω
(4) 2450 Ω in series (1) 1.6 A, 2.3 A (2) 1.6 A, 4.0 A
(3) 4.0 A, 1.6 A (4) 2.3 A, 1.6 A

54 Current Electricity
 Exercise - II
1. On interchanging the resistances, the 5. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of
balance point of a metre bridge shifts 40 W, 5 bulbs of 100 W, 5 fans of 80 W
to the left by 10 cm. The resistance of and 1 heater of 1 kW. The voltage of the
their series combination is 1 kΩ. How electric mains is 220 V. The minimum
much was the resistance of the left slot capacity of the main fuse of the
before interchanging the resistances? building will be:
(1) 990 Ω (2) 505 Ω (1) 8 A (2) 10 A
(3) 550 Ω (4) 910 Ω (3) 12 A (4) 14 A

2. A galvanometer having a coil resistance 6. Two electric bulbs of 25 W – 220 V and

of 100Ω gives a full-scale deflection, 100 W – 220 V are connected in series
when a current of 1 mA is passed
with 440 V source. Which bulb which
through it. The value of the resistance,
be fused?
which can convert this galvanometer
(1) Both (2) 100 W
into ammeter giving a full scale
deflection for a current of 10 A, is: (3) 25 W (4) None of these
(1) 0.01 Ω
(2) 2 Ω 7. Resistance of a given wire is obtained
(3) 0.1 Ω by measuring the current flowing in it
(4) 3 Ω and the voltage difference applied
across it. If the percentage errors in the
3. When 5 V potential difference is
measurement of the current and the
applied across a wire of length 0.1 m,
voltage difference are 3% each, then errors
the drift speed of electrons is 2.5 × 10–4
-1
in the value of resistance of the wire is:
ms . If the electron density in the wire
(1) 6% (2) Zero
is 8 × 1028 m–3 , the resistivity of the
(3) 1% (4) 3%
material is close to:
–8
(1) 1.6 × 10 Ωm
–7 8. If a wire is stretched to make it 0.1%
(2) 1.6 × 10 Ωm
–6 longer, its resistance will:
(3) 1.6 × 10 Ωm
–5
(1) 0.05% increase (2) 0.2% increase
(4) 1.6 × 10 Ωm
(3) 0.2% decrease (4) 0.05% decrease
4. In the circuit shown, the current in the
1Ω resistor is: 9. Two conductors have the same
6V 2Ω resistance at 0°C but their temperature
P
coefficients of resistance are α1 and α2.
1Ω 9V The respective temperature coefficients
of their series and parallel
Q combinations are nearly:
3Ω 3Ω
(1) 1.3 A, from P to Q
α 1 + α2 α 1 + α2
(1) , α 1 + α2 (2) α 1 + α2 ,
(2) 0 A 2 2
(3) 0.13 A, from Q to P α 1 × α2 α 1 + α2 α 1 + α2
(3) α 1 + α2 , (4) ,
(4) 0.13 A, from P to Q α 1 + α2 2 2

Current Electricity 55
10. A 5 V battery with internal resistance 14. The resistance of a bulb filament is
2 Ω and a 2 V battery with internal 100 Ω at a temperature of 100°C. If its
resistances 1 Ω are connected to a 10 Ω temperature coefficient of resistance
resistor as shown in the figure. The be 0.005 per °C, its resistance will
current in 10 Ω resistor is become 200 Ω at a temperature of
P2 (1) 400°C (2) 500°C
(3) 200°C (4) 300°C
5V 2V
10Ω
2Ω 1Ω 15. An electric bulb is rated 220 V – 100 W.
The power consumed by it when
P1 operated on 110 V will be
(1) 0.27 A, from P2 to P1 (1) 40 W (2) 25 W
(2) 0.03 A, from P1 to P2 (3) 50 W (4) 75 W

(3) 0.03 A, from P2 to P1

16. A moving coil galvanometer has 150
(4) 0.27 A, from P1 to P2
equal divisions. Its current sensitivity is
10 divisions per milliampere and voltage
11. The resistance of a wire is 5 ohm at 50°C
sensitivity is 2 divisions per millivolt. In
and 6 ohm at 100°C. The resistance of
order that each division reads 1 volt,
the wire at 0°C will be
the resistance in ohms needed to be
(1) 2 Ω (2) 1 Ω
connected in series with the coil will be
(3) 4 Ω (4) 3 Ω
5 3
(1) 10 (2) 10

12. A material B has twice the specific (3) 9995 (4) 99995

resistance of A. A circular wire made of

B has twice the diameter of a wire 17. Two sources of equal emf are

made of A. Then for the two wires to connected to an external resistance R.

have the same resistance, the ratio lB/lA The internal resistances of the two
sources are R1 and R2 (R2 > R1). If the
of their respective lengths must be
(1) 1/2 (2) 1/4 potential difference across the source

(3) 2 (4) 1 having internal resistance R2 is zero, then

(1) R = R2–R1
13. The current I drawn from the 5 volt (2) R = R2 × (R1+R2)/R2–R1)
source will be
(3) R = R1R2/(R2–R1)
10Ω
(4) R = R1R2/(R1+R2)
5Ω 10Ω 20Ω

I 10Ω
18. A heater coil is cut into two equal parts
and only one part is now used in the
+ –
5V heater. The heat generated will now be
(1) 0.5 A (2) 0.67 A (1) four time (2) doubled
(3) 0.17 A (4) 0.33 A (3) half (4) one-fourth

56 Current Electricity
19. The total current supplied to the circuit 23. Consider the following statements and
by the battery is select incorrect statement(s).
2Ω Statement-A: The equivalent emf of a
6Ω
6V 3Ω
parallel combination of n cell is just the
1.5Ω sum of their individual emf.
Statement-B: The equivalent internal
(1) 1 A (2) 6 A
resistance of a series combination of n
(3) 4 A (4) 2 A
cells is just the sum of their internal
20. An electric current is passed through a resistances.
circuit containing two wires of the same (1) Only state. A (2) Only state. B
material, connected in parallel. If the (3) Both A & B (4) Neither A nor B
lengths and radii of the wires are in the
ratio of 4/3 and 2/3, then the ratio of the 24. 12 identical wires, each of resistance ‘R’
currents passing through the wires will be are arranged in form of a cube and a
(1) 3 (2) 2 battery of emf ε is connected across A,
(3) 8/9 (4) 1/3 B as shown in the figure. What is the
current drawn from the battery?
21. In the circuit shown, the current
through the 4Ω resistor is 1 A when the
points P and M are connected to a DC
voltage source. The potential difference
between the points M and N is :
4Ω

4ε 5ε
(1) (2)
3Ω 3R 3R
P M
3ε 5ε
(3) (4)
0.5Ω 4R 4R
N 1Ω
25. Match the following by choosing correct
0.5Ω options
(1) 1.5 V (2) 1.0 V
Column-I Column-II
(3) 0.5 V (4) 3.2 V
a. (i) Resistivity ρ
22. Choose the correct statement:
of copper as
A. EMF of a cell is the potential difference
between the positive and negative a function of
electrodes in an open circuit i.e., temperature
when no current is flowing in the circuit.
b. (ii) Resistivity ρ
B. The resistance offered by the
of nichrome as
electrolyte through which the
a function of
current is flowing is called as
internal resistance. temperature
C. The internal resistance of dry cells is c. (iii) Resistivity of
much higher than the common
semiconduct
electrolyte cells.
or as a
D. The internal resistance of dry cells is
function of
much lesser than the common
electrolyte cells. temperature
(1) A, B (2) A, B & D (1) a(iii), b(ii), c(i) (2) a(ii), b(iii), c(i)
(3) A, B & C (4) B, C (3) a(i), b(iii), c(ii) (4) a(iii), b(i), c(ii)

Current Electricity 57
 Exercise - III
1. In the circuit shown battery, ammeter 3. From the circuit shown in figure match
and voltmeter are ideal and the switch S is the entries of column-I with entries in
initially closed as shown. When switch column II.
S is opened, match the parameter of 2Ω 3Ω
column I with the effects in column II:
R R 4Ω 5Ω

V
S
V
E
A Column-I Column-II
Column I Column II a. Minimum current will p. 2Ω
A. Equivalent resistance P. Remains flow through
across the battery same b. Maximum current will q. 4Ω
flow through
B. Power dissipated by Q. Increases
c. Maximum power will r. 3Ω
left resistance R
be generated across
C. Voltmeter reading R. Decreases
d. Minimum power will s. 5Ω
D. Ammeter reading S. Becomes
be generated across
zero
(1) a → q, b → p, c → r, d → q
(1) A → R ; B → Q ; C → S ; D → P
(2) a → p, b → p, c → r, d → q
(2) A → Q ; B → R ; C → R ; D → S
(3) a → p, b → q, c → r, d → s
(3) A → Q ; B → R ; C → R ; D → R
(4) a → s, b → p, c → r, d → q
(4) A → R ; B → R ; C → Q ; D → Q
2. In the circuits drawn in column I of the Passage – (Q.4 to Q.6)
following table, all the bulbs are A set of experiments in the physics lab is
identical. Match the entries of column I designed to develop understanding of
with the entries of column II : simple electrical circuit principles for
Column I Column II direct current circuits. The student is
A. E P. Current drawn given a variety of batteries, resistors, and
from the battery DC meters ; and it directed to wire series
is maximum and parallel combinations of resistors
and batteries making measurements of
B. E E E Q. Current drawn
the currents and voltage drops using the
from the battery
ammeters and voltmeters. The student
is the least
calculator expected current and voltage
C. E R. Bulbs will lit the values using ohm's law and kirchhoff's
brightest circuit rules and then checks the results
D. E E S.
Bulbs will lit with with the meters.
brightness lying
between maximum 4. A student connects a 6 volt battery and
& minimum value a 12 V battery in series and then connects
(1) A → P ; B → R ; C → P ; D → S this combination across a 10Ω resistor.
(2) A → Q ; B → R ; C → P, S ; D → S What is the current in the resistor?
(3) A → S ; B → R ; C → Q ; D → P (1) 0.8 A (2) 0.9 A
(4) A → P ; B → R ; C → Q ; D → P (3) 1.8 A (4) 3.6 A

58 Current Electricity
5. Resistors of 4 Ω and 8 Ω are connected For Questions (11 to 14)
in series. A battery of 6 V is connected Read the Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
across the series combination. How carefully and mark the correct options.
much power (in watts) is consumed in (A) If both (A) and (R) are true, and (R)
8Ω resistor ?
is the correct explanation of (A).
(1) 0.67 W (2) 2 W
(B) If both (A) and (R) are true but (R)
(3) 12 W (4) 24 W
is not the correct explanation of (A).
6. A 6 V battery is connected across a 2Ω (C) If (A) is true but (R) is false.
resistor. What is the heat energy (D) If (A) is false but (R) is true.
dissipated in the resistor in 5 minutes?
(1) 430 J (2) 560 J 11. Assertion: When an external resistor of
(3) 4300 J (4) 5400 J resistance R (connected across a cell of
internal resistance r) is varied. Power
Passage – (Q.7 to Q.10)
consumed by resistance R is maximum
A potential difference is applied across
when R = r
a copper wire of radius 0.5 mm. It
results in a uniform electric field 1.5 V/m Reason: Power consumed by a resistor
along the length of wire. Consequently of constant resistance R is maximum
there is current in the wire. Temperature when current through it is maximum
of the wire is 60°C. Assuming that each (1) A (2) B
copper atom contributes one free (3) C (4) D
electron and given that
Density of copper = 8.9 gm/cm3 12. Assertion: Material used in the
Resistivity of copper at 20°C construction of a standard resistance is
= 1.7 × 10–8 Ω-m constantan or manganin.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity 'α'
Reason: Its temperature coefficient of
at 20°C = 3.9 × 10–3/°C
resistance is very small.
Atomic mass of copper = 63.5
(1) A (2) B
7. Resistivity of the material of wire under (3) C (4) D
experimental conditions is -
(1) 4.52 × 10–7 Ω-m (2) 1.96 × 10–8 Ω-m 13. Assertion: Fuse wire of any electronic
(3) 2.75 × 10–7 Ω-m (4) 1.36 × 10–6 Ω-m
equipment must have high resistance
8. Current density in the wire is - and low melting point.
(1) 7.65 × 107 A/m2 (2) 9.45 × 108 A/m2 Reason: Fuse is used for small current
(3) 11.25 × 10 A/m
9 2
(4) 526.5 A/m2 flow only.
(1) A (2) B
9. Drift speed of electrons is - (3) C (4) D
(1) 2.1 × 10–2 m/s (2) 4.6 × 10–4 m/s
(3) 8.2 × 10–4 m/s (4) 5.7 × 10–3 m/s
14. Assertion: The average thermal velocity
of the electrons in the conductor is zero.
10. Potential difference that needs to be
applied between the ends of a 3m long Reason: Direction of motion of electrons
wire to produce the given electric field is are randomly oriented.
(1) 1.5 V (2) 3 V (1) A (2) B
(3) 4.5 V (4) 6 V (3) C (4) D

Current Electricity 59
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A wire of resistance 4 Ω is stretched to 5. In an ammeter 0.2% of main current
twice its original length. The resistance of passes through the galvanometer. If
stretched wire would be: [NEET_2013] resistance of galvanometer is G, the
(1) 4 Ω (2) 8 Ω resistance of ammeter will be:
(3) 16 Ω (4) 2 Ω [AIPMT_2014]
1 499
(1) G (2) G
2. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell 499 500
which gives a current of 0.2 A through a 1 500
(3) G (4) G
resistance of 10Ω is: [NEET_2013] 500 499

(1) 0.5 Ω (2) 0.8 Ω

6. A circuit contains an ammeter, a battery
(3) 1.0 Ω (4) 0.2 Ω
of 30 V and a resistance 40.8 ohm all

3. The resistances of the four arms P, Q, R connected in series. If the ammeter has a
coil of resistance 480 ohm and a shunt of
and S in a Wheatstone’s bridge are
20 ohm, the reading in the ammeter will
10 ohm, 30 ohm, 30 ohm and 90 ohm,
be: [Re-AIPMT_2015]
respectively. The e.m.f. and internal
(1) 1 A (2) 0.5 A
resistance of the cell are 7 Volt and 5
(3) 0.25 A (4) 2 A
ohm respectively. If the galvanometer
resistance is 50 ohm, the current drawn
7. The charge flowing through a resistance R
from the cell will be: 2
varies with time t as Q = at –bt , where a
[NEET_2013]
and b are positive constants. The total
(1) 0.2 A (2) 0.1 A
heat produced in R is: [NEET_I_2016]
(3) 2.0 A (4) 1.0 A
aR
3
aR
3
(1) (2)
6b 3b
4. The resistance in the two arms of the
a 3R a 3R
meter bridge are 5Ω and RΩ, respectively. (3) (4)
2b b
When the resistance R is shunted with an
equal resistance, the new balance point is 8. A, B and C are voltmeters of resistance R,
at 1.6  1 . The resistance 'R' is: 1.5 R and 3 R respectively as shown in the
[AIPMT_2014] figure. When some potential difference is
() applied between X and Y, the voltmeter
5Ω RΩ readings are VA, VB and VC respectively.
Then: [AIPMT_2015]
B
G A
X C Y
A B
1 100 –  1
(1) VA ≠ VB = VC (2) VA= VB ≠ VC
(1) 10Ω (2) 15Ω
(3) VA ≠ VB ≠ VC (4) VA= VB = VC
(3) 20Ω (4) 25Ω

60 Current Electricity
9. The potential difference (VA –VB) between 13. A battery consists of a variable number ‘n’
the points A and B in the given figure is: of identical cells (having internal resistance

[NEET_II_2016] ‘r’ each) which are connected in series.

3V
The terminals of the battery are short-
VA 2Ω + – 1Ω VB
circuited and the current I is measured. Which
A I = 2a B
of the graphs shows the correct relationship
(1) + 6 V
between I and ‘n’? [NEET_2018]
(2) + 9 V I I
(3) – 3 V
(1) (2)
(4) + 3 V
O n O
n
I I
10. A filament bulb (500W, 100V) is to be
used in a 230 V main supply. When a (3) (4)
resistance R is connected in series, it O
n
O
n

works perfectly and the bulb consumes

14. The reading of an ideal voltmeter in the
500 W. The value of R is:
circuit shown is: [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
[NEET_II_2016]
20Ω 30Ω
(1) 26 Ω (2) 13 Ω
(3) 230 Ω (4) 46 Ω V

11. The resistance of a wire is 'R' ohm. If it is 30Ω 20Ω

melted and stretched to 'n' times its

original length, its new resistance will be:
2V
[NEET_2017] (1) 0.6 V (2) 0 V
R (3) 0.5 V (4) 0.4 V
(1) nR (2)
n 15. The metre bridge shown is in balance
2 R P I1
(3) n R (4) 2 position with = . If we now
n Q I2
interchange the positions of galvanometer
12. A set of ‘n’ equal resistors, of value ‘R’ and cell, will the bridge work? If yes, what
each, are connected in series to a battery will be balanced condition?
of emf E and internal resistance ‘R’. The [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
current drawn is I. Now, the ‘n’ resistors
are connected in parallel to the same P Q

battery. Then the current drawn from G

battery becomes 10 I. The value of ‘n’ is
[NEET_2018] l1 l2
P l2 − l1
(1) 10 (1) yes, = (2) no, no null point
Q l2 + l1
(2) 11
P l2 P l
(3) 20 (3) yes, = (4) yes, = 1
Q l1 Q l2
(4) 9

Current Electricity 61
16. In the circuits shown below, the readings 19. A charged particle having drift velocity of
of the voltmeters and the ammeters will 7.5 × 10
–4
ms
–1
in an electric field of
be: [NEET_2019] –10 –1 2 –1 –1
3 × 10 Vm has a mobility in m V s of:
10Ω i1 10Ω i2
[NEET_2020]
–6
A1
10Ω
A2
(1) 2.5 × 10
V1 V2
–15
(2) 2.25 × 10
15
10 V 10 V (3) 2.25 × 10
Circuit-1 Circuit-2 6
(4) 2.5 × 10
(1) V1 = V2 and i1 = i2 (2) V2 > V1 and i1 > i2
(3) V2 > V1 and i1 = i2 (4) V1 = V2 and i1 > i2
20. The solids which have the negative
temperature coefficient of resistance are:
17. Six similar bulbs are connected as shown
[NEET_2020]
in the figure with a DC source of emf E,
and zero internal resistance. (1) semiconductors only
(2) insulators and semiconductors
A B
(3) metals
(4) insulators only

21. A resistance wire connected in the left

gap of a metre bridge balances a 10 Ω
resistance in the right gap at a point
E which divides the bridge wire in the ratio
The ratio of power consumption by the
3 : 2. If the length of the resistance wire
bulbs when (i) all are glowing and (ii) in
the situation when two from section A is 1.5 m, then the length of 1Ω of the
and one from section B are glowing will resistance wire is : [NEET_2020]
be [NEET_2019] (1) 1.5 × 10 m
–1

(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 1 –2
(2) 1.5 × 10 m
(3) 4 : 9 (4) 9 : 4
–2
(3) 1.0 × 10 m
–1
18. Which of the following graph represents (4) 1.0 × 10 m
the variation of resistivity (ρ) with
temperature (T) For copper? [NEET_2020] 22. Two solid conductors are made up of
same material, have same length and
ρ ρ same resistance. One of them has a

(1) (2) circular cross section of area A1 and the

T T other one has a square cross section of
area A2. The ratio A1/A2 is:

ρ ρ [NEET_2020(Covid)]
(1) 1.5 (2) 1
(3) (4)
T T (3) 0.8 (4) 2

62 Current Electricity
23. For the circuit given below, the Kirchhoff's 26. The effective resistance of a parallel
loop rule for the loop BCDEB is given by connection that consists of four wires of
the equation [NEET_2020(Covid)] equal length, equal area of cross-section
i1 B R2 i2 and same material is 0.25 Ω. What will be
A C
the effective resistance if they are
R1 connected in series? [NEET_2021]
E1 E2
(1) 0.25Ω (2) 0.5Ω
i3
(3) 1Ω (4) 4Ω
F D
E
E3 27. Three resistors having resistances r1, r2
(1) –i2R2 + E2 – E3 + i3R1 = 0 and r3 are connected as shown in the
(2) i2R2 + E2 – E3 – i3R1 = 0 i3
given circuit. The ratio of currents in
(3) i2R2 + E2 + E3 + i3R1 = 0 i1
(4) –i2R2 + E2 + E3 + i3R1 = 0 terms of resistances used in the circuit is:
[NEET_2021]
24. The equivalent resistance between A and i2 r2
B for the mesh shown in the figure is:
[NEET_2020(Covid)] r1
A i1 B
4Ω 8Ω
i3 r3
r1 r2
(1) (2)
4Ω 6Ω 8Ω r2 + r3 r2 + r3
r1 r2
(3) (4)
A B r1 + r2 r1 + r3

(1) 7.2 Ω (2) 16 Ω 28. As the temperature increases, the

(3) 30 Ω (4) 4.8 Ω electrical resistance: [NEET_2022]
(1) increases for both conductors and
25. Column-I gives certain physical terms
semiconductors
associated with flow of current through a
metallic conductor. Column-II gives some (2) decreases for both conductors and
mathematical relations involving electrical semiconductors
quantities. Match Column-I and Column-II (3) increases for conductors but decreases
with appropriate relations. [NEET_2021] for semiconductors
Column-I Column-II (4) decreases for conductors but increases
(A) Drift Velocity (P) m for semiconductors
ne2ρ
(B) Electrical Resistivity (Q) nevd 29. A copper wire of length 10 m and radius
(C) Relaxation Period (R) eE
τ
( 10 –2
)
/ π m has electrical resistance of
m 10Ω. The current density in the wire for an
(D) Current Density (S) E
electric field strength of 10 (V/m) is:
J
[NEET_2022]
(1) (A)-(R), (B)-(S), (C)-(P), (D)-(Q) 4 2 6 2
(2) (A)-(R), (B)-(S), (C)-(Q), (D)-(P) (1) 10 A /m (2) 10 A /m
–5 2 5 2
(3) (A)-(R), (B)-(P), (C)-(S), (D)-(Q) (3) 10 A /m (4) 10 A /m
(4) (A)-(R), (B)-(Q), (C)-(S), (D)-(P)

Current Electricity 63
30. Two resistors of resistance, 100 Ω and 200 34. The resistance of platinum wire at 0°C is
Ω are connected in parallel in an electrical 2Ω and 6.8Ω at 80°C. The temperature
circuit. The ratio of the thermal energy coefficient of resistance of the wire is:
developed in 100 Ω to that in 200 Ω in a [NEET_2023]
given time is: [NEET_2022] (1) 3 × 10 °C
–2 –1
(2) 3 × 10–1 °C–1
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 2 : 1 (3) 3 × 10 °C
–4 –1
(4) 3 × 10–3 °C–1
(3) 1 : 4 (4) 4 : 1
35. 10 resistors, each of resistance R are
31. A wheat stone bridge is used to connected in series to a battery of emf E
determine the value of unknown and negligible internal resistance. Then
resistance X by adjusting the variable those are connected in parallel to the
resistance Y as shown in the figure. For same battery, the current is increased n
times. The value of n is: [NEET_2023]
the most precise measurement of X, the
(1) 1 (2) 1000
resistances P and Q: [NEET_2022]
(3) 10 (4) 100
P X
G 36. The magnitude and direction of the
current in the following circuit is:
Q Y [NEET_2023]

E
(1) should be approximately equal to 2X
5
(2) should be approximately equal and (1) A from A to B through E
2
are small (2) 1.5 A from B to A through E
(3) should be very large and unequal (3) 0.2 A from B to A through E
(4) do not play any significant role (4) 0.5 A from A to B through E

32. A cell of emf 4 V and internal resistance 37. If the galvanometer G does not show any
0.5 Ω is connected to a 7.5 Ω external deflection in the circuit shown, the value
resistance. The terminal potential of R is given by: [NEET_2023]
difference of the cell is - [NEET_2022]
(1) 3.75 V (2) 4.25 V
(3) 4 V (4) 0.375 V

33. The equivalent resistance of the infinite

network given below is : [NEET_2022]
(1) 200Ω (2) 50Ω
(3) 100Ω (4) 400Ω

38. On the basis of electrical conductivity,

which one of the following material has the
(1) 2 Ω ( )
(2) 1 + 2 Ω smallest resistivity? [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) Germanium (2) Silver
(3) (1 + 3 ) Ω (4) ( 1 + 5 ) Ω (3) Glass (4) Silicon

64 Current Electricity
39. An ac source is connected in the given 41. A copper wire of radius 1 mm contains
circuit. The value of φ will be: 1022 free electrons per cubic metre. The
[NEET_2023(Manipur)] drift velocity for free electrons when 10 A
current flows through the wire will be
(Given, charge on electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C):
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
4
6.25 × 10
(1) ms−1
π
(1) 60° 6.25
(2) × 103 ms−1
(2) 90° π
(3) 30° 6.25
(3) ms−1
π
(4) 45°
6.25 × 105
(4) ms−1
π
40. A certain wire A has resistance 81 Ω. The
resistance of another wire B of same 42. The emf of a cell having internal
material and equal length but of diameter resistance 1 Ω is balanced against a length
thrice the diameter of A will be: of 330 cm on a potentiometer wire. When
[NEET_2023(Manipur)] an external resistance of 2 Ω is connected
(1) 81 Ω across the cell, the balancing length will
(2) 9 Ω be: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(3) 729 Ω (1) 220 cm (2) 330 cm
(4) 243 Ω (3) 115 cm (4) 332 cm

Current Electricity 65
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 2 3 1 3 2 4 2 1 3 2 2 4 4 1 4 1 2 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 4 2 3 2 3 2 4 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 2 1 1 4 1 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 4 3 2 3
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 2 1 3 2 1 3 4 3 3 2 1 3 2 1 2 3 3 3 1 4
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 2 4 2 3 3 4 3 3 1 4 2 4 1 3 4 3 1 3 1 2

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 4 3 3 3 1 2 4 3 3 3 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 4 3 1 1 4

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Ans. 3 2 1 3 2 4 2 1 4 3 2 1 3 1

Exercise - IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 1 2 3 2 1 4 2 1 3 1 1 4 4 1 4 1 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 2 2 1 4 2 3 4 2 2 1 2 1 4 4 3 2 4 2
Que. 41 42
Ans. 2 1

66 Current Electricity
 2 Capacitance
1. Capacitance
1.1 Concept of Capacitance
Capacitance of a conductor is a measure of its ability to store charge. When a conductor is
charged its potential changes. The change in potential is directly proportional to the charge
given to the conductor.
Q∝V ⇒ Q = CV
The constant C is known as the capacity or capacitance of the conductor.
Q Q2 A 2 T2
Capacitance is a scalar quantity with dimensions C
= = =
V W M1L2 T–2
–1 –2 4 2
[C] = [M L T A ]
Unit: Farad, coulomb/volt (SI System), stat farad (CGS System)
1 Farad = 9 × 1011 stat farad

• The capacitance of a conductor is independent of the charge given or it’s potential.

It is also independent of the nature of material and thickness of the conductor.
• Theoretically, infinite amount of charge can be given to a conductor.
However, practically after a certain amount of charge given, the electric field becomes so
intense that it causes ionisation of the medium surrounding it. This electric field is known as
dielectric strength of surrounding medium. Consequently, the charge on the conductor leaks,
reducing its potential.
• It is clear that every conductor has a capacity to store charge which is numerically equal to the
ratio of charge given to it and it’s potential.

1.2 The Capacitance of a Isolated Spherical Conductor + +

+
+ +
When a charge Q is given to an isolated spherical conductor, its potential becomes
+ O +Q
1 Q Q
V= or C= = 4πε0R + R +
4πε0 R V + +
If the conductor is placed in a certain medium of relative permittivity εr, then Cmedium
= 4πε0εr R

Key Points

• As the potential of the Earth is assumed to be zero practically,

capacity of earth or a conductor connected to earth will be infinite C= ∞

q q
C= = = ∞
V 0
• Theoretically, capacity of the Earth
1
C = 4πε0 R = × 64 × 105 = 711 µF
9 × 109

Capacitance 1
1.3 Combination of Identical Charged Tiny Drops
Let number of tiny drops = N
for each tiny drop for Big drop
R
(r, q, C, σ, E, V) (R, Q, CB, σB, EB, VB)
(i) Charge conservation Q = Nq N tinydrops Big drops
4 3 4 3
(ii) Volume conservation N πr = πR
3 3
1/3
Hence R = N r
1/3 1/3
Q = Nq CB = N C σB = N σ
1/3 2/3
EB = N E VB = N V

Example 1:
A capacitor gets a charge of 50 µC when it is connected to a battery of emf 5 V. Calculate the
capacity of the capacitor.
Solution:
Capacity of the capacitor
Q 50 × 10–6
C= = = 10µF
V 5

Example 2:
A capacitor of 0.75 µF is charged to a voltage of 16 V. What is the magnitude of the charge on
the capacitor?
Solution:
–6 –5
q = CV = (0.75 × 10 F) (16 V) = 1.2 × 10 C

Example 3:
Two insulated conductors are charged by transferring electrons from one conductor to another.
15
A potential difference of 100 V is produced by transferring 6.25 × 10 electrons from one
conductor to the other. The capacity of the system will be.
Solution:
Q ne
Q = CV ⇒ C = =
V V
15
Given V = 100 volts; n = 6.25 × 10
6.25 × 1015 × 1.6 × 10–19
∴ C= = 10µF
100

Example 4:
Calculate the capacitance of a planet whose radius is twice the radius of earth treating it as a
spherical conductor.

2 Capacitance
Solution:
Planet can be treated as isolated conductor sphere
6
so C = 4πε0R for the planet R = 2RE = 2 × 6.4 × 10 m
1
so C = × 2 × 6.4 × 10
=6
1.422 × 10–3 F
9 × 109

C = 1422 µF

Example 5:
–3 –12
27 charged water droplets, each of radius 10 m and charge of 10 C, coalesce to form a single
drop. Calculate the potential and capacitance of the bigger drop.
Solution:
 9 × 109 × 10–12 
VB n=
= 2/3
V0 (27)2/3  
 10–3 
VB = 81 volts
 10–3 
And=
CB n1/3
= C0 n1/3 (4π ∈=
0
r) (27)1/3  9 
 9 × 10 
-13
CB = 3.34 × 10 F

2. Capacitor/Condenser
Capacitor is a device which is used to store the electrostatic energy in +q –q
the form of electric field. Energy should be confined within a finite + –
volume for practical use.
+ –
Net charge of a Capacitor arrangement is always zero + –
So a pair of conductors having opposite charges of equal magnitude is + – V=0
+ –
defined as capacitor.
In case of two conductors (close to each other), if the conductors + –
+ –
(called plates) carry equal and opposite charges and are at small q1 = +q q2 = –q
separation, the system is called a capacitor. (C)
The capacity or capacitance of a capacitor is defined as
Magnitude of charg e on eitherplate
C=
Potential differencebetween theplates
The capacity of a capacitor depends upon the geometry
• Shape of conductor • Size of conductor
• Separation between the conductors • Interfering medium
• Presence of other nearby conductors • Orientation of plates

2.1 Principle of a Capacitor

If we take a spherical conductor of size of earth. Its capacitance is merely 0.7 mF. So we have
to think how to make an arrangement of larger capacitance and also energy should be confined
within a limited finite volume.
It is based on the fact that capacitance of a conductor can be increased by reducing it’s
potential, keeping the charge on the conductor constant.

Capacitance 3
2.2 Formation of Capacitor
• Consider a conducting plate M which is given a charge Q such that its potential rises to V. then,
Q
its capacitance is C =
V

• Now if another identical conducting plate N placed parallel to M, then opposite polarity
charge will be induced in N at the surface near to plate M and equal amount of like charge will
be developed in N at the far surface from M.

• Due to this redistribution of charge in the neutral plate N, a negative potential will be developed
near M due to the plate N as negative charges of N are closer to M. So Potential of M will be
reduced slightly.

• Now if the plate N is connected with earth, then positive charge that was developed at the far
end of N will be drained to earth. So now N becomes negatively charged.
N

–
–
–
–
–
–
–

• This negatively charged N plate will produce more negative potential near the surface of plate
M; so reducing the potential of M significantly without any change in its charge. So, the
capacitance of system increases by large amount.

Q
• Now the capacitance of system becomes, C = . Here V is more accurately ∆V (Potential
V
difference between both plates).

4 Capacitance
3. Energy Stored in a Charged Conductor/Capacitor
Let C be the capacitance of a conductor/capacitor. On being connected to a battery, It charges
to a potential V from zero potential or when charge is given to capacitor the potential difference
between its plates increases. Let at any instant when charge on capacitor/conductor is q, then
q
the potential difference between its plates V = . Now work done in giving an additional infinite
C
small charge dq to the capacitor/conductor against it’s force of repulsion (which is stored as
potential energy of the system, also known as it’s self energy)
q
dW
= dU
= Vdq
= dq
C
Q Q
q 1  q2  Q2
⇒ U ∫=
= dq   ⇒ U=
0
C C  2 0 2C

where Q is the final charge acquired by the conductor.

Q2 1 (CV)2 1
So U=
= = CV2
2C 2 C 2
1 Q 2 1
=   V = QV
2V 2

Q2 1 1
∴ U
= = CV
= 2
QV
2C 2 2
Note : Net Work done by battery = Charge supplied by battery × potential of battery
Q2
WBattery
= QV = CV
= 2

Key Points

• Work done by a battery Wb = (charge passing through battery) × (emf) = QV

1
Energy stored in conductor = QV
2
So, 50% of the energy supplied by the battery is lost in the form of heat, if Capacitor is initially
uncharged.
• The amount of energy stored depends on the size of the conductor.
• When a capacitor C charged up-to a voltage V is discharged by means of any resistance then
CV2
heat loss = (independent of R)
2
• Net energy supplied by battery = Energy Stored in capacitor/conductor + Heat loss
• The potential or self-energy of a capacitor/conductor is stored in the electric field of
conductor/capacitor
• So the energy of a spherical conductor is distributed non uniformly starting from its surface
up-to infinity.

Capacitance 5
3.1 Energy Density (Uv)
Energy stored per unit volume in an electric field E is defined as energy density.
dW ε0E
2
σ2 3
Uv = = = J/m
dV 2 2 ∈0

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 Calculate radius of a sphere having capacitance 1 farad.

Q.2 Calculate the capacitance of a metallic ball of radius 30 cm.

Q.3 What is the energy of a spherical conductor of capacitance 4 µF charged up to a potential of 1

KV? And what is the energy given by source to charge this body?

3
Q.4 For flash pictures, a photographer uses a 30 µF capacitor and a charger that supplies 3 × 10
volt. Calculate the charge and the energy spent for each flash.

16
Q.5 When 2 × 10 electrons are transferred from one conductor to another, a potential difference
of 10 V appears between the conductors. Calculate the capacitance of the two conductor system.

B
V
Q.6 The graph shows the variation of voltage V across the plates of two capacitors
A
A & B with charge Q. Which of the two capacitors has larger capacitance?
Q

Q.7 Two capacitors C1 and C2 have equal amount of energy stored in them. What is the ratio of
potential differences across their plates?

4. Parallel Plate Capacitor +σ –σ

4.1 Capacitance area = A
It consists of two metallic plates M and N each of area A at
separation d. Plate M is positively charged and plate N is earthed. P N
M E+
If εr is the dielectric constant of the material medium, E is the E–
field at a point P that exists between the two plates, then
Step I: Finding electric field
d
σ σ σ σ
E = E + + E– = + = = [ε = ε0 εr ]
2ε 2ε ε ε0 εr
Step II: Finding potential difference
σ Qd  V Q
V = Ed = d= E
= and
= σ 
ε0 εr Aε0 εr  d A
Step III: Finding capacitance
Q εr ε0 A
C
= =
V d

6 Capacitance
 ε0 A
If the medium between the plates is air or vacuum, then εr= 1 ⇒ C0 =
d
If the medium between the plates is filled with a dielectric material in place of air, then
capacitance will be
C = εrC0 = kC0
(where εr = k = relative permittivity or dielectric constant)

Key Points

• It must be noted that the charges on the plates of a PPC are equal and opposite, hence total
charge on it is zero and all the electric lines of force which originate from one plate terminate
on the other plate.
• If a PPC is connected across a battery, then the charges on both plates will be equal in
magnitude and opposite in polarity even if the plates are of different sizes.
• The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is independent of its charge and potential. It only
depends on physical construction; area of plates (A), separation between the plates (d) and
medium between the plates.

4.2 Force Between the Plates

The two plates of capacitor attract each other because they are oppositely charged.
Electric field due to positive plate at the location of negative plate is
σ Q
E+ = =
2ε0 2ε0 A
Force on negative charge –Q is
   Q2
F=−QE+ ⇒ F =
QE+ = (towards negative plate)
2ε0 A
2
Q2 1  Q  1 σ2 A
Magnitude of force F = =ε0   A =ε0 AE2 =
2ε0 A 2  ε0 A  2 2ε0

E = Net electric field between the plates of capacitor.

4.3 Electrostatic Pressure on each Plate

2
F σ2 1 σ  1
(Force per unit area) PE = == ε   = ε0E2
A 2ε0 2 0  ε0  2

4.4 Electrostatic energy density between the plates

(Energy per unit volume)
1 1 ε0 A 2
CV2 V 2
Energy 2 2 d 1 V 1
(UE )V = = = =ε0   = ε E2
Volume Ad Ad 2 d 2 0

Capacitance 7
 Key Points

• If one of the plates of a parallel plate capacitor slides parallel to the other
ε0 A
then C decreases (As overlapping area decreases). C =
d A A
where A = overlapping area
d

• If both the plates of parallel plate capacitor are touched each other or connected by a
conducting wire then resultant charge and potential difference becomes zero.
Edge effect

M N
+ –
+ –
+ – uniform electric field between plates
+ –
+ –
+ – non-uniform electric field between edges
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –

• Electric field between the plates of a capacitor is shown in figure. Non-uniformity of electric
field at the boundaries of the plates is negligible if the distance between the plates is very small
as compared to the length of the plates.
• Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor does not depend on thickness and nature of metal of plates.
• For an isolated parallel plate capacitor:
σ V
(i) Intensity of electric field between the plates E = = (uniform)
ε0 d
Q2 C2 V2 d CV2 QE
(ii) Force between the plates= = . = = (E → Net Electric field between the plates)
2Aε0 2Aε0 d 2d 2
σ2
(iii) Pressure on the plates =
2ε0
• Electrostatic energy is stored uniformly within the volume between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor. No energy is stored outside the plates, as outside the plate electric field is zero.

Example 6:
If the distance between the plates of a capacitor of capacitance C1 is halved and the area of
plates is doubled then what will be the capacitance?
Solution:
ε0 A C1 A 1 d2 A  1  d  1
C= ⇒ = . = 1 ×    1  = ⇒ C2 = 4C1
d C2 A2 d1 2A 1  d1   2  4

Example 7:
A parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium has a potential 20 kV and capacitance
–4 2
2 × 10 µF. If area of each plate is 0.01 m and distance between them is 2 mm then find the
(a) potential gradient (b) dielectric constant of medium

8 Capacitance
Solution:
ε0 εr A Cd
(a) potential gradient (b) C = ⇒ εr =
d ε0 A
V 20000 2 × 10–10 × 2 × 10–3
= = = 1 × 107 V / m =εr = 4.52
d 0.002 8.85 × 10–12 × 0.01

Example 8:
A parallel plate capacitor is constructed with plates of area +Q + + + + + + + + + + +
2
0.0280 m and separation 0.550 mm. Find the magnitude of
E E
the charge on each plate of this capacitor when the
potential difference between the plates is 20.1 V. –Q – – – – – – – – – – –

Solution:
Using formula
ε0 A (8.85 × 10–12 C2 / N·m2 )(0.0280m2 )
C
= =
d 0.550 × 10–3 m
–10
C = 4.51 × 10 F
Since Q = CV
–10 –9
Q = (4.51 × 10 F) (20.1 V) = 9.06 ×10 C

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 What will be the percentage change in capacitance of a PPC, if the side of square plates is
decreased by 10% & separation between then is decreased by 20%.

2
Q.2 A PPC has capacitance 2µF & plate area of 0.03 m . What is the separation between the plates.

Q.3 A PPC with vertical plates has capacitance of 6µF. If its plate is displaced in such a manner that
1
the second plate is adjusted h below the top of first plate where h is height of plate. What
3
will be the new capacitance of arrangement.
Q.4 A parallel plate capacitor has capacitance C. If the charges of the plates are Q –3Q

Q and –3Q. find

i. Charges at the inner surfaces of the plates
ii. potential difference between the plates
d
Q.5 The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 400 Pico farad and its plates are separated by
2 mm of air.
(i) What will be the energy when it is charged to 1500 volt?
(ii) What will be the potential difference with the same charge if separation is doubled?
(iii) How much energy is needed to double the distance between its plates?

Capacitance 9
Q.6 If the distance between the plates of a capacitor is d and potential difference is V then what is
the energy density between the plates?

Q.7 A parallel plate capacitor has rectangular plate with dimensions 6.0 cm × 8.0 cm. If the plates
are separated by a sheet of teflon (K =2.1) 1.5 mm thick, how much energy is stored in the
capacitor when its is connected to a 12 V battery?

Q.8 A capacitor of capacitance C has charge Q. The net charge on a capacitor is always .......... and
capacitor stores ............ energy.

5. Properties of Dielectric and its effect on Capacitance

• The insulators in which microscopic local displacement of charges takes place in presence of
electric field are known as dielectrics.
• Dielectrics are non-conductors up to certain value of field depending on its nature. If the field
exceeds this limiting value called dielectric strength they lose their insulating property and
begin to conduct.
• Dielectric strength is defined as the maximum value of electric field that a dielectric can
withstand/tolerate without breakdown.
1 1 –3 –1
Unit = volt/metre, Dimensions = [M L T A ]

5.1 Polar Dielectrics

• In absence of external field, the centres of positive and negative charges do not coincide in
these atoms or molecules due to asymmetric shape of molecules.
• Each molecule has permanent dipole moment.
• The dipole are randomly oriented so average dipole moment per unit volume of polar dielectric
in absence of external field is zero.
• In presence of external field, dipoles tends to align in direction of field.
Ex. Water, Alcohol, HCl, NH3 etc.

5.2 Non Polar Dielectrics

• In the absence of external field the centres of positive and negative charge coincides in these
atoms or molecules because they are symmetric.
• The dipole moment is zero in normal state.
• In presence of external field, they acquire induced dipole moment.
Ex. Nitrogen, Oxygen, Benzene, Methane etc.

5.3 Polarisation
The alignment of dipole moments of permanent or induced dipoles in the direction applied
electric field is called polarisation.

10 Capacitance
 
5.4 Polarisation Vector P
It is a vector quantity which describes the extent to which molecules of dielectric become
polarized by an electric field or oriented in direction of field.
 
P = the dipole moment per unit volume of dielectric = N p

where N is number of atoms per unit volume of dielectric and p is dipole moment of an atom
or molecule.
 2 –2 1 1 +
Unit of P is C/m ; Dimension is [L T A ] – –+ –+ + – + –
+ – + +
Let E0, V0, C0 be electric field, potential difference E0
–
+ –+ –+ – E
–
+ – + – + –
and capacitance in the absence of dielectric. + – + – + Ei –
Let E, V, C be the corresponding quantities in + – + –+ –+ –
+ – + –
+ –
presence of dielectric respectively. + –
– + –
+ σ –σi σi –σ
Electric field in absence of dielectric Dielectric slab
V0 σ Q
E0 = = =
d ε0 ε0 A
Electric field in presence of dielectric
E0 E0
Enet = E0 – Ei ⇒ = E0 − Ei ⇒ E=
i
E0 −
k k
 1  1  1 Cmed
Ei E0  1 − 
= ⇒ σi =σ0  1 −  Qi Q0  1 − 
⇒=
 k  k  k
εr

5.5 If the Dielectric Medium is Present Between the Entire Space

ε0 εr A ε0kA
Cmedium
= = = k(C)air
d d

5.6 If Capacitor is Partially Filled with Dielectric

When the capacitor is filled partially with dielectric between plates, and thickness of dielectric
slab is t(t < d).
σ
For capacitor, the field E0 is given by E0 = , exists in a space d.
ε0
E0
On inserting the slab of thickness t, a field E = appears inside the slab and a field E0 exists
εr
in the remaining space (d – t). If V is the potential difference between the plates then
V = E0(d – t) + E t
 E  
⇒ V = E0 d – t +   t  E0
E
  0  
E0
E0 t εr E= d
 = εr = Dielectric constant εr
E
E0
σ  t q  t
V
⇒= d – t + =  d – t + 
ε0  εr  Aε0  εr 

q ε0 A ε0 A ε0 A
⇒C
= = = =
V  1  1 t
d – t  1 –  d – t  1 –  d – t +
εr   k k


Capacitance 11
 If capacitor is partially filled with a conducting slab of thickness t (t< d)
εr = k = ∞ for conductor E0
ε0 A ε0 A t εr =∞ E=0 d
so C = ⇒C =
 1 (d – t)
d − t 1–  E0
 ∞

Graph of E and V in moving from positive to negative plate of PPC

+q –q

K→∞
K

d1 d2 d3 d4 d
O x
V
E A
E B
C
E/k D E

x F
0 x
0 d1 d2 d3 d4 d d1 d2 d3 d4 d
• AB, CD, EF are parallel to each other
• Slope of BC is less than AB
• DE is parallel to x-axis

5.7 Inserting a Dielectric Slab with or without battery:

Let a Parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C0 is being charged by a battery of potential V0. So
at any instant Charge stored in the capacitor is Q0, electric field between the plates is E0 and
energy stored in the capacitor is U0. Now if
Battery is disconnected (capacitor is being isolated)
[Q = constant], New capacitance = KC0
Q0 V0
New potential difference = =
KC0 K
Q E
New Electric Field = E = = 0
Aε0K k
Q2 Q2 U0
New energy stored=
U = =
2C 2COK K

Battery remains connected with the capacitor

[V = constant], New capacitance C = KC0
New Potential difference between the plates V = V0
New Charge on the capacitor Q = CV0 = (KC0)V0 = KQ0
Additional Charge supplied by battery = Q – Q0 = (K – 1)Q0
1
New Energy stored U = (KC0 )(V0 )2 = KU0
2
New Electric Field between the plates = E = V/d = E0

12 Capacitance
 Key Points

• If nothing is mentioned then assume the battery to be disconnected and Q is constant.

Battery disconnected (Q is constant)
Q Q2
Change V= ε0 εr A U=
C Q 2C
Q = E = C
executed 1 ε0 εr A d 1
V∝ U∝
C C
Filled
with Unchanged Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
dielectric
Dis tance
is Unchanged Decreases Unchanged Increases Decreses
decreased
Area is
Unchanged Decreases Decreases Increases Decreases
increased

Battery still connected (V is constant)

V
E= 1
Change Q = CV d ε0 εr A U= CV2
V cons tan t C= 2
executed Q∝C 1 d
E∝ U∝C
d
Filled
with Increases Unchanged Unchanged Increases Increases
dielectric
Dis tance
is Increases Unchanged Increases Increases Increases
Decreased
Area is
Increases Unchanged Unchanged Increases Increases
increased

• A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery (V = const.) and a slab of dielectric constant
k is inserted between the plates then the total energy delivered by the battery is divided into
two parts:
(i) Half is stored in the form of electrostatic potential energy.
(ii) Half is lost in the circuit

Example 9:
Plate separation of a 15µ F capacitor is 2 mm. A dielectric slab (K = 2) of thickness 1 mm is
inserted between the plates. Find the new capacitance.
Solution:
ε0 A ε0 A
Given C= = = 15µF ……..(i)
d 2 × 10−3
ε0 A ε0 A 2
Then by=using C ' = = × ε0 A × 103
t 10−3
3
(
(d − t ) + K 2 × 10−3 − 10−3 + 2 )
From equation (i) C= ' 20µ F.

Capacitance 13
Example 10:
There is an air filled 1pF parallel plate capacitor. When the plate separation is doubled and the

space is filled with wax, the capacitance increases to 2pF. Find the dielectric constant of wax

Solution:
Given that capacitance C = 1pF

C
After doubling the separation between the plates C ' =
2
KC
and when dielectric medium of dielectric constant k filled between the plates then C ' =
2
KC
C'
According to the question, = = 2 ⇒ K = 4.
2

Example 11:
If a slab of insulating material 4 × 10−5 m thick is introduced between the plate of a parallel

plate capacitor, the distance between the plates has to be increased by 3.5 × 10−5 m to restore

the capacity to original value. Then find the dielectric constant of the material of slab.
Solution:
ε0 A ε0 A ε0 A 4 × 10−5
C' = ⇒ = ⇒ K= =8
t 4 × 10−5
4 × 10−5 4 × 10−5 − 3.5 × 10−5
(
d−t +
K
)
3.5 × 10−5 +
K

Example 12:
A slab of copper of thickness b is inserted in between the plates of parallel plate capacitor as
d
shown in the figure. The separation between the plates is d. If b = then find the ratio of
2
capacities of the capacitor after and before inserting the slab.

A=

d Cu b

Solution:
ε0 A
Capacitance before inserting the slab C = and capacitance after inserting the slab
d
ε0 A
C' =
d−t
d 2ε A C' 2
Where t= b= so C ' = 0 hence, = .
2 d C 1

14 Capacitance
 Concept Builder-3

Q.1 The capacity of a parallel plate condenser is C0 . If a dielectric of relative permittivity εr and
thickness equal to one fourth the plate separation is placed between the plates, then its
C
capacity becomes C. Find the value of
C0

Q.2 An air capacitor of capacity C= 10µ F is connected to a constant voltage battery of 12 V. Now
the space between the plates is filled with a liquid of dielectric constant 5. The charge that
flows now from battery to the capacitor is

Q.3 A capacitor when filled with a dielectric K = 3 has charge Q0 , voltage V0 and field E0 . If the
dielectric is replaced with another one having K = 9, the new values of charge, voltage and field
will be respectively

Q.4 A parallel plate condenser consists of two metal plates of area A and separation d. A slab of
thickness t and dielectric constant K = 2 is inserted between the plates with its faces parallel
to the plates and having the same surface are as that of the plates. For what value of t/d will
the capacitance of the system be 3/2 times that of the air condenser alone

Q.5 Half of the space between parallel plate capacitor is filled with a medium of dielectric constant
K parallel to the plates. If initially the capacity was C, then find the new capacitance

Q.6 If 'C' is the capacitance of a capacitor in air. When dielectric of same thickness and of constants
K1 , K2 & K3 are completely filled along the plates, then find the new capacitance

Q.7 A capacitor of capacitance 10µF is connected to battery of emf 20V. Without disconnecting the source,
a dielectric (K=4) is introduced to fill the space between the two plates of the capacitor. Calculate
(a) charge before the dielectric was introduced
(b) charge after the dielectric is introduced

6. Combination of Capacitor
6.1 Capacitors in Series
(i) The charge on each capacitor is equal (if they are initially uncharged) +Q – Q +Q – Q +Q – Q
A B
i.e. Q = C1V1 = C2V2 = C3V3 C1 C2 C3
(ii) The total potential difference across AB is shared by the capacitors V1 V2 V3
+ –
 1
in the inverse ratio of their respective capacitance V ∝ 
 C V
V = V 1 + V2 + V3
If CS is the net capacitance of the series combination, then
Q Q Q Q 1 1 1 1
= + + ⇒ = + +
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cs C1 C2 C3

Capacitance 15
6.2 Capacitors in Parallel +Q1 –Q1
(i) The potential difference across each capacitor is same C1
Q1 Q2 Q3
i.e. V = V1 = V2 = V3 V
⇒= = = A +Q2 –Q2 B
C1 C2 C3
C2
(ii) The total charge Q is shared by each capacitor in the direct ratio of
their respective capacitances. [Q ∝ C] +Q3 –Q3
C3
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 V
If CP is the net capacitance for the parallel combination of capacitors,
then :
CPV = C1V + C2V + C3V ⇒ CP = C 1 + C 2 + C 3

Key Points

• For a given voltage, in order to store maximum energy, capacitors should be connected in parallel.
• If N identical capacitors each having breakdown voltage V are joined in (i) series then the break
down voltage of the combination = NV (ii) parallel then the breakdown voltage of the
combination = V
C
• If N identical capacitors are connected then Cseries = , Cparallel = NC
N

Example 13:
C C C

The capacitance between x and y is: x y

C
Solution:
1 1 1 1 C/3
= + +
C' C C C
x y
1 3
= C
C' C
C
C′ =
3
C
and C are in parallel
3
C 4
Ceq = + C ⇒ Ceq = C
3 3
3µF 6µF
Example 14:
What is the effective capacitance between points A and B of the A B
network of capacitors shown in figure? 2µF 2µF
Solution: 2µF
3µ × 6µ 4µ
C1 = = 2 µF, C2 = = 1µF A B
3µ + 6µ 4
⇒ Ceq = 2µ + 1µ = 3µF 1µF

16 Capacitance
Example 15:
Three identical capacitors are connected together differently. For the same voltage applied
across each combination, which one stores maximum energy?
Solution:
When all three are connected in parallel combination then this combination stores maximum
1 2
energy because Ceq will be maximum in parallel combination and u = Ceq V
2

Example 16: 2µF 6µF

Four capacitors are arranged to form the given circuit. If this arrangement A B

is connected across a voltage source then charge supplied by the source

C D
is 24µC. Calculate the charge on capacitor A.
6µF 2µF
Solution:
Given circuit can be redrawn as shown in figure. As capacitance of 3
µF
2
both the branches are same so 24µC charge will be equally divided. 3
µF
2
∴ Charge on capacitor A = 12µC

Example 17:
There are six plates of equal area A and separation between the adjacent plates is d or 2d
(d<<A). They are arranged as shown in figure. Find the equivalent capacitance between points
2 and 5.
d 1
2
d 3
2d
4
d
5 5
d
6
Solution:
1,4
Redrawing the circuit
C C
It is a whetstones bridge with points (3, 6) and (1, 4) being
2 C/2 5
equipotential. So, the capacitance C/2 can be removed.
C C
∈0 A 3,6
∴ Ceq = C =
d

7. Combination of Dielectric Slabs

7.1 Plate Separation Division
(i) Plate separation gets divided and area remains same
εr1 εr2
(ii) Capacitors are in series A B

(iii) Individual capacitance are

ε0 εr A ε0 εr A
C1 = 1
, ⇒ C2 = 2
d1 d2
d1 d2

Capacitance 17
 These two are in series
1 1 1 1 d1 d2
∴ = + ⇒ = +
CAB C1 C2 CAB ε0 εr A ε0 εr A
1 2

Aε0
CAB =
d1 d
+ 2
εr εr
1 2

d ε0 A  2εr εr 
Special Case: If d1 = d2 = ⇒ C=  1 2

2 d ε
 r1 + ε r2 

7.2 Plate Area Division

(i) Plate area gets divided and distance between them remains same.
(ii) Capacitor are in parallel
(iii) Individual capacitances are εr1 A1
ε0 εr A 1 ε0 εr A2 A B
C1 = 1
, ⇒ C2 = 2

d d
εr2 A 2
These two are parallel so CAB = C1 + C2 d
ε0 εr A 1 ε0 εr A2 ε0
CAB=
d
1
+
d
2
=
d
(ε A
r1 1
+ εr A2
2
)
Special Case:

A ε0 A  εr1 + εr2 
If A1 = A2 = Then C =  
2 d  2 
 

Key Point

• If space between the plates is divided equally into two parts.

 2εr εr   2k k 
(i) Distance-wise division Ce = (Harmonic mean of εr & εr ) × C =  1 2
= 1 2
 C
1 2  εr + εr   k 1 + k2 
 1 2 
 εr + εr  k +k 
(ii) Area wise division Ce= (Arithmetic mean of εr & εr ) × C =  1 2
= 1 2
 C
1 2  2   2 
 
Where C = capacity of PPC without any dielectric
air
air air
•
K K

 2K  K + 1 
C1 =  C C2 =  C C3 = C
K + 1   2 
C2 > C 1 > C 3

18 Capacitance
Example 18:
A parallel plate capacitor with no dielectric has a capacitance of 0.5µF. Half of the space
between the plates is filled with medium of dielectric constant 2 and remaining half is filled
with a medium of dielectric constant of 3 as shown in figure. Find its net capacity.

K=2

K=3

Solution:
∈0 A
Given that original capacitance C = = 0.5µF
d
2 ∈0 A / 2 ∈0 A
Capacitance of part with dielectric constant 2 is C1 = = = 0.5µF
d d
Capacitance of part with dielectric constant 3
3 ∈0 A / 2 3 ∈0 A
is C2 = = = 0.75µF
d 2d
As both the capacitors are connected in parallel so
ε 2+ 3
Ceq = C1 + C2 OR (
Ceq =0 A 1K 1 + A2K2 =
d
) C =1.25µF
 2 

8. Application of Kirchhoff's Law to Capacitor circuit

In a complex circuit containing capacitor and the batteries, charges on different capacitors can
be obtained with the help of Kirchhoff's law.

8.1 First Law

This law is basically law of conservation of charge which is normally applied across a battery
or in an isolated system.
(i) In case of a battery, charge pass through both terminals is of equal amount.
(ii) In an isolated system (not connected to any source of charge like terminal of a battery or
earth), net charge remains constant.
For example, in the figure, the positive terminals of the battery supplies a positive charge q1+q2.
Similarly, the negative terminal supplies a negative charge of
C1 q q3
magnitude q3 + q4. + –1M
G
C5 q5+ C– H
Hence q1 + q2 = q3 + q4 B
3
C2 E
Further, the plate enclosed by the dotted lines from an isolated I + – + – J
q2 D q4
system, as they are neither connected to a battery terminal nor to C4
the earth. Initially, no charge was present in these plates. hence, A F
after charging, net charge on these plates should also be zero. Or v

q3 + q5 – q1 = 0 and q4 – q2 – q5 = 0
So, these are the three equations which can be obtained from the first law.

Capacitance 19
8.2 Second Law
In a capacitor, potential drops by q/C, when one moves from positive plate to the negative plate
and in a battery it drops by an amount equal to the emf of the battery. Applying second law in
loop ABGHEFA, we have
q1 q3
– – +V =
0
C1 C3
Similarly, the second law in loop GMDIG gives the equation,
q1 q5 q2
– – + 0
=
C1 C5 C2

Example 19:
Calculate the potential of point O in terms of C1, C2, C3, V1, V2 & V3 in the following circuit.
Solution: V1
Let the potential of the junction O be V0. Now apply Kirchhoff's C1
current law at a junction. Q1
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0 O V0
Q3
C1 (V1 – V0) + C2 (V2 – V0) + C3 (V3 –V0) = 0 Q2
C1V1 + C2 V2 + C3 V3 C2 C3
⇒ V0 =
C1 + C2 + C3 V2 V3

9. Sharing of Charges
When two charged conductors/capacitors are connected by a conducting wire then charge flows
from a conductor/capacitor at higher potential (difference) to that at lower potential
(difference). This flow of charge stops when the potential/potential difference of both
conductors/capacitors become equal.
Let the final charges on the conductors/capacitors after they are connected be Q1' and Q2'
respectively and their common potential will be V then
C1
+ + + + Q1 –Q1
+ + + + + + Q1’ C1 –Q1’
+ + + + + + + + V1
V1 + V2 + V V + V
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + + Q2 C2 –Q2 C2
C1 Q1 C2 Q2 C1 Q'1 C2 Q'2
V2 Q2’ V –Q2’

(Before connection) (After connection) (Before connection) (After connection)

9.1 Common Potential

According to law of Conservation of charge Qbefore connection = Q after connection

⇒ C1V1 + C2V2 = C1V + C2V

Common potential after connection
C1V1 + C2 V2 Q1 + Q2
V= =
C1 + C2 C1 + C2

20 Capacitance
9.2 Charges After Connection
 Q + Q2   C1 
Q1' = C1V = C1  1 =  Q
 C + C   C + C
 1 2   1 2 
(Q : Total charge on the system)
 Q + Q2   C2 
Q2' = C2V = C2  1 =  Q
 C + C   C + C
 1 2   1 2 
Ratio of the charges after redistribution
Q'1 C 1V C 1 R1
= = = (incase of spherical conductors)
Q2
'
C2
V C2 R2
Amount of charge flow between them is ∆Q = |Q1 – Q1’| = |Q2’ – Q2|
• Loss of energy in charge redistribution
When charge flows through the conducting wire certain energy is lost and electrical energy is
converted into heat energy, so change in energy of this system is
∆U = Uf – Ui

1 1  1 1  1 CC 
⇒  C1V2 + C2 V2  –  C1V12 + C2 V22  ⇒ ∆U =–  1 2  (V1 – V2 )
2

2 2  2 2  2  C1 + C2 
Here negative sign indicates that energy of the system decreases in the process.

Key Points

• If V1 = V2 then neither charge flows nor energy is lost when two charged conductors are
connected.
• A charged capacitor of energy U is connected to an identical uncharged capacitor.
U U
Then electrostatic potential energy of the system = , Heat loss = and energy of each
2 2
U
capacitor =
4
• Two capacitors are connected in series with a battery. Now, the battery is + – + –

removed and loose wires ends are connected together then the final charge on
each capacitor is zero.

Example 20:
Two identical capacitors each of capacity C are charged upto same potential V. Now their
oppositely charged plates are connected together then calculate
(a) energy of each capacitor before connection.
(b) potential of each capacitor after connection.
(c) charge of each capacitor after connection.
(d) energy stored in each capacitor after connection.
(e) energy loss in the form of heat.

Capacitance 21
Solution:
1 2
(a) Energy of each capacitor is = CV
2
CV – CV
(b) Potential of each capacitor
= V' = 0
C+C
(c) Charge of each capacitor = CV = C × 0 = 0
1 2
(d) Energy of each capacitor = CV = 0
2
2
(e) Energy loss = Uf – Ui = CV

Example 21:
A capacitor of 20µF is charged upto 500V is connected with another capacitor of 10µF which is
charged upto 200V. Find the common potential.
Solution:
C1V1 + C2 V2
By using V = ; C1 = 20 µF, V1 = 500 V, C2 = 10 µF and V2 = 200 V
C1V2

20 × 500 + 10 × 200
=V = 400V.
20 + 10

Example 22:
Two condensers of capacity C and 2C are connected in parallel and these are charged upto
V volt. If the battery is removed and dielectric medium of constant K is put between the plates
of first condenser, then find the potential at each condenser.
Solution:
Initially
C

2C

+ –
V

Equivalent capacitance of the system Ceq = 3C

Total charge Q = (3C)V

Finally
KC

2C

Equivalent capacitance of the system C=

eq
KC + 2C

Q 3CV 3V
Hence common potential =V = = .
(KC + 2C) (K + 2)C K + 2

22 Capacitance
Example 23:
Condenser A has a capacity of 15 µF when it is filled with a medium of dielectric constant 15.
Another condenser B has a capacity 1 µF with air between the plates. Both are charged
separately by a battery of 100V. after charging, both are connected in with each other and the
dielectric material being removed. Find the common potential.
Solution:
Charge on capacitor A is given by Q1 =15 × 10−6 × 100 =15 × 10−4 C
Charge on capacitor B is given by Q2 =
1 × 10−6 × 100 =
10−4 C
15 × 10−6
Capacity of capacitor A after removing dielectric = = 1µF
15
Now when both capacitors are connected in parallel their equivalent capacitance will be
Ceq = 1 + 1 = 2µF
(15 × 10−4 ) + (1 × 10−4 )
So common
= potential = 800V.
2 × 10−6

Example 24:
The radii of two charged metallic spheres are 15 cm and 10 cm. Each has a positive charge of
150 micro coulomb. They connected by a conducting wire. Calculate the common potential of
the spheres after connecting and the quantity of charge on each.
Solution:
1 15 –11
C1 = × (0.15) = × 10 farad.
9.0 × 109
9
1 10 –11
C2 = × (0.10) = × 10 farad
9.0 × 109
9
The charge on each is 150 µC, that is.
-6
q1 = q2 = 150 x 10 coulomb.
Common potential after connecting is given by-
q1 + q2 (150 × 10−6 ) + (150 × 10−6 ) 300 × 10−6 7
V= = = = 1.08 × 10 volt.
C1 + C2  15 −11   10 −11  25
 × 10  +  × 10  × 10−11
 9   9  9
Now, charge on the first sphere
 15  7 –6
q1 = C1V =  × 10−11  (1.08 × 10 ) = 180 × 10 c = 180 µC:
 9 
and charge on the second sphere
 10  7 –6
q2 = C2V =  × 10−11  (1.08 × 10 ) = 120 × 10 c = 120 µC.
 9 

Example 25:
A 1µF capacitor and a 2µF capacitor are connected in parallel across a 1200 volts line. The
charged capacitors are then disconnected from the line and from each other. These two
capacitors are now connected to each other with terminals of unlike signs together. What will
be the new charges on the capacitors.

Capacitance 23
Solution:
Initially charge on capacitors can be calculated as follows
+ – 1µF
+ – 1µF
+ –
+ – 2µF + –

– + 2µF
– +
– +
+ –
1200 V V′
Q1 = 1 × 1200 = 1200 µC and Q2 = 2 × 1200 = 2400 µC
Finally, when battery is disconnected and unlike plates are connected together then common
Q2 − Q1 2400 − 1200
potential V ' = = = 400V
C1 + C2 1+2
Hence, New charge on C1 is 1 × 400 = 400µC
And New charge on C2 is 2 × 400 =800µC.

Capacitance of Some Other Structure

Spherical lnner plate is

capacitor outer earthed and outer Connected and Connected
plateis earthed plate is given a outer plate is spheres
charge
given a charge
b b Q
Q
Q1 b b Q
a a
a a
a

4πε0 ab 4πε0b2 C1 C2
C= C=
b–a b–a C= 4πε0b C
= C1 + C2
(b > a) (b > a) C= 4πε0 (a + b)

Concept Builder-4

Q.1 Four capacitors are connected as shown in the figure. Find the equivalent capacitance between
P and Q.
1µF
Q

1µF 1µF

P 1µF

Q.2 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9pF are connected in series.

(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination?
(b) What is the potential difference across each capacitor if the combination is connected to a
120V supply?

24 Capacitance
Q.3 Five identical plates each of area A are joined as shown in the figure. The distance between
successive plates is d. The plates are connected to potential difference of V volt. Find the
charges of plates 1 and 4.

1 2 3 4 5 +
–V

Q.4 Two capacitors of capacity C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure.

2µF 3µF
c1 ± ± c2
200V 400V

Now the switch is closed. Calculate the charge on each capacitor.

Q.5 Two spherical conductors of capacitance 3.0µF and 5.0µF are respectively charged to potentials
of 300 volt and 500 volt. The two are connected resulting in redistribution of charges. Then find
the final potential.

Q.6 A condenser of capacitance 10µF has been charged to 100V. It is now connected to another
uncharged condenser. The common potential becomes 40V. What is the capacitance of other
condenser.

Q.7 Two spheres of radii R1 and R2 have equal charge are joint together with a copper wire. If the potential
1
on each sphere after connection is V, then find the initial charge on any sphere (k = )
4π ∈0

Q.8 A capacitor of capacity C1 is charged to the potential of V0. On disconnecting with the battery,
it is connected with a capacitor of capacity C2 as shown in the adjoining figure. Find the ratio
of total energies on both capacitors before and after the connection of switch S.

S
C1V0
C2

Q.9 A capacitor is charged with a battery and energy stored is U. After disconnecting battery another
capacitor of same capacity is connected in parallel with it. Then find the energy stored in each
capacitor.

Q.10 A 3µF capacitor is charged to a potential of 300 V and 2µF capacitor is charged to 200 V. The
capacitor are then connected with each other so that plates of opposite polarity joined together.
What amount of charge will flow, when the plates are so connected?

Capacitance 25
10. R.C. Circuit
To understand the charging of a capacitor in R-C circuit, let us first consider the charging of a
capacitor without resistance.
Consider a capacitor connected to a battery of emf V through a
switch S. When we close the switch, the capacitor gets charged
immediately. Charging takes no time. A charge q0 = CV appears
in the capacitor as soon as switch is closed and the q-t graph in
this case is a straight line parallel to t-axis as shown in figure.

If there is some resistance in the circuit charging takes some time. Because
resistance opposes the charging (or current flow in the circuit).

10.1 Charging of Capacitor in R-C Circuit

Consider a capacitor initially uncharged. Suppose that switch is closed at
time t = 0. At some instant of time, let charge in the capacitor is q and it is
still increasing and hence current is flowing in the circuit.

Applying KVL in ABEDA, we get

q
– – iR + V = 0
C
q t
dq q  dq  dq dt dq dt
Here i=
dt
∴– –
C  dt 
R+V = 0 ∴
q
=
R
or ∫ q
= ∫R
V− 0 V– 0
C C
t
–
This gives q = CV (1 – e CR )
Substituting CV = q0 and CR = τC
t
–
τ
q = q0 ( 1– e c )
The charge q increases exponentially from 0 to q0. q-t graph is an exponentially increasing graph.
From the graph and equation, we see that
at t = 0, q = 0
at t = RC, q = .63 q0
at t = ∞, q = q0

Definition of Time Constant (τC)

Time constant is the time in which 63.2% charging is over. Its value is RC.
At t = τC = RC
q = q0(1 – e–1) ≈ 0.632 q0
Dimension formula of time constant is [M0L0T].
The current at any time t can be calculated by differentiating q with respect to t. Hence,
dq d q
i= = {q0 (1 – e – t / τC )} or i = 0 e – t / τC
dt dt τC

26 Capacitance
 Substituting q0 = CV and τC = CR
V – t / τC
i= e ⇒ i = i0 e – t / τC
R
V
Here i0 = is the current at time t = 0
R
i.e. Current decreases exponentially with time.
The i – t graph is as shown in figure. Once charging is over or the steady state condition is
reached the current becomes zero.

Behavior of capacitor
(i) At time t = 0, when capacitor is uncharged it offers maximum current passing through it.
So, it may be assumed like a conducting wire of zero resistance. With this concept, find initial
values of q or i etc.
(ii) At time t = ∞, when capacitor is fully charged it does not allow current through it, so its resistance
may be assumed as infinite. With this concept, find steady state values of q or i at t = ∞.
(iii) Equivalent time constant: To find the equivalent time constant of a circuit, the following
steps are followed :
(a) Short-circuit the battery
(b) Find net resistance (Rnet) across the capacitor
(c) τC = (Rnet)C

10.2 Discharging of a Capacitor In RC Circuit

To understand discharging through a RC circuit again we first consider the discharging without
resistance.
Suppose a capacitor has a charge q0. The positive plate has a charge +q0 and negative plate
–q0. It implies that the positive plate has deficiency of electrons and negative plate has excess
of electrons. When the switch is closed, the extra electrons on negative plate immediately rush
to the positive plate and net charge on both plates becomes zero. So, we can say that
discharging takes place immediately. q q=0
+ 0–
In case of a RC circuit, discharging also takes time. Final charge
⇒
on the capacitor is still zero but after sufficiently long period
of time. S

Consider a circuit as shown. Initial charge is q0. Now we close switch at t = 0 and assume that
charge on capacitor at time t is q and current in the circuit is i.
From KVL
q R
q q + –
–iR + =0 ⇒ = iR ....(i)
C C
dq
– =i ...(ii)
dt i
From (i) & (ii)
q t
q dq dq dt
c
=–R
dt
⇒ ∫
q
q
= –∫
0
RC
0

– t /RC
q = q0 e

Capacitance 27
 Thus, q decreases exponentially from q0 to zero, as shown in figure. q

From the graph and the equation, we see that q0

At t = 0, q = q0
0.368q0
At t = τ, q = 0.368q0 t
t = τC
At t = ∞, q = 0

Definition of Time Constant (τC)

In case of discharging, definition of τC is changed.
–1
At time t = τC = RC ⇒ q = q0e = 0.368 q0
Hence, in this case τC can be defined as the time when charge reduces to 36.8% of its maximum
value q0.
During discharging, current flows in the circuit till q becomes zero. This current can be found
by differentiating q with respect to t but with negative sign because charge is decreasing with
time. So
i
i0

 dq  d q 0 – t/ τc
i = –  =– (q0 e – t/ τc ) = e
 dt  dt τC
q0
As = i0
τC
We have i = i0 e – t/ τc
This is an exponentially decreasing equation. Thus i – t graph decreases exponentially with time
from i0 to 0.

Behavior of Capacitor
In discharging circuit at t = 0, charge capacitor behaves like a battery of emf q0/C.

Example 26:
Find current supplied by battery at t = 0

Solution:
At t = 0
10
=i = 5A
2

28 Capacitance
Example 27:
Find final charge on 2µF capacitor:

Solution:
At t = ∞ capacitor becomes open

i = 1A ⇒ VAB = 9V
∴ Charge on 2µF = CV = (2 × 9)µC
= 18µC

Example 28:
Find current and charge on capacitor

(i) At t = 0 (ii) At t = 0
Solution:
10
(i)=i = 5 A, Q = 0 [ V across C is 0]
2
(ii) P.d across 5F is 10 V
∴ Q = CV = 10 × 5 = 50C

Capacitance 29
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-3

1. R = 9 ×10 m
9
2. 33.3pF 4εr
1. 2. 480µC
3. 2J, 4J 4. 90mC, 135 J 3εr + 1

5. C = 320 µF 6. CA > CB V0 E0 2
3. Q0 , , 4.
3 3 3
C2
7. 2KC 3C
C1 5. 6.
K+1  1 1 1 
 + + 
k
 1 k 2
k 3 
CONCEPT BUILDER-2
7. 200µC, 800µC

1. 1.25% increase
–8 CONCEPT BUILDER-4
2. d = 13.275 × 10 m 3. 4 µF
4. (i) +2Q and –2Q
1. 1µF
2Q 2. (a) Ceq = 3pF; (b) V = 40 V
(ii) ∆V =
C
3. Charge on plate
5. (i) u = 450 µJ
ε0 AV 2ε0 AV
(ii) V = 3000 V (1) = – Charge on plate (4) =
d d
(iii) energy needed = 450µ J
4. Q1 = 640 µC; Q2 = 960 µC
1  v2 
6. E.D. = ε0  2  5. 425 V 6. 15µF
2 d 
V C1 + C2
7. 4.29 × 10
–9
J 7. (R + R2 ) 8.
2k 1 C1
Q2
8. (i) Zero; (ii) U
2C 9. 10. 600µC
4

30 Capacitance
 Exercise - I
Capacitor and Capacitance, Parallel Plate 5. Capacitors are used in electrical circuits
Capacitor, Change in Capacitance by Change where appliances need rapid:

in Area Distance and Dielectric (1) Current (2) Voltage

(3) Power (4) Resistance
1. The capacitance C of a capacitor is:
(1) independent of the charge and 6. Which of the following is called
potential of the capacitor electrical energy tank?
(2) dependent on the charge and (1) Resistor (2) Inductance
independent of potential. (3) Capacitor (4) Motor
(3) independent of the geometrical
configuration of the capacitor. 7. The potential to which a conductor is
(4) independent of the dielectric raised, depends on:
medium between the two (1) the amount of charge
conducting surfaces of the (2) the geometry and size of the
capacitor. conductor
(3) both (1) and (2)
2. To increase the charge on the plate of a (4) none of these
capacitor implies to:
(1) decrease the potential difference 8. The capacity of parallel plate condenser
between the plates. depends on:
(2) decrease the capacitance of the (1) the type of metal used
capacitor. (2) the thickness of plates
(3) increase the capacitance of the (3) the potential difference applied
capacitor. across the plates
(4) increase the potential difference (4) the separation between the plates.
between the plates.
9. A parallel plate capacitor has
3. The net charge on the internal surface rectangular plates of 400 cm area and
2

of a plate of capacitor is: are separated by a distance of 2 mm

(1) 2q (2) q/2 with air as the medium. What charge will
(3) 0 (4) q appear on the plates if a 200 volt
potential difference is applied across
4. The earth has Volume 'V' and Surface the capacitor?
area 'A' then its capacitance would be: (1) 3.54 × 10 C
–6

A V –8
(1) 4π ∈0 (2) 4π ∈0 (2) 3.54 × 10 C
V A
–10
(3) 3.54 × 10 C
V A
(3) 12π ∈0 (4) 12π ∈0 –13
A V (4) 1770.8 × 10 C

Capacitance 31
10. There are two metallic plates of a Energy Stored in Charged Capacitor,
parallel plate capacitor. One plate is Energy Density Behaviour of Dielectric in
given a charge +q while the other is Capacitor
earthed as shown. Point P, P1 and P2 are
14. The two parallel plates of a condenser
taken as shown in adjoining figure. Then
have been connected to a battery of
the electric intensity is not zero at:
300 V and the charge collected at each
+ –
+ – plate is 1µC. The energy supplied by the
+ –
+ – battery is:
P2 + P –P –4 –4
+ – 1 (1) 6 × 10 J (2) 3 × 10 J
+ – –4 –4
+ – (3) 1.5× 10 J (4) 4.5 × 10 J
+ –
+ –
15. The charge q on a capacitor varies with
(1) P only (2) P1 only voltage as shown in figure. The area of
(3) P2 only (4) P, P1 and P2 the triangle AOB represents:
A
11. The distance between the plates of a V

circular parallel plate capacitor of

diameter 40mm, whose capacity is
O B
equal to that of a metallic sphere of q
radius 1 m will be: (1) electric field between the plates
(1) 0.01 mm (2) 0.1 mm (2) electric flux between the plates
(3) 1.0 mm (4) 10 mm (3) energy density
(4) energy stored by the capacitor
Spherical and Cylindrical Capacitor
16. An uncharged capacitor is connected to
12. A solid conducting sphere of radius R1 is
a battery. On charging the capacitor:
surrounded by another concentric
(1) all the energy supplied is stored in
hollow conducting sphere of radius R2.
the capacitor
The capacitance of this assembly is
(2) half the energy supplied is stored in
proportional to:
the capacitor
R2 – R1 R2 + R1
(1) (2) (3) the energy stored depends upon the
R1R2 R1R2
capacity of the capacitor only
R1R2 R1R2
(3) (4) (4) the energy stored depends upon the
R1 + R2 R2 – R1
time for which the capacitor is
charged
13. Two spherical conductors A and B of
radius 2m and 6m (b > a) are placed in 17. The energy density in a parallel plate
air concentrically. B is given a charge +Q capacitor is given as 2.1 × 10
–9
J/m . The
3

coulombs and A is grounded. The value of the electric field in the region
equivalent capacitance of the system is: between the plates is:
(1) 8π∈0 (2) 4π∈0 (1) 2.1 NC
–1
(2) 21.6 NC
–1

(3) 24π∈0 (4) 36π∈0 (3) 72 NC

–1
(4) 8.4 NC
–1

32 Capacitance
18. A glass slab is put within the plates of a 23. A parallel plate capacitor C has a charge
charged parallel plate condenser. Which q and potential V between the plates.
of the following quantities does not Work required to double the distance
between the plates is:
change?
1 1
(1) energy of the condenser (1) CV2 (2) CV2
2 4
(2) capacity 2
1 V 2
(3) intensity of electric field (3) C   (4) CV
2 2
(4) charge
24. Total energy stored in a 900µF capacitor
19. Can a metal be used as a medium for at 100 volts is transferred into a 100µF
capacitor (fully filled)? capacitor. The potential drop across the
(1) Yes new capacitor is (in volts):
(1) 900 (2) 200
(2) No
(3) 100 (4) 300
(3) Depends on its shape
(4) Depends on its dielectric 25. If the distance between plates of a
capacitor having capacity C & charge Q
20. Energy per unit volume for a capacitor is doubled then the work done will be:
having area A and separation d kept at 2
(1) Q /4C (2) Q /2C
2

potential difference V is given by: 2

(3) Q /C (4) 2Q /C
2

1 V2 1 V2
(1) ε (2)
2 0 d2 2ε0 d2 Combination of Capacitors & Combination
ε0 V 2 A 2 1 V2 A2 of Dielectric, Kirchhoff's Law
(3) (4)
2d
2
2 ε0d2
26. The combination of capacitors with
C1 = 3µF, C2 = 4µF and C3 = 2µF is charged
21. Mean electric energy density between by connecting AB to a battery. Consider
the plates of a charged capacitor is: the following statements:
Here q = charge on capacitor (I) Energy stored in C1 = Energy stored
A = Area of each plate of the capacitor in C2 + Energy stored in C3
2
(1) q / (2ε0A )
2
(2) q / (2ε0A )
2 (II) Charge on C1 = Charge on C2+ Charge
2 on C3
(3) q / (2ε0A) (4) None of these
(III) Potential drop across C1 = Potential
drop across C2 = Potential drop across C3
22. If potential difference across a capacitor
Which of these is/are correct?
is changed from 15V to 30V, work done C3
is W. The work done when potential
A B
difference is changed from 30V to 60V, C1

will be: C2

(1) W (2) 4 W (1) I and II (2) only II

(3) 3 W (4) 2 W (3) I and III (4) only III

Capacitance 33
27. Two capacitors with capacity C1 and C2, 31. A number of capacitors, each of
when connected in series, have a capacitance 1µF and each one of which
capacitance Cs and when connected in gets punctured if a potential difference
parallel have a capacitance Cp. Which of just exceeding 500 volt is applied, are

the following is true? provided. Then an arrangement suitable

C1C2 for giving a capacitor of capacitance 3µF
(1) Cs = C1 + C2 (2) Cp = across which 2000 volt may be applied
C1 + C2
requires at least:
Cs C1
(3) = (4) CsCp = C1C2 (1) 4 component capacitors
Cp C2
(2) 12 component capacitors
(3) 48 component capacitors
28. The equivalent capacitance between the
(4) 16 component capacitors
points A and B in the given diagram is:
2µF
A B 32. The value of equivalent capacitance of
the combination shown in figure,
2µF 2µF
2µF between the points P and Q is:
P
2C 2C
(1) 8 µF (2) 6 µF
2C C
8 3
(3) µF (4) µF C
3 8 C
Q

29. In an adjoining figure three capacitor C1, (1) 3C (2) 2C

C2 and C3 are joined to a battery. The (3) C (4) C/3

correct condition will be: (Symbols have

33. The equivalent capacitance between
their usual meanings)
V2 C2 Q2 points A and B of the circuit shown will be:
V1C1Q1
1µF 1µF
A B
1µF
V3 C3 Q3
2µF
V
+ –
2 5
(1) Q1 = Q2 = Q3 and V1 = V2 = V3 = V (1) µF (2) µF
3 3
(2) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 and V = V1 + V2 + V3
8 7
(3) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 and V = V1 + V2 (3) µF (4) µF
3 3
(4) Q2 = Q3 and V2 = V3
34. The effective capacitance between the
30. Two capacitor each having a capacitance points P and Q of the arrangement
C and breakdown voltage V are joined in shown in the figure is :
series. The effective capacitance and
2µF 2µF 1µF
maximum working voltage of the P Q

combination is: 2µF 5µF

C V 2µF 1µF
(1) 2C, 2V (2) ,
2 2
(1) (1/2) µF (2) 1µF
C
(3) 2C, V (4) ,2V (3) 2 µF (4) 1.33 µF
2

34 Capacitance
35. Two capacitance C1 and C2 in a circuit 39. The charge on each capacitors shown in
are joined as shown in figure. The figure and the potential difference
potential of point A is V1 and that of B is across them will be respectively:
C2
V2. The potential of point D will be:
C1 2µF
A D B
3µF C3
V1 C1 C2 V2
4µF
1 C2 V1 + C1V2
(1) (V1 + V2) (2)
2 C1 + C2 120V
C1V1 + C2 V2 C2 V1 + C1V2 (1) 240µC, 80µC, 160µC and 80V, 40V, 40V
(3) (4)
C1 + C2 C1 + C2
(2) 300µC, 75µC, 150µC and 40V, 80V, 60V
(3) 220µC, 70µC, 140µC and 60V, 50V, 40V
36. Two capacitances C1 and C2 are (4) None of these
connected in series; assume that C1 < C2.
The equivalent capacitance of this 40. Three capacitance 2µF, 3µF and 6µF are
arrangement is C, where: connected in series with a 10volt
(1) C < C1/2 battery, then charge on 3µF capacitor is:

(2) C1/2 < C <C1 (1) 5µC (2) 10µC

(3) C1 < C < C2 (3) 11µC (4) 15µC

(4) C2 < C < 2C2

41. A capacitor of capacity C1 charged upto
a voltage V and then connected to an
37. Capacitance C1 = 2C2 = 2C3 and potential
uncharged capacitor of capacity C2. Then
difference across C1, C2 and C3 are V1, V2
final potential across each will be:
and V3 respectively then:
C2 V C 1V
C2 (1) (2)
C1 C1 + C2 C1 + C2

 C   C 
C3 (3)  1 + 2  V (4)  1 + 1  V
 C1   C2 
 

V
42. A capacitor of 0.2 µF capacitance is
(1) V1= V2 = V3 (2) V1= 2V2 = 2V3
charged to 600 V. After removing the
(3) 2V1 = V2 = V3 (4) 2V1 = 2V2 = V3
battery, it is connected with a 1.0 µF
capacitor in parallel, then the potential
38. Three capacitors of capacitances 3 µF,
difference across each capacitor will
10 µF and 15 µF are connected in series
become:
to a voltage source of 100V. The charge
(1) 300 V
on 15 µF is:
(2) 600V
(1) 50 µC (2) 160 µC
(3) 100V
(3) 200 µC (4) 280 µC
(4) 120V

Capacitance 35
43. Seven capacitors each of capacitance 46. A network of four capacitors of capacity
2µF are connected so as to have a total equal to C1 = C, C2 = C, C3 = C and C4 = C
10 are connected to a battery as shown in
capacity of µF. Which will be the
11 the figure. The ratio of the charges on
combination shown? C2 and C4 is:

(1) H C2
C3 C1
C4
(2) V
HH

(3) 7 22
HHH (1) (2)
4 3
(4) 1 4
(3) (4)
3 7
44. An infinite number of identical capacitors
Sharing of Charge
each of capacitance 1µF are connected
as in the adjoining figure. Then the equivalent 47. A conducting sphere of radius 10cm is
capacitance between A and B is: charged with 10µC. Another uncharged
sphere of radius 20cm is allowed to
touch it for some time. After that, if the
8 capacitors spheres are separated, then surface
16 capacitors density of charge on the spheres will be
in the ratio of:
∞
A B (1) 1 : 4 (2) 1 : 3
(1) 1µF (2) 2µF (3) 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 1
1
(3) µF (4) ∞
2 48. A 3µF capacitor is charged to a potential
of 300V and 2µF capacitor is charged to
45. Two capacitors C1 = 2µF and C2 = 6µF in 200V. The capacitors are then
series, are connected in parallel to a third connected in parallel with plates of
capacitor C3 = 4µF. This arrangement is opposite polarities joined together. What
then connected to a battery of e.m.f. = 2V, amount of charge will flow, when the
as shown in the figure. How much energy plates are so connected:
is given by the battery in charging the (1) 1300 µC (2) 800 µC
capacitors? (3) 600 µC (4) 300 µC
C1 C2
49. Two capacitors of capacitances 3µF and
6µF are charged to a potential of 12V
C3 each. They are now connected to each
other with the positive plate of one joined
2V to the negative plate of the other. The
–6 –6
(1) 22 × 10 J (2) 11 × 10 J potential difference across each will be:
 32   16  (1) 3V (2) zero
(3)   × 10 J
–6
(4)   × 10–6 J
 3   3  (3) 6 V (4) 4 V

36 Capacitance
50. An uncharged capacitor having 53. Two metallic spheres of radii R1 and R2
capacitance C is connected across a are connected by a thin wire. If +q1 and +q2
battery of emf V. Now the capacitor is
are the charges on the two spheres then:
disconnected and then reconnected
q1 R21 q1 R1
across the same battery but with (1) = (2) =
q2 R2
2
q2 R2
reversed polarity. Then which of the
statements is incorrect?
(3)
q1
=
R31
(4)
q1
=
(R 2
1 )
– R22
(1) After reconnecting, charge delivered q2 R 3
2
q2 (R 2
1
+R ) 2
2
by the battery is 2CV.
(2) After reconnecting, no energy is
supplied by battery. 54. Two spheres have radii 10cm & 20cm. one
(3) After reconnecting, whole of the of the sphere is given 150µC charge and
energy supplied by the battery is other remains neutral and then connected
converted into heat. by a wire. Their common potential will be:
(4) After reconnecting, thermal energy 6 6
(1) 9 × 10 volts (2) 4.5 × 10 volts
produced in the circuit will be equal 6 9
2 (3) 1.8 × 10 volts (4) 1.35 × 10 volts
to 2CV .

51. Two spheres of radii 1cm and 2cm have 55. Two capacitors, 3µF and 4µF, are
been charged with 1.5 × 10
–8
and 0.3 × 10
–7
individually charged across a 6V battery.
coulombs of positive charge. When they After being disconnected from the
are connected with a wire, charge: battery, they are connected together
 KQ  with the negative plate of one connected
V = 
 R  to the positive plate of the other. What
(1) will flow from the first to the second is the final total energy stored?
(2) will flow from the second to the first –4 –4
(1) 1.26 × 10 J (2) 2.57 × 10 J
(3) will not flow at all
–6 –6
(4) may flow either from first to second, (3) 1.26 × 10 J (4) 2.57 × 10 J

or from the second to first, depending

upon the length of the connecting wire Insertion of Dielectric Slab

52. Two conducting spheres of radii R1 and 56. When a slab of dielectric medium is
R2 are charged with charges Q1 and Q2 placed between the plates of a parallel
respectively. On bringing them in plate capacitor which is connected with
contact there is: a battery, then the charge on plates in
(1) no change in the energy of the system
comparison with earlier charge :
(2) an increase in the energy of the
(1) is less
system if Q1R2 ≠ Q2R1
(2) is same
(3) always a decrease in the energy of
(3) is more
the system
(4) depends on the nature of the
(4) a decrease in the energy of the
system if Q1R2 ≠ Q2R1 material inserted

Capacitance 37
57. A parallel plate capacitor is connected 61. A parallel plate capacitor is charged with
to a battery and a dielectric slab is a battery and afterwards the battery is
inserted between the plates, then which removed. If now, with the help of
quantity increase: insulating handles, the distance
(1) potential difference between the plates is increased, then
(2) electric field (1) charge on capacitor increases and
(3) stored energy capacity decreases.
(4) E.M.F. of battery (2) potential difference between the
plates increases.
58. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by (3) capacity of capacitor increases.
a battery. After charging the capacitor, (4) value of energy stored in capacitor
battery is disconnected and a dielectric decreases.
plate is inserted between the plates.
Then which of the following statements 62. A parallel plate air capacitor has a
is not correct there is a/an? capacitance C. When it is half filled with
(1) increase in the stored energy dielectric of dielectric constant 5, the
(2) decrease in the potential difference percentage increases in the capacitance
(3) decrease in the electric field will be:
(4) increase in the capacitance

59. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by

a battery. After charging the capacitor,
battery is disconnected and distance d
between the plates is decreased then (1) 400 % (2) 66.6%
which of the following statement is (3) 33.3% (4) 200%
correct?
(1) electric field does not remain constant
63. Half of the space between a parallel plate
(2) potential difference is increased
capacitor is filled with a medium of
(3) the capacitance decreases
dielectric constant K parallel to the plates.
(4) the stored energy decreases
If initially the capacity was C, then the

60. A parallel plate capacitor is connected new capacity will be:

with a battery whose potential (1) 2KC/(1+K) (2) C (K+1)/2
difference remains constant. If the (3) CK/(1+K) (4) KC
plates of the capacitor are shifted apart
then the intensity of electric field : 64. An air capacitor of capacity C= 10µF is
(1) decreases and charge on plates also connected to a constant voltage battery
decreases. of 12V. Now the space between the
(2) remains constant but charge on plates is filled with a liquid of dielectric
plates decreases. constant 5. The additional charge that
(3) remains constant but charge on the flows now, from the battery to the
plates increases. capacitor is:
(4) increases but charge on the plates (1) 120 µC (2) 600 µC
decreases. (3) 480 µC (4) 24 µC

38 Capacitance
65. A charged parallel plate capacitor of 68. Two materials of dielectric constants k1
distance (d) has U0 energy. A slab of and k2 are introduced to fill the space
dielectric constant (K) and thickness (d) between the two parallel plates of a
is then introduced between the plates of capacitor as shown in figure. The
the capacitor. The new energy of the capacity of the capacitor is:
system is given by:
(1) KU0
2
k1 k2
(2) K U0
U0
(3)
K
A ∈0 (k 1 + k2 )
U0 (1)
(4) 2d
K2
2A ∈0  k 1k2 
(2)  
d  k 1 + k2 
d
66. A slab of copper of thickness is A ∈0  k 1k2 
2 (3)  
introduced between the plates of a d  k 1 + k2 
parallel plate capacitor where d is the A ∈0  k 1 + k2 
(4)  
separation between its two plates. If the 2d  k 1k2 
capacitance of the capacitor without the
copper slab is C and with copper slab is Paragraph For (Q.69 & 70)
C' Find out current in the circuit and
C' then is:
C
charge on capacitor which is initially
(1) 2 uncharged in the following situations.
(2) 2 2Ω
(3) 1
10V 3F
1
(4)
2

67. Two parallel plates of the same metal 69. Just after the switch is closed.
and same area are placed between the (1) 2A
plates of a parallel plate capacitor of (2) 0A
capacity C, If the thickness of each plate (3) 4A
1 (4) 5A
is equal to th of the distance between
5
the plates of the original capacitor then 70. After a long time when switch was

the capacity of the new capacitor is: closed.

(1) 2A
5 3
(1) C (2) C
3 5 (2) 0A
3 10 (3) 4A
(3) C (4) C
10 3 (4) 5A

Capacitance 39
 Exercise - II
1. Two sphere of radii R1 and R2 having 4. A parallel plate capacitor is made by
equal charges are joined together with a staking n equally spaced plates connected
copper wire. If V is the potential of each alternately. If the capacitance between
sphere after they are separated from any two adjacent plates is C then the
each other, then the initial charge on resultant capacitance is:
both spheres was: (1) (n + 1) C (2) (n – 1)C
V V (3) nC (4) C
(1) (R + R2
k 1
) (2) (
R + R2
2k 1
)
V V  R1R2  5. The work done in placing a charge of
(3) (
R + R2
3k 1
) (4) 
k  R1 + R2

 8 × 10
–18
coulomb on a conductor of
capacity 100 µF is
2. A combination of capacitors is set up as –32
(1) 16 × 10 J
shown in the figure. The magnitude of
–26
the electric field, due to a point charge (2) 3.1 × 10 J
–10
Q (having a charge equal to the sum of (3) 4 × 10 J
–32
the charge on the 4µF and 9µF (4) 32 × 10 J
capacitor), at a point distant 30 m from
it, would equal: 6. The equivalent capacitance of the circuit
3µF
across the terminals A and B is equal to-
4µF
9µF
2µF 2 / 3µF

2µF B A
2µF 2 / 3µF
+ –
8V
(1) 0.5 µF
(1) 240 N/C (2) 360 N/C
(2) 2 µF
(3) 420 N/C (4) 480 N/C
(3) 1 µF
(4) none of these
3. A parallel plate capacitor is made of two
circular plates separated by a distance
7. A capacitor of capacitance C is initially
of 5 mm and with a dielectric of
dielectric constant 2.2 between them. charged to a potential difference of V

When the electric field in the dielectric volts. Now, it is connected to a battery
4 of 2V emf with opposite polarity. The
is 3 × 10 V/m, the charge density of the
ratio of heat generated to the final
positive plate will be close to :
–7 2 energy stored in the capacitor will be :
(1) 6 × 10 C/m
–7 2
(1) 1.75
(2) 3 × 10 C/m
4 2
(2) 2.25
(3) 3 × 10 C/m
(3) 2.5
4 2
(4) 6 × 10 C/m
(4) 1/2

40 Capacitance
 Exercise - III
Read for (1 to 10) 4. Statement I : Two charges each of
The following question given below magnitude q are placed at points A and
consist of an "Statement I" (A) and B, between the two plates of parallel
"Statement II" (R) Type questions. Use plate capacitor as shown in the figure.
the following Key to choose the The force on the two charges due to
appropriate answer. field of capacitor is same.
(1) If both (A) and (R) are true, and (R) is + –
+ A –
q
the correct explanation of (A). + –
+ –
(2) If both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is + B –
+ q –
not the correct explanation of (A). + –
+ –
(3) If (A) is true but (R) is false. V

(4) If (A) is false but (R) is true. Statement II: The electric field inside the
parallel plate of an isolated capacitor is
uniform.
1. Statement I : The capacity of conductor,
under given circumstances remains
5. Statement I : When charges are shared
constant irrespective of the charge
between two bodies, there occurs no
present on it.
loss of charge, but there does occur a
Statement II : Capacity depends on size,
loss of energy.
shape of conductor and also on the
Statement II : In case of sharing of
medium between the plates.
charges energy conservation fails.

2. Statement I : Capacity of a parallel plate

6. Statement I : If charge on two capacitors
condenser increases on introducing a
are same, then they must be combined
conducting or insulating slab between
in series combination with a battery.
the plates.
Statement II : In a series combination of
Statement II : In both the cases, electric
capacitors, same charge flows through
field intensity between the plates
both capacitors. If they are initially
increases.
uncharged:

3. Statement I : When charges are shared

7. Statement I : When a dielectric slab is
between any two bodies, no charge is
gradually inserted between the plates of
really lost, but some energy loss does
an isolated parallel-plate capacitor, the
occur.
energy of the system decreases.
Statement II: Some energy disappears in
Statement II : The force between the
the form of heat, due to charge flow
plates in above case decreases.
sparking etc.

Capacitance 41
8. Statement I : A parallel plate capacitor 12. A parallel plate capacitor has plate area
remains connected across battery, if a A, separation between the plates is d
dielectric slab of dielectric constant k is and plates have surface charge density
introduced between the plates. The +σ and - σ. then Match the following :
energy stored becomes k times. Column I Column II
Statement II : The surface density of (A) σ /2ε0
2
(P) Field between
charge on the plate remain constant in
plates
the above case.
(B) σ/ε0 (Q) Potential
difference
9. Statement I : Presence of an uncharged
(C) σ2Α/2ε0 (R) Energy density
conductor B in the neighborhood of a
(D) σ d /ε0 (S) Force on plate
charged conductor A, decreases the
(1) A → P, B → R, C → Q, D → S
magnitude of potential of charged
(2) A → R, B → P, C → Q, D → S
conductor A.
(3) A → R, B → P, C → S, D → Q
Statement II : There will be some
Potential on uncharged conductor B due (4) A → R, B → S, C → Q, D → P

to the neighboring charged conductor A.

13. Three capacitors are connected to
10. Statement I : When two capacitors are source of 130 volts as shown in the
connected in series combination with a adjoining figure. If the potential of plates
battery, charge on both capacitors may are Va, Vb, Vc, Vd, Ve, Vf respectively (in
be unequal Volts) and wire between d and e is
Statement II : When two capacitors are earthed then
connected in series combination with a 2µF 3µF 4µF
battery, potential difference of both
ab cd ef
capacitors may be unequal.

11. Match the following:

Column I Column II 130 V
(A) σ /ε0
2
(P) C /J-m
2
Column I Column II
(B) ε0 (Q) Farad (A) Va - Vb (P) 30
ampere − second (B) Ve – Vf (Q) 60
(C) (R) J/m3
volt
(C) Vc (R) 40
V
(D) (S) metre (D) Va (S) 100
E
(1) A → P, B → R, C → Q, D → S (1) A → Q, B → P, C → R, D → S

(2) A → R, B → P, C → Q, D → S (2) A → R, B → P, C → Q, D → S
(3) A → Q, B → P, C → R, D → S (3) A → R, B → P, C → S, D → Q
(4) A → R, B → S, C → Q, D → P (4) A → R, B → S, C → Q, D → P

42 Capacitance
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. Two thin dielectric slabs of dielectric 3. A capacitor of 2µF is charged as shown in
constants K1 and K2 (K1 < K2) are inserted the diagram. When the switch S is turned

between the plates of a parallel plate to position 2, the percentage of its stored

capacitor, as shown in the figure. The energy dissipated is:

variation of electric field 'E' between the [NEET_2016]

plates with distance 'd' as measured from 1 2

plate P is correctly shown by: S

V
[AIPMT_2014] 2µF 8µF
P + –Q
+ –
+ –
+ – (1) 0% (2) 20%
+ –
+ – (3) 75% (4) 80%
+ –
+ –
+ –
+ –
K1 K2 4. A capacitor is charged by a battery. The
battery is removed and another identical

E
E uncharged capacitor is connected in
(1) (2)
parallel. The total electrostatic energy of
0 0
d d resulting system:
[NEET_2017]
E E (1) increases by a factor of 4
(3) (4)
(2) decreases by a factor of 2
0 0
d d
(3) remains the same
(4) increases by a factor of 2
2. A parallel plate air capacitor has capacity
‘C’ distance of separation between plates 5. The electrostatic force between the metal
is ‘d’ and potential difference ‘V’ is applied plates of an isolated parallel plate
between the plates. Force of attraction capacitor C having a charge Q and area A,
between the plates of the parallel plate air is
capacitor is: [NEET_2018]
[NEET_2015 Pre] (1) independent of the distance between
C2 V2 the plates
(1)
2d2 (2) linearly proportional to the distance
CV 2 2
between the plates
(2)
2d
(3) proportional to the square root of the
CV2 distance between the plates
(3)
2d
(4) inversely proportional to the distance
CV
(4) between the plates.
2d

Capacitance 43
6. Two identical capacitors C1 and C2 of equal 9. A capacitor of capacitance 'C', is
capacitance are connected as shown in the connected across an ac source of voltage
circuit terminals a and b of the key k are V, given by V = V0 sin ωt The displacement
connected to charge capacitor C1 using current between the plates of the
battery of emf V volt. Now disconnecting a capacitor, would then be given by:
and b the terminals b and c are connected. [NEET_2021]
Due to this, what will be the percentage
V0
loss of energy? [NEET_2019(Odisha)] (1) Id =ω
V0 C cos ωt (2) Id
= cos ωt
ωC
k
a c V0
(3) Id
= sin ωt (4) Id =V0 ωC sin ωt
ωC
b
V C2
C1 10. The equivalent capacitance of the
combination shown in the figure is:
(1) 75% (2) 0% [NEET_2021]
(3) 50% (4) 25% C

7. The capacitance of a parallel plate C

capacitor with air as medium is 6 µF. With
the introduction of a dielectric medium,
C
the capacitance becomes 30 µF. The
(1) 3C (2) 2C
permittivity of the medium is:
–12 2 –1 –2
(3) C/2 (4) 3C/2
(ε0 = 8.85×10 C N m ) [NEET_2020]
–10 2 –1 –2
(1) 0.44 × 10 C N m 11. A parallel plate capacitor has a uniform
2 –1 –2 
(2) 5.00 C N m electric field 'E' in the space between the
–13 2 –1 –2
(3) 0.44 × 10 C N m plates. If the distance between the plates
–12 2 –1 –2]
(4) 1.77 × 10 C N m is 'd' and the area of each plate is 'A', the
energy stored in the capacitor is:
8. A parallel plate capacitor having cross- ( ε0 = permittivity of free space)[NEET_2021]
sectional area A and separation d has air in 1
between the plates. Now an insulating slab (1) ε E2 (2) ε0EAd
2 0
of same area but thickness d/2 is inserted 1 E2 Ad
between the plates as shown in figure (3) ε0E2 Ad (4)
2 ε0
having dielectric constant (K = 4). The ratio
of new capacitance to its original
12. Polar molecules are the molecules:
capacitance will be, [NEET_2020(Covid)]
[NEET_2021]
d
(1) having zero dipole moment.
(2) acquire a dipole moment only in the
K presence of electric field due to
displacement of charges.
(3) acquire a dipole moment only when
d/2 magnetic field is absent.
(4) having a permanent electric dipole
(1) 2 : 1 (2) 8 : 5
moment.
(3) 6 : 5 (4) 4 : 1

44 Capacitance
13. A capacitor of capacitance C = 900 pF is 15. The effective capacitances of two
charged fully by 100 V battery B as shown capacitors are 3 µF and 16 µF, when they
in figure (a). Then it is disconnected from are connected in series and parallel
the battery and connected to another respectively. The capacitance of two
uncharged capacitor of capacitance capacitors are: [NEET_2022]
C= 900 pF as shown in figure (b). The (1) 10 µF, 6 µF (2) 8 µF, 8 µF
electrostatics energy stored by the system (3) 12 µF, 4 µF (4) 1.2 µF, 1.8 µF
(b) is [NEET_2022]
+ – + – 16. The equivalent capacitance of the system
+ – + –
+ – + – shown in the following circuit is:
+ – + –
C C [NEET_2023]
(a) (b)
3 µF
100 V + –
+ –
+ – + – 3 µF
B + –
C A B
–6
(1) 4.5 × 10 J
–6
(2) 3.25 × 10 J 3 µF
–6
(3) 2.25 × 10 J (1) 2 µF (2) 3 µF
–6
(4) 1.5 × 10 J (3) 6 µF (4) 9 µF

14. The distance between the two plates of a 17. The equivalent capacitance of the
parallel plate capacitor is doubled and the arrangement shown in figure is:
area of each plate is halved. If C is its initial [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
capacitance, its final capacitance is equal
to: [NEET_2022]
(1) 2 C
(2) C/2
(3) 4 C
(1) 3 µF (2) 15 µF
(4) C/4
(3) 25 µF (4) 20 µF

Capacitance 45
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 4 3 3 1 3 3 4 2 1 2 4 4 2 4 2 2 4 2 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 2 1 4 2 2 4 3 3 4 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 3 1 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 3 1 2 1 3 3 3 4 2 3 4 2 2 4 3 3 1 4 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ans. 2 4 1 3 3 2 1 1 4 2

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 2 3 1 2 4 3 2

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 1 3 1 1 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 3 1

Exercise - IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 3 3 4 2 1 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 3 4 3 1 4

46 Capacitance
 1 Moving Charge and Magnetism
1. Introduction
The branch of physics which deals with the magnetism due to electric current or
v
moving charge (i.e. electric current is equivalent to the charges or electrons in
motion is called electromagnetism.) If a charge q is placed at rest at a point P
i
near a metallic wire carrying a current i, it experiences almost no force. We
P q
conclude that there is no appreciable electric field at the point P. This is expected
because in any volume of wire (which contains several thousand atoms) there are equal
amounts of positive and negative charges. The wire is electrically neutral and does not produce
an electric field.
However, if the charge q is projected from the point P in the direction of the current or opposite
to it (figure), it is deflected towards the wire or away from the figure (q is assumed positive).
There must be a field at P which exerts a force on the charge when it is projected, but not when
it is kept at rest. This field is different from the electric field which always exerts a force on a
charged particle whether it is at rest or in motion. This new field is called magnetic field and is

denoted by the symbol B . The force exerted by a magnetic field is called magnetic force.

2. Electric field & Magnetic field

Let us discuss some basic facts about electric field & magnetic field.
(a) A magnet at rest produces a magnetic field around it while an electric charge at rest produce
an electric field around it.
(b) A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field and not an electric field around it. On the
other hand, a charge moving with a uniform velocity has an electric as well as a magnetic field
around it.
(c) All oscillating or an accelerated charge produces E.M. waves also in additions to electric and
magnetic fields.
(d) S.I. unit of electric field is N/C while that of magnetic field is Tesla (T) CGS unit of magnetic
field is Gauss
1 Gauss = 10–4 Tesla

3. Biot-Savart Law
3.1 Current element
A very small element AB of length d of a thin conductor carrying current I
is called current element.
Current element is a vector quantity whose magnitude is equal to the
product of current and length of small element having the direction of the

flow of current. current element AB = Id 

Moving Charge and Magnetism 1

3.2 Mathematical Representation of Biot-Savart Law
With the help of experimental results, Biot and Savart arrived at a
mathematical expression that gives the magnetic field at some point in space B P
d θ
in terms of the current that produces the field. That expression is based on A r

the following experimental observations for the magnetic field dB at a point I

P associated with a length element d  of a wire carrying a steady current I.
1
dB ∝ Id, dB ∝ sinθ and dB ∝
r2
Ιd sin θ Ιd sin θ
dB ∝ 2
-, dB = k
r r2
Ιd sin θ
In C.G.S & vacuum : k = 1 ⇒ dB = Gauss
r2
µ0 µ0 Ιd sin θ
In S.I. & vacuum : k = ⇒ dB = Tesla
4π 4π r2
where µ0 = Absolute permeability of air or vacuum.

–7 Wb Henry N
µ0 = 4π × 10 or or 2
A −m m A
T −m
or
A

3.3 Vector form of Biot-Savart law

 µ Ιd sin θ
dB = 0 ˆ
n
4π r2
 
n̂ = unit vector perpendicular to the plane of ( Ιd  ) and ( r )
 
 µ0 (Ιd  × r)  
dB = [ Ιd  × r = (Id) (r)sinθ]
4π r 3

3.4 Features of Biot Savart’s Law

i This law is analogous to Coulomb’s law.
ii This law is valid for infinitesimal conductors only.
dB = 0 Ιd dB = 0
• If θ = 0° or 180°, then dB = 0, Which means that there is no magnetic
θ = 180º θ = 0º
field on the axis of current element.
• If θ = 90°, then dB is maximum, which means perpendicular to the current element magnetic
field is maximum.

  
• Direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing r and Ιd  .

2 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 iii. For a moving charged particle if v << c (speed of light)
  q
Ιd  = qv (as I = )
t

so expression of B can be modified as

 µ0 (qv × r) µ qv sin θ
B= ∴ B= 0
4π r 3
4π r2

4. Magnetic Field Lines (Michael Faraday’s Conception)

In order to visualise a magnetic field graphically, Michael Faraday introduced the concept of
field lines.
Field lines of magnetic field are imaginary lines which represents direction of magnetic field
continuously.
Characteristics Non - uniform Field
• Magnetic field lines are closed curves.
• Tangent drawn at any point on field line represents
direction of the field at that point.
Magnitude is Direction is Both magnitude
• Field lines never intersects each other.
not constant not constant and direction are
• At any place, crowded lines represent stronger field
not constant
while distant lines represent weaker field. Uniform Field
• In any region, if field lines are equidistant and
straight then the field is uniform otherwise not.
• Magnetic field lines emanate from or enters in the Both magnitude
surface of a magnetic material at any angle. and direction are
constant

5. Right Hand Thumb Rule

This rule gives the pattern of magnetic field lines due to current carrying wire. It states that if
you imagine holding a current carrying in your right hand such that your thumb points in the
direction of current then, the direction in which your fingers curls, gives the direction of
magnetic field lines.

(i) Straight current

Thumb → In the direction of current
Curling fingers → Gives field line pattern
Case I : wire in the plane of the paper

Magnetic Ι Plane
field lines of paper

Moving Charge and Magnetism 3

 Case II : Wire is ⊥ to the plane of the paper.

Ι Ι

ACW concentric CW concentric

& circular field & circular field
lines lines

Right Hand Thumb Rule for circular current:

It state that if current flowing in a circular wire and the direction of current shows by a curls
fingers, then thumb points in the direction of magnetic field.

(ii) Circular current

Curling fingers → In the direction of current.
Thumb → Gives field line pattern
Case I : wire in the plane of the paper
ACW CW
Ι Ι

Towards observeer Away from the

or perpendicular observer or
out wards perpendicular
Case II : Wire is ⊥ to the plane of the paper
ACW CW
N S
S N
B B

Towards observer Away from the observer

Key Points
• When current is straight, field is circular
• When current is circular, field is straight (along axis near the centre)
• When wire is in the plane of paper, the field is perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
• When wire is perpendicular to the plane of paper, the field is in the plane of the paper.

Example 1:
A wire placed along north-south direction carries a current of 10 A from south to north. Find
the magnetic field due to a 1cm piece of wire at a point 200 cm north east from the piece.
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure. As the distance of P from the wire is much larger than the
length of the wire, we can treat the wire as a small element. The magnetic field is given by

 µ0 d × r µ d sin θ
dB = i 3 or dB = 0 i P
4π r 4π r2 N


–7 –1 (10−2 m) sin 45º d
r
= (10 T mA ) (10 A) 45º W E
(2m)2
–9
= 1.8 × 10 T S
 
The direction of d  × r. is vertically downwards.

4 Moving Charge and Magnetism

6. Application of Biot-Savart Law
6.1 Magnetic field due to a straight current carrying wire A

AB is a straight conductor carrying current I from B to A. At a point P, α1

dl
whose perpendicular distance from AB is OP =a, the direction of field
is perpendicular to the plane of paper, inwards (represented by a cross) l α φ1

 = a tan θ ⇒ d = a sec θdθ...(i)

2 θ
P
φ2
a
α=90°– θ & r = a sec θ
I
By Biot-Savart’s law due to a current element id at point P
 µ Id sin α α2
=dB 0
⊗
4π r2 B
due to wire AB
µ0 Id sin α µ0 I {a sec2 θ dθ} cos θ
⇒ B= ∫ dB =∫ 4π r2
⇒B=
4π ∫ (a sec θ)2
µ0 I
4π a ∫
⇒B = cos θdθ

Taking limits of integration as – φ2 to φ1

φ1
µ0 I µ0 I φ

4πa −φ∫
=B cos θdθ = sin θ  1
4πa  −φ2
2

µ0 I
= [sin φ1 + sin φ2] (inwards)
4πa
α1 = 90 - φ1 ⇒ φ1 = 90 – α1
α2 = 90 - φ2 ⇒ φ2 = 90 – α2
µ0I
∴B= (cos α1 + cos α2)
4πa
Some standard arrangements are discussed below
• Infinite wire
Here φ1 = φ2 = 90°
µ0 I Ι a P
So BP = ⊗
2πa

• Semi - Infinite wire

(a) Here φ1 = 90°, φ2 = 0

µ0I
BP= [sin90º + sin0º ] ⊗
4πa
µ0I
BP = [1 + 0]
4πa I
µ0I P
BP = ⊗ a
4πa

Moving Charge and Magnetism 5

 (b) Magnetic field due to semi ∞

infinite length wire at point 'P'

BP = [sinθ + sin90°] Ι

BP = [sinθ + 1] θ2 =90º
90º
M P
θ1 =θ
• Finite length
(a) Magnetic field due to special finite length wire at point 'P' L d
N

90º
θ2 =θº
M P
d
θ1 =0º

µ0 I µI
BP = [sin0° + sinθ] ⇒ BP = 0 sinθ
4πd 4πd
(b) If point ‘P’ lies outside the line of wire then magnetic field at point ‘P’ :
d
90 – α 2 P
α2 90 – α1

Ι α1

µ0 I µI
BP = sin ( 90 − α 1 ) − sin ( 90 − α2 )  = 0 (cos α 1 − cos α2 ) ⊗
4πd   4πd

Example 2:
Calculate the magnetic field at point ‘P’ due to the following
Ι
P a
 a
(a) (b) a Ι (c) Ι a
P P
a 60º
Solution:
 
(a) Here Id  & r are parallel to each other. So
  →
Id  × r = 0
Here Bp = 0
(b) Here r = a sin 60°, φ1 = φ2 = 30° a
30º
µ0 I aΙ 30º
P
BP = [sin 30° + sin 30°] ⊗ (into the plane) 60º a
4π a sin 60º
µ0 I
BP = ⊗
2 3πa

6 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Ι a 90º

30º P

(c)

Here r = a, φ1 = 90° φ2 = 30°

µ0 I
BP = [sin90° + sin30°] 
4πa
3 µ0 I
BP =  (out of the plane)
8 πa

Example 3:
Long straight wire carries a current of 50 amp. Find the magnetic field at a perpendicular
distance of 0.4 m from the wire.
Solution:
µ0 I
B=
2πa
4π × 10−7 × 50
=
2π × 0.4
–5
B = 2.5 × 10 T

Example 4:
Find an expression for the magnetic field induction at the centre of a coil bent in the form of a
square of side a, carrying current I.
Solution:
a
Ι 45º
45º

Magnetic field due to the

coil at the centre of the square is into the page and its magnitude is four times that produced
by any one side. Therefore,
µ0 I
B=4× (sin45° + sin 45°)
4πa / 2
2 2µ0 I
=
πa

Moving Charge and Magnetism 7

Example 5: D C

Figure shows a square loop made from a uniform wire. Find the magnetic i
field at the centre of the square of a battery is connected between points 2

A and C. i B
A i
2
Solution:
The current will be equally divided at A. The fields at the centre due to the currents in the wires
AB and DC will be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The resultant of these two
fields will be zero. Similarly, the resultant of the fields due to the wires AD and BC will be zero.
Hence, the net field at the centre will be zero.

Example 6:
Find out the magnetic field at origin.

(a,a)

Solution:
B due to segment along x-axis & y-axis will be zero at origin & due to remaining segments
will be directed into the plane while intercepting an angle of 45° each.
µ0 I µ0 I
So BO = 2 [sin45° + sin0°] ⊗ = ⊗
4πa 2 2πa

Example 7:
A pair of stationary and infinitely long bent wires are placed in the
I Q
x-y plane as shown in fig. The wires carry currents of 10 ampere each
R O S
as shown. The segments L and M are along the x-axis. The segments
L M
P and Q are parallel to the y-axis such that OS = OR = 0.02 m. Find P I
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic induction at the origin O.
Solution:
As point O is along the length of segments L and M so the field at O due to these segments will
  
be zero. Further, at point O, magnetic field will be B=O
BP + BQ

µ0 I ˆ µ I ˆ
= (k) + 0 (k) [as RO = SO = d]
4π d 4π d
 µ  2I  ˆ
so, BR = 0   (k)
4π  d 
Substituting the given data,
 2 × 10 ˆ –4 ˆ
BR = 10–7 × (k) = 10 (k)
0.02
–4
B = 10 T and in (+z) direction.

8 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Concept Builder-1

Q.1 Assuming standard directions. Find out the direction of magnetic field due to the current
element at the given point in the following conditions
(a) (b)

Q.2 Assuming standard directions. Find out the direction of magnetic field due to the current
element at the given point in the following conditions –
Ιd
P
(a) Ιd (b) P

Q.3 Calculate the magnetic field at point ‘P’ due to the following
P

a Ι
30º 2a
a
Ι a
(A) (B) P (C) Ι
P
3a a

Q.4 A closed circuit is in the form of a regular hexagon of side a. If the circuit carries a current I,
what is magnetic induction at the centre of the hexagon?

Q.5 Find out magnetic field at the center of geometry

C
Ι
a

6.2 Magnetic field due to circular current carrying coil

Let a coil of radius R, is carrying current I, then magnetic field on it’s axis at a distance x from
its centre is calculated as follows.
d C Y 
dB
Ι r
R
φ
x φ P
O φ X
φ
Ι

dB '
d D Y'

As per Biot-Savart’s law, at point P, the magnetic field due to the current element is

 µ0 Id  × r
dB = .
4π r3
µ Id sin θ µ0 Id sin90°
or dB = 0 =
4π r2 4π (R2 + x2 )

Moving Charge and Magnetism 9

 Now dB cos φ and dB’ cosφ act along PY and PY’ so being equal and opposite cancel each other.
 
∴ Baxis = ∫ dB sin φ as dB = dB' dBcosφ

R dB
Where sin φ =
R2 + x2
φ
µ0 IR
⇒ Baxis =
4π(R2 + x2 )3/2
∫ d P dB'sinφ
dBsinφ
µ0 2πR2 I φ
or Baxis =
4π (R2 + x2 )3/2
(since ∫ d = 2πR) 
dB '
If there are N turns in the coil
µ0NIR2 dB'cosφ
Baxis = 3/2
2 R2 + x2 

Special Cases
• If x >> R, then current carrying coil behaves like short bar magnet. This magnet would have
same magnetic field as that of ring on its axis as explained.
For x >> R, Baxis becomes

µ0 NI2πR2 µ 2NIA
Baxis = = 0. 3
4π x 3
4π x
2
Where area of each turn of coil A = πR This expression can be written as
µ0 2M
Baxis = .
4π x3
A current carrying circular coil behaves as a bar magnet whose magnetic moment is M = NIA
where
N = Number of turns in the coil
I = Current through the coil
A = Area of the coil
2
M = I × πR
2
It is a vector quantity having SI unit A-m . and its direction is given by right hand thumb rule.

M

Ι
For a given perimeter, the circular shape has maximum area and so maximum magnetic moment

• At centre x = 0
µ0 2πNI µ0NI
⇒ Bcentre = . = = Bmax
4π R 2R

10 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 The variation of magnetic field due to a circular coil as the distance x varies is shown in the
figure.
B
 μI
Bmax = 0
2R dB
= constant
A' A dx
(Point of inflection)

R x =0 R
x=– x=
2 2
• Field for circular arc
Let the arc lie in x-y plane with its centre at the origin.

Consider a small current element id  as shown.
The field due to this element at the centre is
y - axis
id i

R
dφ
φ R
θ

x - axis
O

µ0 id sin900 
dB = ( id  and R are perpendicular)
4π R2
Now d = Rdφ
µ0 iRdφ µ i
∴ dB = ⇒ dB = 0 dφ
4π R 2
4π R
The direction of field is outward perpendicular to plane of paper
Total magnetic field
B= ∫ dB
µ0 i θ µ0i θ µ0i
B= ∫
=
4π R 0
dφ
4πR
φ 
0
∴B=
4πR
θ

Alternately we can write

R
θ
O

θ µ Iθ
Barc = (Bcentre due to complete circle) = 0
2π 4πR

Example 8:
A piece of wire carrying a current of 6 A is bent in the form of a circular arc of radius 10.0 cm,
and it subtends an angle of 120° at the centre. Find the magnetic field due to this piece of wire
at the centre.

Moving Charge and Magnetism 11

 Solution:
Magnetic field at centre of arc
µ0 Ια 2π Ι
B= , α = 120° = rad
4πR 3
120º
µ0 Ι 2π µ0 Ι 4π × 10−7 × 6 × 100
B= × = = T = 12.57 µT⊗
4πR 3 6R 6 × 10

Example 9:
An electric current is flowing in a circular coil of radius a. At What distance from the centre on
th
the axis of the coil will the magnetic field be 1/8 of its value at the centre ?
Solution:
Magnetic field induction at a point on the axis at a distance x from the centre of the circular
coil carrying current and at its centre is
µ0NΙR2 µ0NΙ
Baxis = , Bcentre =
2
2(R + x ) 2 3/2
2R
and both are related as
Bcentre
Baxis = 3/2
 x2 
1+ 2 
 R 
1
As given in question Baxis = B
8 centre
1 Bcentre
So, Bcentre =
8  x2 
3/2

1+ 2 
 R 
3/2
 x2  2/3 x2
or 8 =  1 + 2  or (8) =4=1+
 R  R2
x= 3R

Example 10:
Figure shows a current loop having two circular arcs joined by two radial lines. Find the net
magnetic field Bnet at the centre O.
i
D C
A B
θ a
O b

Solution:
As the point O is on the line AD, the magnetic field at O due to AD is zero. Similarly, the field
µ0i
at O due to BC is also zero. The field at the centre of a circular current loop is given by B = .
2r
The field due to the circular arc BA will be
 θ µ i
B1 =    0  
 2π   2a 

12 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 The right hand thumb rule shows that the field is coming out of the plane of the wire DC.
 θ µ i
B2 =    0  ⊗
 2π   2b 
The field due to the circular arc DC is going into the plane of the figure. The resultant field at O is
µ0iθ(b − a)
Bnet = B1 – B2 =
4πab
coming out of the plane.

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 Find the magnetic field at the centre for a semicircular ring.

Q.2 A circular coil of 120 turns has a radius of 18 cm and carries a current of 3.0 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field (i) at the centre of the coil (ii) at a point on the axis of the coil
at a distance from the centre equal to the radius of the coil ?

Q.3 What is the magnetic field intensity at the centre in the given arrangement.

C R I
120º
I

Q.4 Calculate the field at the centre of a semi-circular wire of radius R in situations depicted in
figure (i), (ii) and (iii) if the straight wire is of infinite length.
Ι a Ι a
b Ι
R R
a c b R
O Ι
Ι O Ι O
Ι Ι
R c R c
(i) (ii) (iii)

Q.5 A conductor carrying a current i is bent as shown in figure. Find the magnitude of magnetic field
at the origin
y

2
i
1 i
3
x
O i
z

Q.6 For concentric and coplanar / non coplanar current carrying loops shown, find magnetic field
at common centre.
Ι2 Ι2
R2 R2
Ι1 Ι1 Ι2 R
(a) O R1 (b) O R1 (c)
Ι1

Moving Charge and Magnetism 13

 7. Ampere’s Circuital Law
Statement : The line integral of the magnetic field
around any closed path in free space or vacuum is equal to µ0 times of net current or total

current which is enclosed by closed path.

I4
I5 I3 ACW
x
Ι1 x Ι2 circuilation

ΣI (I1 – I2 + I3 )
= Positive
x Negative

 
Explanation : Mathematically ∫ B . d  = µ0 ΣΙ

This law is independent of size and shape of the closed path.

Any current outside the closed path is not included in the right-hand side of the equation
• This law is suitable for infinite long and symmetrical current distribution.
• Radius of cross section of thick cylindrical conductor and current density must be given to
apply this law.

Limitations :
It is not valid if time changing electric field is present in region where loop is located.

Example 11:
 
Evaluate the value of ∫ B·d  for the loop shown in the figure.

x 2A
1A

Solution:
From ampere’s law
 
∫ B·d  = µ0iencl = µ0(2 – 1) = µ0

8. Applications Of Ampere’s Circuital Law

8.1 Magnetic field due to infinite long thin current carrying straight conductor
Consider a circle of radius 'r'. Let XY be the small element of length d. are in the same direction

because direction of along the tangent of the circle. By Ampere’s Circuital Law (A.C.L.)
 
∫ B·d  = µ0 Σ Ι , ∫ Bd cosθ = µ0 Ι (where θ = 0°) Ι

∫ B d cos0° = µ0 Ι ⇒ B ∫ d = µ0 Ι r
O y
B

x
ACW d
µ0 Ι
(where ∫ d = 2πr ); B (2πr) = µ0Ι ⇒ B = 2πr
Ι

14 Moving Charge and Magnetism

8.2 Magnetic field due to current carrying infinite long solid cylindrical conductor

I
1 2 3
1 2 3 r
R

axis
Cross - sectional
view

• For a point inside the cylinder (r < R)

2
Current from area πR is = Ι

2 Ι Ι r2
so current from area πr is I'= ( πr 2 ) =
πR2 R2
By Ampere circuital law for circular path 1 of radius r
Ι r2 µ 0 Ιr
Bin (2πr) = µ0Ι' = µ0 ⇒ Bin=
R 2
2πR2
⇒ Bin ∝ r

• For a point on the axis of the cylinder (r = 0)

Baxis = 0
• For a point on the surface of cylinder (r = R)
By Ampere circuital law for circular path 2 of radius R
µ0 Ι
Bs (2 π R) = µ0Ι ⇒ Bs = (it is maximum)
2π R
• For a point outside the cylinder (r > R)
By Ampere circuital law for circular path 3 of radius r
µ0 Ι
Bout (2 π r) = µ0Ι ⇒ Bout =
2πr
1
⇒ Bout ∝
r
B

Bmax

B∝r 1
Bout ∝
r
r <R
r =0 r =R r >R

Magnetic field outside the cylindrical conductor does not depend upon nature (thick/thin or
solid/hollow) of the conductor as well as its radius of cross section.

Moving Charge and Magnetism 15

 Example 12:
A long straight solid conductor of radius 5 cm carries a current of 3A, which is uniformly
distributed over its circular cross-section. Find the magnetic field induction at a distance 4 cm
from the axis of the conductor. Relative permeability of the conductor = 1000.
Solution:
Imagine a circular path of radius r whose centre lies on the axis of solid conductor such that
the point P lies on it. The current threading this closed path
I 2 Ir2
I'= ×πr = Ι = 3A
πR2 R2
Magnetic field B acts tangential to the amperian circular path at P and is same
in magnitude at every point on circular path. r

P B
Using Ampere circuital law
  R = 5cm

∫ B.d  = µ0µrI'
Ι
 Ir2 
⇒ B (2πr) = µ0µr  2 
R 
µ0µr Ir
⇒B =
2πR2
4π × 10−7 × 1000 × 3 × 0.04 –3
∴B= = 9.6 × 10 T.
2π × ( 0.05 )
2

9. Solenoid & Toroid

9.1 Solenoid
It is a coil which has length and used to produce uniform magnetic field of long range. It consists
of a conducting wire which is tightly wound over a cylindrical frame in the form of helix. All the
adjacent turns are electrically insulated from each other. The magnetic field at a point on the
axis of a solenoid can be obtained by superposition of field due to large number of identical
circular turns having their centres on the axis of solenoid.

9.2 Magnetic Field due to a long solenoid

A solenoid is a tightly wound helical coil of wire. If
length of solenoid is large, as compared to its radius,
a
then in the central region of the solenoid, a reasonably A D

uniform magnetic field is present. Figure shows a part

of long solenoid with number of turns/length = n. We b

can find the field by using Ampere circuital law. B C

Consider a rectangular loop ABCD. For this loop

(Magnetic field lines)
 
∫ B.d = µ0ienc X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

ABCD

16 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Now
         
∫ B.d  ∫  +
= B.d ∫  +
B.d ∫  +
B.d ∫  =
B.d B×a
ABCD AB BC CD DA
     
This is because ∫ B.d
=  ∫ B.d
=  0, B ⊥ d .
AB CD
  
And, ∫ B.d = 0 ( B outside the solenoid is negligible
DA

Now, ienc = (n × a) × i
⇒ B × a = µ0 (n × a × i) ⇒ B = µ0ni [where i = current in the coil]

• Finite Length Solenoid

Its length and diameter are comparable. 

By the concept of BSL magnetic field at the axial

θ2 B
r
point 'P' obtained as : θ1 (uniform)
E P M E
µ0nI
BP = (cosθ1 – cosθ2)
2 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Angle θ1 and θ2 both measured in same sense from End -I End -II

the axis of the solenoid to end vectors.

• Infinite Length Solenoid

Its length very large as compared to its diameter i.e. ends of solenoid tends to infinity.
(a) Magnetic field at axial point which is well inside the solenoid θ1  0° and θ2  180°
µ0nI
⇒B  [cos 0° – cos 180°]
2
µ0nI
 [(1) – (–1)]
2
(b) Magnetic field at both axial end points of solenoid θ1 = 90° and θ2  180°
µ0nI
⇒B [cos 90° – cos 180°]
2
µ0nI µ0nI
 [(0) – (–1)] 
2 2

Example 13:
A straight solenoid of length 50 cm, having 100 turns carries a current of 2.5A. Find the magnetic field
(a) In the interior of the solenoid
(b) At one end of the solenoid
Solution:
100 –1
Here, I = 2.5 A, n = = 200 m
0.50
–7 –4
(a) B = µ0nI = 4π × 10 × 200 × 2.5 = 6.28 ×10 T
µ0nI 4π × 10−7 × 200 × 2.5 –4
(b) B = = = 3.14 × 10 T
2 2

Moving Charge and Magnetism 17

 Concept Builder-3
 
Q.1 Evaluate for the following loops ∫ B · d = ?
x 6A
x x 1A
(A) 3A
2A (B)
0.5A
3A 6A 1A

Q.2 A closely wound, solenoid 80 cm. long has 5 layers of winding of 400 turns each. The diameter
of the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current carried is 8.0A. Estimate the magnetic field
(a) Inside the solenoid
(b) Axial end points of the solenoid

Q.3 A straight long solenoid is produced magnetic field 'B' at its centre. If it cut into two equal parts
and same number of turns wound on one part in double layer. Find magnetic field produced by
new solenoid at its centre.

Q.4 B along the axis of a solenoid is given by

B B B B
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Q.5 A solenoid of length 0.4 m and diameter 0.6m consists of a single layer of 1000 turns of fine
–3
wire carrying a current of 5 × 10 ampere. Calculate the magnetic field on the axis at the middle
and at the end of the solenoid.

Example 14:
The length of solenoid is 0.1 m and its diameter is very small. A wire is wound over it in two
layers. The number of turns in inner layer is 50 and that of outer layer is 40. The strength of
current flowing in two layers in opposite direction is 3A. Then find magnetic induction at the
middle of the solenoid.
Solution:
Direction of magnetic field due to both layers is opposite, as direction of current is opposite so
Bnet = B1 – B2 = µ0n1I1 – µ0n2I2
N1 N2
= µ0 I – µ0 I ( I1 = I2 = I)
 
µ0 I 4π × 10–7 × 3
= (N1 – N2) = (50 – 40)
 0⋅1
–5
= 12π × 10 T

18 Moving Charge and Magnetism

Example 15:
Find out magnetic field at axial point ‘P’ of solenoid shown in figure
(where turn density ‘n’ and current through it is I)
Solution:
30º 60º
Magnetic field at point ‘P’ due to finite length solenoid
P
µ0nI
BP = [cos θ1 – cos θ2],
2
where θ1 = 30° (CW), end(1) end(2)
θ2
θ2 = (180°–60°) = 120° (CW) θ1 30º 60º
P
µ0nI
= [cos 30°–cos 120°]
2
µ0nI  3  1   µ0nI
=  −  −  = ( 3 + 1)
2  2  2  4

9.3 Toroid
A hollow circular ring on which many turns of a wire are closely
R
wound is known as a toroid.

For the ideal toroid

• The magnetic field in the open space inside (point P) and exterior
to the toroid (point Q) is zero.
• The field B inside toroid is constant in magnitude.
Let the magnetic field along loop 1 be BP in magnitude. However,
BQ = 0
the loop encloses no current, so I = 0. Thus, r2
x +
BP(2πr1) = µ0(0), BP = 0. +
+
BP = 0 r1
Thus, the magnetic field at point P is zero. Similarly, we can show x +
r x
that magnetic field at Q is likewise zero. As the current coming out S
of the plane of the paper is cancelled exactly by the current going
into it.
Once again we apply Ampere’s law for the loop S. The current enclosed is (for N turns of toroidal
coil) N I.
µ0NI
B(2πr) = µ0NI ⇒ B=
2πr
Let n be number of turns per unit length (circumference), then
N
n= ∴ B = µ0nI
2πr
Note : If the inner radius (rin) and outer radius (rout) are given, the mean radius r is
rin + rout
r=
2

Moving Charge and Magnetism 19

 Example 16:
A toroid has a core of inner radius 20 cm and outer radius 22 cm around which 4200 turns of a
wire are wound. If the current in the wire is 10 A, what is the magnetic field inside the core of
toroid.
Solution:
Here, Inner radius r1 = 20 cm
Outer radius, r2 = 22 cm
r1 + r2
∴ Mean radius of toroid, r = = 21cm = 0.21m
2
Total length of toroid = circumference of toroid
= 2πr = 2π × 0.21 = 0.42π m
∴ Total number of turns per unit length will be
4200 10000 −1
n= = m
0.42π π
Magnetic field induction inside the core of toroid
–7 10000
B = µ0nI = 4π × 10 × × 10 = 0.04T
π

10. Force on a Moving Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field

If a particle carrying a positive charge q and moving with velocity v enters a magnetic field B
then it experiences a force F which is given by the expression
  
F q(v × B)
= ; F = qvB sinθ
 
where v = velocity of the particle, B = magnetic field, θ is the angle between velocity and the
magnetic field.
 
Direction of force : The direction of force F is the direction of cross product of v and the
  
magnetic field B , which is perpendicular to the plane containing v and B .

10.1 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Direction of magnetic force is given by Fleming’s Left hand Force
Rule which states that if we stretch the thumb, index finger
& middle finger of our left hand mutually perpendicular to
each other such that index finger point in the direction of Magnetic Field
field and middle finger point in the direction of motion of
+ve charge (current) then, the direction in which our thumb Current
points gives the direction of force.

10.2 Right hand palm rule

Right hand palm rule states that if we stretch out right hand such that thumb and rest of the
finger are mutually perpendicular, and fingers show the direction of current then a
perpendicular on the palm wire show direction of force.

20 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Key Points
  
• The force F is always perpendicular to both the velocity v and the field B
• A charged particle at rest in a steady magnetic field does not experience any force.
    
If the charged particle is at rest, then v = 0 , so v × B =0
• A moving charged particle does not experience any force in a magnetic field if its motion is
parallel or antiparallel to the field.
 
F F

q = 0º  B
q v B
B
q O 90º 
v O θ  v
θ =180º q v q
F=0 F = qvBsinθ Fmax = qvB
(A) (B) (C)

 
• If the particle is moving perpendicular to the field. In this situation all the three vectors F , v

and B are mutually perpendicular to each other. Then sin θ = max = 1, i.e., θ = 90°,
The force will be maximum Fmax = q v B
• Work done by force due to magnetic field in motion of a charged particle is always zero.
When a charged particle move in a magnetic field, then force acts on it is always perpendicular
to displacement, so the work done,
 
W = ∫ F.ds = ∫ Fds cos90° = 0 (as θ = 90°),

 1 
And as by work-energy theorem W = ∆ KE, the kinetic energy  = mv 2  remains unchanged and
 2 
hence speed of charged particle v remains constant.
However, in this situation the force changes the direction of motion, so the direction of velocity

v of the charged particle changes continuously.
• Power supplied by the field is zero
 
P = Fm .v = 0

Example 17:
6 –1
A charge of 3µC moves with a speed of 6 × 10 m s along the positive x-axis. A magnetic field

B of strength (0.30 ˆj + 0.50 k̂ )T exists in space. Find the magnetic force acting on the charge.
Solution:
The force on the charge
 
= q (v × B)

= (3.0 × 10 ) [6.0 × 10 î × (0.30 ˆj + 0.50 k̂ )]

–6 6

= 3(1.8 î × ˆj + 3.0 î × k̂ )N = 3(1.8 k̂ – 3.0 ˆj )N

Moving Charge and Magnetism 21

 11. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
11.1 Particle enters parallel to the field
Motion of a charged particle when it is moving collinear with the field, motion is not affected
by the field (i.e. if motion is just along or opposite to magnetic field) ( F = 0)

Example 18:

A charge particle of charge 3C enters in a magnetic field of strength (8iˆ − 6ˆj) T with a velocity

of (−3ˆj + 4i)
ˆ . Discuss the path & motion of charge particle.

Solution:
 
The velocity of charge is antiparallel to the direction of magnetic field strength so v × B = 0 or
 
( )
F = q v × B = 0, so the particle will keep moving in a straight line path with constant

velocity.

11.2 Particle Enters perpendicular to the field

 
When the charged particle is moving perpendicular to the field. The angle between B and v is
θ = 90°. So, the force will be maximum (= qvB) and always perpendicular to motion (and also
field); Hence the charged particle will move along a circular path (with its plane perpendicular
to the field). Centripetal force is provided by the force qvB, So

v

F

90º 
q B

mv 2
= qvB
r
mv P 2mK 2mq∆V
⇒r= = = =
qB qB qB qB
where K = kinetic energy
∆V = applied potential
v qB
Angular frequency of circular motion ω = =
r m
2π m
Time period, T= = 2π
ω qB
i.e., time period (or frequency) is independent of speed of particle and radius of the orbit. Time
period depends only on the field B and the nature of the particle, i.e., specific charge (q/m) of
the particle.

22 Moving Charge and Magnetism

Example 19:
A neutron, a proton, an electron an α-particle enter a region of constant magnetic field with
equal velocities. The magnetic field is along the inwards normal to the plane of the paper. The
tracks of the particles are shown in fig. Relate the tracks to the particles.

x x x x
x x x x
A x x x x
x x x x

Solution:
Force on a charged particle in magnetic field
  
F = q (v × B)
For neutron q=0, F=0 hence it will pass undeflected i.e., tracks C corresponds to neutron.
If the particle is negatively charged, i.e. electron.
  
F = –e (v × B)
It will experience a force to the right; so track D corresponds to electron.
If the charge on particle is positive. It will experience a force to the left; so both tracks A and
B corresponds to positively charged particles (i.e., protons and α-particles). When motion of
charged particle perpendicular to the magnetic field the path is a circle with radius
mv m m  4m  m m m m
r= i.e. r ∝ and as   =   while   = ⇒   > 
qB q  q α  2e   q p e  q α  q p
So rα > rp track B for α-particle and track A for proton.

11.3 Particle Enters at an angle θ to the field (θ ≠ 0°, 90° or 180°)

The charged particle is moving at an angle θ to the field : (θ ≠ 0°, 90° or 180°). Resolving the
velocity of the particle along and perpendicular to the field. The particle moves with constant
velocity v cos θ along the field ( no force acts on a charged particle when it moves parallel to
the field).
And at the same time it is also moving with velocity v sinθ perpendicular to the field due to
which it will describe a circle (in a plane perpendicular to the field)
m(v sin θ)
Radius of the circular path r = and Time period
qB vsinθ Helical path
v
2πr 2πm
T= =  r
v sin θ qB θ B
vcosθ
So the resultant path will be a helix with its

axis parallel to the field B as shown in fig. p
The pitch p of the helix = linear distance travelled in one
2πm
rotation p = T (vcosθ) = (v cos θ)
qB

Moving Charge and Magnetism 23

 Example 20:
An electron emitted by a heated cathode and accelerated through a potential difference of 2.0
kV enters a region with uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T. Determine the radius of the trajectory
of the electron if the field is – (a) Transverse to its initial velocity (b) Makes an angle of 30°
–31
with the initial velocity [Given : me = 9 × 10 kg]
Solution:
1 2
mv = eV
2
2eV
⇒v=
m

2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 2 × 103 8 7

= = × 10 m/s
9 × 10−31 3

mv 9 × 10−31 × ( 8 3 ) × 107
(a) Radius r1 = =
qB 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.15
–3
= 10 m = 1mm
mv sin θ
(b) Radius r2 = = r1sinθ =1 × sin30°
qB
1
=1× = 0.5 mm
2

Example 21:
5
A beam of protons is moving with velocity 4 × 10 m/s enters a uniform magnetic field of 0.3
tesla at an angle of 60° to the magnetic field. Find the radius of the helical path taken by the
–27
proton beam. Also find the pitch of helix. Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10 kg.
Solution:
mv sin θ
Radius of helix r =
qB
(∴component of velocity ⊥ to field is vsinθ)
3 vsinθ 
(1.67 × 10−27 )(4 × 105 ) v
= 2 = 2 2 × 10–2m  r
(1.6 × 10 −19
)0.3 θ B
3
vcosθ
= 1.7 cm
p
2πr
Again, pitch p = vcosθ × T (where T= )
v sin θ
v cos θ × 2πr
∴ p=
v sin θ
cos 60° × 2π × (1.2 × 10−2 )
=
sin60°
2
= 4.35× 10 m = 4.35cm

24 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Concept Builder-4
6 –1
Q.1 A charge of 2.0 µC moves with a speed of 2.0 × 10 m s along the positive x-axis. A magnetic
  
field B of strength (0.20 j +0.40 k )T exists in space. Find the magnetic force acting on the
charge.

Q.2 If a positive charge enters parallel to the magnetic field then which of the following are true.
(1) Particle will move in straight line path
(2) No force will act on the particle
(3) The particle may reverse it’s direction of motion
(4) All of the above

Q.3 An electron accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V enters a uniform magnetic field
of 0.004 T perpendicular to its direction of motion. Calculate the radius of the path described
by the electron.

–27 –19 6
Q.4 A proton of mass 1.67 × 10 kg and charge 1.6 × 10 C is projected with a speed of 2 × 10
m/s at an angle of 60° to the x-axis, If a uniform magnetic field of 0.104 T is applied along the
y axis, the path of the proton is :
–7
(1) a circle of radius 0.2 m and time period π × 10 s
–7
(2) a circle of radius 0.1 m and time period 2π × 10 s
–7
(3) a helix of radius 0.1 m and time period 2π × 10 s
–7
(4) a helix of radius 0.2 m and time period 4π × 10 s

2 7
Q.5 A proton enters a magnetic field of intensity 1.5 Wb/m with a velocity 2 × 10 m/s in a direction
at an angle 30° with the field. The force on the proton will be:
–19
(Charge on proton is 1.6 × 10 C.)
–12 –12 –12 –12
(1) 2.4 × 10 N (2) 4.8 × 10 N (3) 1.2 × 10 N (4) 7.2 × 10 N

12. Lorentz Force


Let a moving charged particle is subjected simultaneously to both electric field E and magnetic

field B .
 
The moving charged particle will experience electric force Fe = qE and magnetic force
 → →
Fm =q (v× B) .
Net force on the charge particle is "Lorentz-force"
   
F= q(E + v × B)
  
Depending on the direction of v,E and B , various situation are possible and the motion in
general is quite complex.

Moving Charge and Magnetism 25

 12.1 Motion of a charge Particle in combined electric field & Magnetic field
  
Case I : v , E and B all the three are collinear
As the particle is moving parallel or antiparallel to the field.
E
The magnetic force on it will be zero and only electric force will act  
  v v'
 F qE q q
So, acceleration of the particle = a =
m m B
Hence, the particle will pass through the field following a straight line
path (parallel to the field) with change in its speed.
In this situation speed, velocity, momentum and kinetic energy all will change without change
in direction of motion as shown in figure above.
  
Case II : v , E and B are mutually perpendicular: E
If in this situation direction and magnitude of  Fe q

  q v v
E and B are such that
 Fm
    F 
Resultant force F =Fe + Fm = 0 ⇒ = a = 0 B
m
Then as shown in fig., the particle will pass through the field with
same velocity
E
 Fe=Fm i.e. qE= qvB ⇒ v =
B

Example 22:
A beam of protons is deflected sideways. Could this deflection be caused by
(i) a magnetic field
(ii) an electric field? If either possible, what would be the difference?
Solution:
Yes, the moving charged particle (e.g. proton, α-particles etc.) may be deflected sideway either
by an electric or by a magnetic field.
(i) The force exerted by a magnetic field on the moving charged particle is always perpendicular
to direction of motion, so that no work is done on the particle by this magnetic force. That is
the magnetic field simply deflects the particle and does not increase its kinetic energy.
(ii) The force exerted by electric field on the charged particle at rest or in motion is always
along the direction of field and the kinetic energy of the particle changes.

13. Current Carrying Wire in a Magnetic Field

When a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field, a magnetic force exerts on each
free electron which are present inside the conductor. The resultant of these forces on all the
free electrons is called magnetic force on conductor.
• Magnetic force on current element

Through experiments Ampere established that when current element I d  is placed in magnetic
 →  
field B , it experiences a magnetic force dFm =Ι (d  × B)


Ιd
 θ(Cw) 
dFm x B
(external)

26 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 • Current element in a magnetic field does not experience any force if the current in it is parallel
or anti–parallel with the field θ = 0° or 180°
dFm = 0 (min.)
• Current element in a magnetic field experiences maximum force if the current in it is
perpendicular with the field θ = 90°,
dFm = BId (max.)
• Magnetic force on current element is always perpendicular to the current element vector and
magnetic field vector.
→ 
dFm ⊥ I d  and
→ 
dFm ⊥ B (always)
• Total magnetic force on straight current carrying conductor in uniform magnetic field given as
f   f  
∫i m  ∫i d   × B
dF = I Ιd
  i f
   L N
Fm = I(L × B) L
 f →
Where L = ∫i d , vector sum of all length elements from initial to final point, which is in

accordance with the law of vector addition and | L | = length of the conductor.

• Total magnetic force on arbitrary shape current carrying conductor in uniform magnetic field B is
f   f     
∫ dF m
= Ι  ∫ d   × B , Fm =Ι(L × B) (L = ab)
i  i 
I

Initial  Final
point a L
b point
 f 
Where L = ∫i d  , vector sum of all length elements from initial to final point or displacement
between free ends of an arbitrary conductor from initial to final point.

Key Points

• A current carrying closed loop (or coil) of any shape placed in uniform magnetic field then no
net magnetic force act on it (Torque may or may not be zero)

i=f
 f 
→
L = ∫ d  = 0 or
i ∫ d =0

So net magnetic force acting on a current carrying closed loop Fm = 0. (always)
• When a current carrying closed loop (or coil) of any shape placed in non-uniform magnetic field
then net magnetic force on it is always nonzero whereas torque may or may not be zero

Moving Charge and Magnetism 27

 Example 23:
A horizontal wire 0.2 m long carries a current of 4A. Find the magnitude and direction of the
–3
magnetic field, which can balance the weight of the wire. Given, the mass of the wire is 3 × 10 kg/m.
Solution:
–3
Here mass of wire, m = (3 × 10 ) × 0.2 kg; I = 4A; B =?;  = 0.2 m
Force on the wire carrying current due to magnetic field applied
F = IB
Weight of wire = mg
In equilibrium position, F = IB = mg
mg (3 × 10−3 × 0.2) × 9.8 –3
or B = = = 7.35 × 10 T
I 4 × 0.2
The weight of wire can be balanced by force F. If F is acting vertically

upwards (i.e. opposite to the weight of wire). It will be so is the direction of B is horizontal and
perpendicular to wire carrying current.

Example 24:
A current loop of arbitrary shape lies in a uniform magnetic field B. The net magnetic force
acting on the loop is ?
Solution:
F1 = Force on AD = iB (−ˆj)

F2 = Force on BC = iB (+ˆj) x 

A D
They cancel each other xB
F3 = Force on CD = iB (−ˆi) 
x

F4 = Force on AB = iB (+ˆi) x
B C
They also cancel each other  x
So the net force on the body is 0.

Concept Builder-5

Q.1 The magnetic flux density applied in a cyclotron is 3.5 T. What will be the frequency of electric
field that must be applied between the dies in order (a) to accelerate proton (b) α-particles ?
–27
mass of proton 1.67 × 10 kg.

Q.2 A wire bent as shown in fig carries a current i and is placed in a uniform field of magnetic

induction B that emerges from the plane of the figure. Calculate the force acting on the wire.

R R
R
i O i

Q.3 A wire is bent in the form of an equilateral triangle PQR of side 10 cm and carries a current of
5.0 A. It is placed in a magnetic field B of magnitude 2.0 T directed perpendicularly to the plane
of the loop. Find the forces on the three sides of the triangle.

28 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 
Q.4 A semicircular wire carrying current i is placed in a uniform magnetic field B as shown in figure.

Here the semicircular wire and B are in the plane of paper. Force acting on the wire is :

i 
B
i
y O y
r

iπrB iπrB
(1) iπrB (2) (3) (4) Zero
2 4

Q.5 A wire carrying current ‘i’ is bent as shown in figure and placed in the plane of paper in a uniform

magnetic field B . Force experienced by the wire can be expressed as :

B
i
O r y
90º
i

(1) irB (2) i2rB (3) ir 2B (4) Zero

14. Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors

Like current Unlike current
1 2 1 2

Ι1 Ι1 Repulsion Ι 2
Attraction Ι 2

x x x
dF12 dF21 dF12 dF21
d d

The net magnetic force acting on a current carrying conductor due to its own field is zero. So,
consider two infinite long parallel conductors separated by distance 'd' carrying currents I1 and I2.
µ0 Ι 1
Magnetic field at each point on conductor (ii) due to current I1 is B1 = [uniform field for
2πd
conductor (2)]
µ0 Ι 2
Magnetic field at each point on conductor (i) due to current I2 is B2 = [Uniform field for
2πd
conductor (1)] consider a small element of length 'd' on each conductor. These elements are
right angle to the external magnetic field, so magnetic force experienced by elements of each
conductor given as
µ0I1I2
dF12 = B2 I1 d = d ...(i)
2πd
µ0I1I2
dF21 = B1 I2 d = d ... (ii)
2πd

Moving Charge and Magnetism 29

 Where dF12 is magnetic force on element of conductor (i), due to field of conductor (ii) and dF21
is magnetic force on element of conductor (ii), due to field of conductor (i).
dF12 dF21 µ0 Ι 1 Ι 2
Magnetic force per unit length of each conductor is = =
d d 2πd

µ0 Ι 1 Ι 2 F
f= N/m (in S.I.) f=
2πd 
2Ι 1Ι2
f= dyne/cm (In C.G.S.)
d
µ0 Ι 1 Ι 2 ∞
• Force f = is applicable when at least one conductor must be of L
2πd
infinite length, so it behaves like source of uniform magnetic field for
other conductor. Ι1 Ι2 

µ Ι Ι 
Magnetic force on conductor 'LN' is FLN = f ×  ⇒ FLN =  0 1 2   d
 2πd  (source) N

15. Magnetic Dipole & Magnetic Dipole Moment

A magnetic dipole consists of a pair of magnetic poles of equal and opposite strength separated
by small distance. A current carrying coil is also a magnetic dipole as we will see in the following
section.

15.1 Magnetic dipole moment of current carrying coil (loop)

Current carrying coil (or loop) behaves like magnetic dipole. The face of coil in which current
appears to flow anticlockwise acts as north pole while face of coil in which current appears to
flow clockwise acts as south pole.

• A loop of geometrical area ‘A’ carries a current 'I' then the magnetic moment of coil M = I A .
• A coil of turns 'N', geometrical area 'A', carries a current 'I' then magnetic moment M = N I A.
 
Magnetic moment of current carrying coil is an axial vector M = NIA ACW CW

where A is a area vector perpendicular to the plane of the coil  
M xM
and along its axis.
2
SI unit : A-m or J/T  . ......
 M i ............
.
Direction of M is determined by right hand thumb rule
• Curling fingers ⇒ In the direction of current

• Thumb ⇒ Gives the direction of M
For a current carrying coil, its magnetic moment and magnetic field
vectors both are parallel axial vectors.

30 Moving Charge and Magnetism

Example 25:
Find the magnitude of magnetic moment of the current carrying loop ABCDEFA. Each side of
the loop is 10 cm long and current in the loop is i = 2.0 A
C D

B E

A F

Solution:
By assuming two equal and opposite currents in BE, two current carrying loops (ABEFA and
BCDEB) are formed. Their magnetic moments are equal in magnitude but perpendicular to each
other.
C D

B E

F
A

Hence, Mnet = M2 + M2 = 2M
2 2 2
where M = iA = (2.0)(0.1)(0.1) = 0.02 A-m ⇒ Mnet = ( 2 )(0.02) A-m = 0.028 A-m

15.2 Current carrying loop in a magnetic field

(A) Torque
     
τ= M × B =τ NI ( A × B)

M
Ι CW

θ
O 
B(uniform)

Plane of coil

θ =90º ⇒ τ =BINA (max imum)

=τ BINA sin θ
θ =0º or180º ⇒ τ =0(minimum)

Key Points

• Torque on dipole is an axial vector and it is directed along axis of rotation of dipole.
 
• Tendency of torque on dipole is try to align the M in the direction of B or tries to makes the
 
axis of dipole parallel to B or makes the plane of coil (or loop) perpendicular to B .
Fnet = 0 (no translatory motion)
• Dipole in uniform
magnetic field
τ may or may not be zero
(decides by θ)

Moving Charge and Magnetism 31

 Fnet ≠ 0 (no translatory motion)
• Dipole in non uniform
magnetic field
τ may or may not be zero
(decides by θ)

• When a current carrying coil (or loop) is placed in longitudinal magnetic field then maximum
 
torque acts on it. θ = 90° (M ⊥ B)
⇒ τmax = MB = BINA

• When a current carrying coil (or loop) is placed in transverse magnetic field then no torque acts

( )
→   
on it. θ = 0° M B or θ = 180° (M anti B) ⇒ τmin = 0

(B) Work done in rotating a Magnetic Dipole:

Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniform magnetic field through small angle 'dθ'
dW = τ.dθ = MBsinθdθ
So work done in rotating a dipole from angular position θ1 to θ2 with respect to the Magnetic

field direction
θ2 θ2
W= ∫ dW = ∫ MB sin θdθ =MB(cosθ1 – cosθ2)
θ1 θ1

• If magnetic dipole is rotated from field direction i.e. θ1 = 0° to position θ2=θ then work done is
2
Wθ = MB (1 – cosθ) = 2MB sin θ/2
in one rotation θ = 0° or 360°⇒ W = 0
in 1/4 rotation θ = 90° ⇒ W = MB
in half rotation θ = 180° ⇒ W = 2MB
in 3/4 rotation θ = 270°⇒ W = MB
• Work done to rotate a dipole in a magnetic field is stored in the form of potential energy of
magnetic dipole.

(C) Potential Energy:

Since the above results of torque and work done are analogous to that for an electric dipole in
uniform electric field, it is convenient to define potential energy as the work done in rotating a
magnetic dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to the given direction.
 
U = –MB cos θ or U = −M.B

Potential
Angle Energy Torque Equilibirum
=U –MBcos θ =τ MB sin θ
θ =0º –MB(min) 0 stable
θ 90º 0 MB(max) −
θ =180º MB(max) 0 unstabe

32 Moving Charge and Magnetism

Example 26:
A circular coil of 100 turns and having a radius of 0.05 m carries a current of 0.1 A. Calculate
the work required to turn the coil in an external field of 1.5 T through 180° about an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field? The plane of coil is initially at right angles to magnetic field.
Solution:
Work done W = MB (cos θ1–cos θ2) =NΙAB (cos θ1 – cos θ2)
2 2
W = NΙπr B (cos θ1– cos θ2) = 100×0.1×3.14× (0.05) × 1.5 (cos 0°–cos π) = 0.2355J

16. Atomic Magnetism

An atomic orbital electron, which is doing bounded uniform circular motion around nucleus. A
current constitutes with this orbital motion and hence orbit behaves like current carrying loop.
Due to this magnetism produces at nucleus position. This phenomenon called as 'atomic magnetism.
Bohr's postulates :
mv 2 kze2
(i) = 2
r r
 h  v
(ii) L = mvr = n   ,
 2π  ACW
where n = 1, 2,3 ....... + Ze
r +
Basic elements of atomic magnetism : e–
Fe
e ev eω Ι (Current)
(a) Orbital current :- =
I ef= = =
T 2πr 2π
(b) Magnetic induction at nucleus position:
As circular orbit behaves like current carrying loop, so magnetic induction at nucleus position
µ0 Ι
BN =
2r
µ0ef µ0e µ0ev µ0eω
BN
= = = =
2r 2Tr 4πr2 4πr
(c) Magnetic moment of circular orbit :- Magnetic dipole moment of circular orbit
M = IA where A is area of circular orbit.
2 πer2 evr eωr2
M = ef (πr ) = = =
T 2 2

• Relation between magnetic moment and angular momentum of orbital electron

evr m eL
Magnetic moment M = × = ( angular momentum L = mvr)
2 m 2m

 −eL
Vector form M =
2m
 
For orbital electron its M and L both are antiparallel axial vectors.

L
Ι (Current)
r

e– v

M

Moving Charge and Magnetism 33

 Bohr Magneton (µB)
According of Bohr's theory, angular momentum of orbital electron is given by
nh
L= , where n = 1, 2, 3 ........ and h is plank's constant.
2π
eL eh
Magnetic moment of orbital electron is given by M = = n
2m 4πm
eh
• If n = 1 then M = , which is Bohr magneton denoted by µB
4πm
• Definition of µB :
Bohr magneton can be defined as the magnetic moment of orbital electron which revolves in
first orbit of an atom.
eh 1.6 × 10−19 × 6.6 × 10−34
• µB = =
4πm 4 × 3.14 × 9.1 × 10−31
–23 2
= 0.923 × 10 Am
• Basic elements of atomic magnetism for first orbit of H-atom (n = 1, z = 1)
6
v = 2.18 × 10 m/sec,
15
f = 6.6 × 10 cy/sec. r = 0.529Å
• Orbital current I = 0.96 mA
• Magnetic induction at nucleus position
BN = 12.8 T
• Magnetic moment of orbital electron
–23 2 2
M = 0.923 × 10 Am = µBAm

17. Rotation of Charged Conducting Body

In this case the ratio of magnetic moment and angular momentum is constant which is equal
q M
to here q = charge and m = the mass of the body. known as gyrometric ratio.
2m L
Example
In case of a ring, of mass m, radius R and charge q distributed on it circumference.
Angular momentum
2
L = Iω = (mR )(ω) ... (i)
2
Magnetic moment M = iA = (qf) (πR )
 ω 2 ωR2
M = (q)   (πR ) = q ...(ii)
 2π  2
ω M q
 f= From Eqs. (i) and (ii) =
2π L 2m

++ + + +q
++ +
+ +
+ +
+ R +
+ +
+ +
++ +
+ ++ + + + ω

34 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Although this expression is derived for simple case of a ring, it holds good for other bodies also.
qL q(Iω)
For example, for a disc or a sphere. M= ⇒M= , where L = I ω
2m 2m
Rigid body Ring Disc Solid sphere Spherical Shell
2
Moment of inertia (I) mR mR2 2 2 2 2
mR mR
2 5 3
qIω qωR2 qωR2 qωR2 qωR2
Magnetic moment =
2m 2 4 5 3

Concept Builder-6

Q.1 In figure, AB and CD are long current carrying wires placed as shown. Wire AB is fixed while CD
is free to move then
A
i2
i1
C D
B
(1) wire CD has translational motion and rotational motion in the anticlockwise sense.
(2) wire CD has translational motion and rotational motion in the clockwise sense.
(3) wire CD has rotational motion in the clockwise sense.
(4) wire CD has rotational motion in the anti-clockwise sense.

Q.2 The wire loop PQRSP formed by joining two semicircular wires of radii R1 and R2 carries a current
I as shown in fig. What is the magnetic induction at the centre O and magnetic moment of the
loop in cases (A) and (B) ?
(A) (B)

R2 Ι
R2

R1 OO
S R O Q P S R R1 Ι Q P

Q.3 When a current loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field :

   
(i) FR = 0 and τ = 0 (ii) FR = 0 and τ ≠ 0
   
(iii) FR ≠ 0 and τ = 0 (iv) FR ≠ 0 and τ ≠ 0
(1) i, ii (2) i, iii (3) i, iv (4) iii, iv

Q.4 When a current loop is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field :

   
(i) FR = 0 and τ = 0 (ii) FR = 0 and τ ≠ 0
   
(iii) FR ≠ 0 and τ = 0 (iv) FR ≠ 0 and τ ≠ 0
(1) ii, iv (2) i, iii (3) i, iv (4) iii, iv

Moving Charge and Magnetism 35

 Q.5 When a current-carrying coil is situated in a uniform magnetic field with its magnetic moment
antiparallel to the field :
(i) torque on it is maximum
(ii) torque on it is minimum
(iii) potential energy of the loop is maximum
(iv) potential energy of the loop is minimum
(1) (i, iv) (2) (ii, iii) (3) (i, ii) (4) (ii, iv)

Q.6 Consider a nonconducting plate of radius r and mass m which has a charge q distributed
uniformly over it. The plate is rotated about its axis with an angular speed. Find magnetic
moment µ.

Q.7 Consider a solid sphere of radius r and mass m which has a charge q distributed uniformly over
its volume. The sphere is rotated about a diameter with an angular speed ω. Find the magnetic
moment.

18. Moving Coil Galvanometer

A galvanometer is used to detect the current and has moderate resistance.

Coil

N S

Spiral Spring

• Principle. When a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque
given by = NiAB sinθ, where θ is the angle between normal to plane of coil and direction of
magnetic field. In actual arrangement the coil is suspended between the cylindrical pole pieces
of a strong magnet. The cylindrical pole pieces give the field radial such that sin θ=1 (always).
So torque τ = NiAB.
If C is torsional rigidity (i.e., restoring couple per unit twist of the suspension wire), then for
deflection of coil τ = Cθ.
In equilibrium we have external couple = Restoring couple.
NAB
i.e. Cθ = NiAB or θ = i, i.e., θ ∝ i
C
In words the deflection produced is directly proportional to current in the coil.
θ NAB
The quantity = is called the current sensitivity of the galvanometer. Obviously for
i C
greater sensitivity of galvanometer the number of turns N, area of coil A and magnetic field B
produced by pole pieces should be larger and torsional rigidity C should be smaller. That is why
the suspension wire is used of phosphor bronze for which torsional rigidity C is smaller.
θ NAB
The quantity = is called the voltage sensitivity.
V CR

36 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 19. Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half deflection method.
To determine the resistance of galvanometer and its figure of merit following circuit is used.
The resistance R is kept high so that deflection in galvanometer is less than its maximum value.
Let the current through G is I. Now key K2 is closed and resistance S is drawn from a resistance
box in parallel with galvanometer so that deflection in the galvanometer becomes half. In this
situation the current through galvanometer become l/2.

We can write the following equation for two cases

E
I= …(1)
(R + G)
 
 
1 E × S 
=    …(2)
2   GS    G + S 
  R + 
 G + S  
Solving equation (1) and (2) for G, we get
RS
G=
R−S
Figure of merit : The current required for unit division deflection in galvanometer is called figure
of merit.
Ig E
K
= =
θ (R + G)θ
where θ Deflection in the galvanometer when K2 was open.

Concept Builder-7

1. In half deflection method of determine resistance of Galvanometer, the follow circuit is used.
The resistance box 1 is set to resistance R and resistance box 2 is set to resistance S. Then
+ –
RB1
K1 R

RB2
S K2

(1) Both R and S should have high values (2) Both R and S should have small values
(3) R should be high but S should be low (4) R should be low but S should be high

Moving Charge and Magnetism 37

 2. Which of the following is not the precaution in measuring the resistance of galvanometer by
haif deflection method?
(1) Emf of the battery should be constant, while taking reading
(2) Use as high value of R as practically possible
(3) Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of odd division
(4) The current in the circuit should be put to very small values

3. In the half deflection method the galvanometer resistance G is equal to

RS RS
(1) (2)
R+S R−S
R−S R+S
(3) (4)
RS RS

4. The figure of merit (k) of galvanometer is defined as

(1) Current per unit deflection
(2) Deflection per unit current
(3) Current X deflection
(4) Voltage per unit deflection

5. Choose the correct statement among the following

(1) Both milliammeter and microammeter have same resistance
(2) Milliammeter have higher resistance than microammeter
(3) Microammeter have higher resistance than milliammeter
(4) Both milliammeter and microammeter have different but very high value of resistance

6. While finding the galvanometer resistance using half deflection method, a student got almost
the same value of S, every time whatever be the value of R. He had set very high value to
resistance box R. This is because

E K1

G
R

S
K2

(1) The resistance box in which S is there is faulty

(2) Resistance of G is very low
(3) In half deflection method R is very high and current gets divided between G and S.
(4) The internal resistance of the dc source varies with current flow

38 Moving Charge and Magnetism

7. In an experiment to determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method, the
following circuit is used. In one set of readings, if R = 500 Ω and S = 50 Ω then resistance of
Galvanometer is

E
R

(1) 50.5Ω (2) 55.56Ω (3) 52.5Ω (4) 47.5Ω

8. In a circuit of finding the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method, a 6V battery

and a high resistance of 11 kΩ is used. The figure of merit of the galvanometer is 60 µA/division.
In absence of shunt resistance, the galvanometer produces a deflection of θ = 9 division, when
current flows in the circuit. The value of galvanometer resistance is
1 0.1 10 0.01
(1) kΩ (2) kΩ (3) kΩ (4) kΩ
9 9 9 9

θ
9. In above question, the value of shunt resistance that can cause the deflection of is
2
(1) 550 Ω (2) 220 Ω (3) 55 Ω (4) 110 Ω

10. The sensitivity of a galvanometer is 50 division/ampere. When a shunt is used its sensitivity
becomes 10 division/ampere. If the galvanometer resistance is 40 Ω, the value of shunt
resistance is
(1) 10 Ω (2) 8 Ω (3) 16 Ω (4) 20 Ω

Moving Charge and Magnetism 39

 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-3

1. (a) Inwards to the plane of paper 1. (A) ∫ B.d = µ [3 + 1 – 2] = 2µ

0 0

(b) Inwards to the plane of paper (b) ∫ B.d = µ [3 + 1 – 6] = –2µ

0 0
2. (a) downward
2. (a) 8π × 10–3 T (b) 4π × 10–3 T
(b) Outward to the plane of paper
 µ NI 
µ0I 3. 2  0  =2B 4. (1)
3 µ0I
3. (A)  (B) ⊗   
8 πa 2 2 πa 5. Bmid = 5π × 10–6T Bend = 2.5π × 10–6T
µ0I(2 + 3)
(C) ⊗
8πa CONCEPT BUILDER-4
3 µ0I
4. 1. (0.8 k̂ – 1.6 ˆj ) N 2. (1, 2)
πa
3. 8.43 × 10–3 m
5. Zero
4. (3) 5. (1)

CONCEPT BUILDER-2
CONCEPT BUILDER-5
µ0 I
1.
4R
1. (a) 5.35 × 107 Hz
2. (i) = 1.257 × 10–3 T
(b) 2.675 × 107 Hz
(ii) = 4.4 × 10–4 T
2. 4RIB 3. F=0
3. Zero 4. (4) 5. (1)
µ0I
4. (i) ⊗ ⊥r to plane of paper
4R CONCEPT BUILDER-6
µ I
(ii) = 0 [π + 2]  ⊥r to plane of paper 1. (2)
4π R
µ0 I 1
(iii) = [π – 2]⊗ (⊥r to plane of paper) 2. (A) πI R2 − R21  ⊗
4π R 2  2
 1
ˆ
µ0i  ˆi k (B) M = πI R2 + R1  ⊗
2 2
5. −  +  2
4r  π 2 
3. (1) 4. (4)
µ I I  qωR2
6. (a) B = 0  1 + 2  ⊗ 5. (2) 6.
2 R1 R2  4
µ0I  I1 I2  1
(b) B = 7. qωR2
 − ⊗ 5
2 R1 R2 
µ0
(c) B = I21 + I22 CONCEPT BUILDER-7
2R
1. (3) 2. (3)
3. (2) 4. (1)
5. (3) 6. (3)
7. (2) 8. (1)
9. (4) 10. (1)

40 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Exercise - I
Introduction, Biot-Savart Law, Thumb Rule 6. Two insulated wires of infinite length are

1. A moving charge produces: lying mutually at right angles to each other

(1) Electric field only as shown in. Currents of 2A and 1.5A
(2) Magnetic field only respectively are flowing in them. The value
(3) Both of them of magnetic induction at point P will be-
(4) None of these i1 i2
3 cm
2. The vector form of Biot savart law for a
current carrying element is : 4cm P
→

 µ id sin φ  µ0 i d × ˆr (1) 2 × 10–3 N/Am (2) 2 × 10–5 N/Am

(1) dB = 0 (2) dB =
4π r2 4π r2
(3) zero (4) 2 × 10–4 N/Am
→ →

 µ id × ˆr  µ0 id × r
(3) dB = 0 (4) dB =
4π r3 4π r2 7. Two infinite long parallel wires carry equal
currents in same direction. The magnetic
3. If permeability of vacuum is µ0 and relative field at a mid-point in between the two
permeability is µr then permeability of the
wire is :–
medium will be :
(1) Twice the magnetic field produced due
µ0
(1) (2) µ0 × µr to each of the wires
µr
(2) Half of the magnetic field produced
µ0 1
(3) (4) due to each of the wires
µr µ0µr
(3) Square of the magnetic field produced
due to each of the wires
Magnetic Field Due to a Straight Wire
(4) Zero
4. π ampere current is flowing through a long
straight wire. Due to this a field of 5 × 10–5
T produced, then distance of the point 8. A current of i ampere is flowing in an
from the axis of the wire is : equilateral triangle of side a. The magnetic
(1) 104 µ0 m (2) 104/µ0 m induction at the centroid will be-
(3) 10 µ0 m6
(4) 10 µ0 m
8
µ0i 3µ0i
(1) (2)
3 3πa 2πa
5. For the given current distribution, the
5 2µ0i 9µ0i
magnetic field at point 'P' is : (3) (4)
3πa 2πa

5A P 2.5A
2.5m 9. A long straight wire carries an electric

5m current of 2 A. The magnetic induction at a

perpendicular distance of 5m from the
µ0 µ0
(1)  (2) ⊗ wire will be
4π π
µ0 µ0 (1) 4 × 10–8 T (2) 8 × 10–8 T
(3) ⊗ (4) 
2π 2π (3) 12 × 10–8 T (4) 16 × 10–8 T

Moving Charge and Magnetism 41

 10. The strength of the magnetic field at a 14. Two infinitely long linear conductors are
point distant r near a long straight current arranged perpendicular to each other and
carrying wire is B. The field at a distance are in mutually perpendicular planes as
r/2 will be shown in figure.
(1) B/2 (2) B/4 Ι1
Ι 2 
(3) 4B (4) 2B X B
P A
y
x
11. A wire in the form of a square of side 'a' z
carries a current 'i'. Then the magnetic
If I1=2A along the y–axis and I2 = 3A along
induction at the centre of the square wire is
–ve z–axis and AP = AB = 1cm. The value
(Magnetic permeability of free space = µ0) 
of magnetic field strength B at P is
µ0i µ0i 2
(1) (2) (1) (3 × 10–5 T) ˆj + (–4 × 10–5 T) k̂
2πa πa
2 2µ0i µ0i (2) (3 × 10–5 T) ˆj + (4 × 10–5 T) k̂
(3) (4)
πa 2π a (3) (4 × 10–5 T) ˆj + (3 × 10–5 T) k̂

(4) (–3 × 10–5 T) ˆj + (4 × 10–5 T) k̂

12. Current flows through uniform, square
frames as shown. In which case is the
15. A current of 1 A flows through an infinite
magnetic field at the centre of the frame
long straight wire. The magnetic field
not zero?
produced at a point 1m. away from it is:
(1) 2 × 10–3 T
(1) (2)
(2) 2π × 10–8 T
(3) 2 × 10–7 T
(4) 2π × 10–6 T
(3) (4)

Magnetic Field Due to a Circular Current

13. Equal current i is flowing in three infinitely Carrying Coil
long wires along positive x, y and z
directions. The magnitude of magnetic 16. Two concentric circular loops of radii
field at a point (0, 0, –a) would be 0·08m and 0·1m carries current such that
µ0i ˆ ˆ
(1)
2πa
(
j−i ) magnetic field at the centre is zero. If the
current in the outer loop is 8A clockwise,
µi
(
(2) 0 ˆj + ˆi
2πa
) current in the inner loop is :
(1) 6.4 A anticlockwise
µ0i ˆ ˆ
(3)
2πa
i−j ( ) (2) 6.4 A clockwise
(3) 8A anticlockwise
µ0i ˆ ˆ ˆ
(4)
2πa
(
i + j+k ) (4) 3.2 A clockwise

42 Moving Charge and Magnetism

17. When the current flowing in a circular coil 22. A coil of one turn is made of a wire of
is doubled and the number of turns of the certain length and then from the same
coil in it is halved, the magnetic field at its length a coil of two turns is made. If the
centre will become : same current is passed in both the cases,
(1) Same (2) Four times then the ratio of the magnetic induction at
(3) Half (4) Double their centres will be :
(1) 2 : 1 (2) 1 : 4
18. Radius of a current carrying coil is ‘R’. The
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 1 : 2
ratio of magnetic field at a axial point
which is R distance away from the centre
23. Magnetic field due to 0.1 A current flowing
of the coil to the magnetic field at the
through a circular coil of radius 0.1 m and
centre of the coil :
1/2
1000 turns at the centre of the coil is :
 1 1
(1)   (2) (1) 0.2 T
2 2
3/2
(2) 2 × 10–4 T
 1 1
(3)   (4) (3) 6.28 × 10–4 T
2 4
(4) 9.8 × 10–4 T

19. An electric current i is flowing in a circular

24. A circular arc of wire subtends an angle π/2
coil of radius a. At what distance from the
at the centre. If it carries a current I and
centre on the axis of the coil will the
its radius of curvature is R, then the
1
magnetic field be th of its value at the
8 magnetic field at the centre of the arc is
centre - µ0 I
(1)
(1) 3a (2) 3a 8R

a a µ0 I
(3) (4) (2)
3 3 R
µ0 I
(3)
20. The magnetic field on the axis of a current 2R
carrying circular coil of radius a at a µ0 I
(4)
distance 2a from its centre will be- 4R
µ0i µ0i
(1) (2)
2 10 5a 25. 2 A current is flowing in a circular loop of
µ0i radius 1m. Magnitude of magnetic field at
(3) (4) µ0i
4a
the centre of circular loop will be :
µ0
21. A circular coil of radius R carries an electric (1)
current. The magnetic field due the coil at 2
a point on the axis of the coil located at a (2) 2µ0
distance r from the center of the coil, such (3) µ0
that r >> R varies as : µ0
(1) 1/r (2) 1/r3/2 (4)
2π
(3) 1/r2 (4) 1/r3

Moving Charge and Magnetism 43

 Magnetic Field Due to Various 29. A current of 30 amp. is flowing in a

Miscellaneous Arrangements conductor as shown in the fig. The

magnetic induction at point O will be:
26. A wire loop PQRSP is constructed by joining i

two semicircular coils of radii r1 and r2 O

respectively as shown in the fig. Current i 3cm

π/2
3cm

is flowing in the loop. The magnetic

induction at point O will be-
i = 30A
i
r2 (1) 1.5 Tesla
i
(2) 1.5π × 10–4 Tesla
r1
S R O Q P (3) zero
(4) 0.15 Tesla
µ i1 1
(1) 0  − 
4  r1 r2 
30. The magnetic induction at centre O in the
µ i1 1
(2) 0  +  following figure will be -
4  r1 r2  i
µ0i  1 1 
(3)  − 
2  r1 r2 
r2
µ i1 1
(4) 0  + 
2  r1 r2  α r1

O
27. In the shown figure magnetic field at point
µ0iα  1 1  µ0iα  1 1 
A will be : (1)  −  (2)  + 
4π  r1 r2  4π  r1 r2 

Ι
R µ0iα  1 1  µ0iα  1 1 
A (3)  − ⊗ (4)  + ⊗
2π  r1 r2  2π  r1 r2 
µ0 I µ0 I
(1) (2)
4π 4R
Solenoid & Toroid
µ0 I
(3) (4) Zero
4πR 31. When the number of turns in a toroidal coil
is doubled, then the value of magnetic flux
28. The magnetic induction at centre O due to density will become:
the arrangement shown in fig.- (1) four times (2) eight times
Q P (3) half (4) double

0
r 32. The magnetic field inside a solenoid is -
R
(1) infinite
µ0i µ0i
(1) (1 + π) (2) (2) zero
4πr 4πr
(3) uniform
µ0i µ0i
(3) (1 − π) (4) (4) non-uniform
4πr r

44 Moving Charge and Magnetism

33. An long solenoid has 200 turns per cm and 37. An electric field E and a magnetic field B
carries a current of 2.5 amp. The magnetic applied on a proton which moves with
velocity v, it goes undeflected through the
field at its centre is
region if :
[µ0 = 4π × 10–7 weber/amp-m]:
(1) E ⊥ B
(1) 3.14 × 10–2 weber/m2 (2) E is parallel to v and perpendicular to B
(2) 6.28 × 10 –2
weber/m
2
(3) E, B and v all three are mutually
(3) 9.42 × 10 –2
weber/m 2 E
perpendicular to each other and v =
B
(4) 12.56 × 10–2 weber/m2
(4) E and B both are parallel but
perpendicular to v
34. A long solenoid has length L, average
diameter D and n layer of turns. Each layer 38. When a charged particle enters in a
contains N turns. If current flowing through uniform magnetic field its kinetic energy:
(1) remains constant (2) increases
the solenoid is i, the value of magnetic field
(3) decreases (4) becomes zero
at the centre:–
(1) Proportional to D 39. When a charged particle moves at right
(2) Inversely proportional to D angles to a magnetic field then which of
(3) Does not depend on D the following quantities changes-
(1) energy (2) momentum
(4) Proportional to L
(3) speed (4) all of above

Force on a Moving Charged Particle in a 40. The velocities of two particles entering a
Magnetic Field, uniform magnetic field are in the ratio 1 : 3.
Their path becomes circular in the
magnetic field. The ratio of radii of their
35. A proton, deuteron and an α–particle are
circular paths will be-
accelerated by same potential, enters in (1) 1 : 3 (2) 3 : 1
uniform magnetic field perpendicularly. (3) 1 : 9 (4) 9 : 1
Ratio of radii of circular path respectively:
41. A proton and an α-particle enter a uniform
(1) 1 : 2 : 2 (2) 2 : 2 : 1
magnetic field at right angles to it with
(3) 1 : 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 1 : 1 same velocity. The time period of circular
motion of α particle as compared to that
36. A charge particle is moving in the opposite of proton, will be -
direction of a magnetic field. The magnetic (1) four times (2) two times
(3) half (4) one fourth
force acting on the particle:
(1) is in the direction of its velocity 42. A charged particle with charge q is moving
(2) is in the direction opposite to its in a uniform magnetic field. If this particle
velocity makes any angle with the magnetic field
(3) is perpendicular to its velocity then its path will be-
(1) circular (2) straight line
(4) is zero
(3) helical (4) parabolic

Moving Charge and Magnetism 45

 43. If a positively charged particle is moving as 48. A charge q is moving in a uniform magnetic
shown in the fig., then it will get deflected field. The magnetic force acting on it does
due to magnetic field towards - not depend upon
Y (1) charge
B (2) mass

q X (3) velocity
O V (4) magnetic field
(1) +x direction (2) +y direction
(3) –x direction (4) +z direction 49. A proton enters a magnetic field with
velocity parallel to the magnetic field. The
44. An electron is travelling along the
path followed by the proton is a
x-direction. It encounters a magnetic field
(1) circle (2) parabola
in the y-direction. Its subsequent motion
(3) helix (4) straight line
will be:
(1) straight line along the x-direction 50. An electron (mass = 9.0 × 10–31 kg and
(2) a circle in the xz plane charge = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb) is moving in
(3) a circle in the yz plane a circular orbit in a magnetic field of 1.0 ×
(4) a circle in the xy plane 10–4 weber/m2. Its period of revolution is:
(1) 3.5 × 10–7 sec (2) 7.0 × 10–7 sec
45. A charge having q/m equal to 108 C/kg and (3) 1.05 × 10–6 sec (4) 2.1 × 10–6 sec
with velocity 3 × 105 m/s enters a uniform

magnetic field B = 0.3 tesla at an angle 300 51. An electron is moving with velocity v in the

with direction of field. Then radius of direction of magnetic field B , then force
curvature will be: acting on electron is :
 
(1) 0.01 cm (2) 0.5cm (1) Zero (2) e(v × B)
(3) 1 cm (4) 2 cm   1  
(3) e(B × v) (4) e(v × B)
2

46. A charged particle of charge q and mass m

52. An electron moves with velocity v in
enters perpendicularly in a magnetic field.
uniform transverse magnetic field B on
Kinetic energy of the particle is E; then
circular path of radius ‘r’, then e/m for it is:
frequency of rotation is :
v B
qB qB (1) (2)
(1) (2) Br rv
mπ 2πm
vr
qBE qB (3) Bvr (4)
(3) (4) B
2πm 2πE

53. In a region constant uniform electric and

47. A charge of 1C is moving in a perpendicular magnetic field is present. Both field are
magnetic field of 0.5 Tesla with a velocity parallel. In this region a charge released
of 10 m/sec. Force experienced is: from rest, then path of the particle is :
(1) 5 N (2) 10 N (1) Circle (2) Helical
(3) 0.5 N (4) 0 N (3) Straight line (4) Ellipse

46 Moving Charge and Magnetism

54. A beam of protons enters a uniform 59. A charge particle moves in a region having
magnetic field of 0.3T with velocity of 4 × a uniform magnetic field and a parallel,
105m/s in a direction making an angle of uniform electric field. At some instant, the

60º with the direction of magnetic field. velocity of the particle is perpendicular to
the field direction. The path of the particle
The path of motion of the particle will be
will be
(1) Circular (2) Straight line
(1) a straight line
(3) Spiral (4) Helical
(2) a circle
(3) a helix with uniform pitch
55. In the above question, the radius of path
(4) a helix with nonuniform pitch
of the particle will be
(1) 12.0m (2) 1.2m 60. An α-particle experiences a force of
(3) 0.12m (4) 0.012m 3.84×10–14 N when its moves perpendicular
to magnetic field of 0.2 Wb/m2 then speed
56. In above question the pitch of the helix will of the α - particle is :
be (1) 6.0 × 105 m/sec (2) 5.0 × 105 m/sec

(1) 4.37 m (2) 0.437 m (3) 1.2 × 106 m/sec (4) 3.8 × 106 m/sec

(3) 0.0437 m (4) 0.00437 m

Force on Current Carrying Wire in a Magnetic
 Field
57. In a certain region of space electric field E

and magnetic field B are perpendicular to 61. A current carrying wire is arranged at any
each other and an electron enters in region angle in an uniform magnetic field, then
 
perpendicular to the direction of B and E (1) only force acts on wire

both and moves undeflected, then velocity (2) only torque acts on wire
(3) both
of electron is :
 (4) none
|E|  
(1)  (2) E × B
|B|
 62. A current i is flowing in a circular
|B|  
(3)  (4) E . B conductor of radius r. It is lying in a
|E| uniform magnetic field B such that its
plane is normal to B. The magnetic force
58. A charged particle with velocity 2 × 10 m/s 3 acting on the loop will be -
passed undeflected through electric and (1) zero (2) πirB
perpendicular magnetic field. Magnetic (3) 2πirB (4) irB

field is 1.5 Tesla. Find electric field

63. A 0.5 m long straight wire in which a
intensity.
current of 1.2 A is flowing is kept at right
(1) 2 × 103 N/C
angle to a uniform magnetic field of 2.0
(2) 1.5 × 103 N/C
tesla. The force acting on the wire will be-
(3) 3 × 103 N/C
(1) 2N (2) 2.4 N
(4) 4/3 × 10–3 N/C (3) 1.2 N (4) 3 N

Moving Charge and Magnetism 47

64. Two long parallel wires are at a distance of 69. The magnetic moment of a circular coil
1 m. Both carry one ampere of current. The carrying current is :
force of attraction per unit length between (1) directly proportional to the length of
the two wires is : the wire in the coil
(1) 2 × 10–7 N/m (2) inversely proportional to the length of
(2) 2 × 10–8 N/m the wire in the coil
(3) 5 × 10–8 N/m (3) directly proportional to the square of
(4) 10 –7
N/m the length of the wire in the coil
(4) inversely proportional to the square of
65. A current-carrying, straight wire is kept the length of the wire in the coil
along the axis of a circular loop carrying a
current. The straight wire 70. Magnetic dipole moment of rectangular
(1) Will exert an inward force on the loop is

circular loop (1) Inversely proportional to current in

(2) Will exert an outward force on the loop

circular loop (2) Inversely proportional to area of loop

(3) Will not exert any force on the circular (3) Parallel to plane of loop and
proportional to area of loop
loop
(4) Perpendicular to plane of loop and
(4) Will exert a force on the circular loop
proportional to area of loop
parallel to itself.

Torque, potential Energy of Dipole in

Magnetic Dipole & Dipole Moment
Magnetic field and Work Done
66. A circular loop has a radius of 5 cm, and it 71. A current loop of area 0.01m2 and carrying
is carrying a current of 0.1 A. its magnetic a current of 10A is held perpendicular to a
moment is :– magnetic field of 0.1T, the torque in N–m
(1) 1.32 × 10–4 amp-m2 acting on the loop is :
(2) 2.62 × 10–4 amp-m2 (1) 0 (2) 0.001
(3) 5.25 × 10–4 amp-m2 (3) 0.01 (4) 1.1
(4) 7.85 × 10–4 amp-m2
72. A coil of 100 turns is lying in a magnetic
67. The dipole moment of a current loop is field of 1T as shown in the figure. A current
independent of of 1A is flowing in this coil. The torque
(1) current in the loop acting on the coil will be

(2) number of turns

(3) area of the loop S
N 0.2m
(4) magnetic field in which it is situated

68. The magnetic moment has dimensions of: 0.1m

(1) [L A] (2) [L2 A] (1) 1N–m (2) 2N–m

(3) [LT A]
–1
(4) [L T A]
2 –1
(3) 3N–m (4) 4N–m

48 Moving Charge and Magnetism

73. Four wires of equal length are bent in the 77. An electron revolves with frequency
form of four loops P, Q, R and S. These are 6.6 × 1015 revolutions per second around
suspended in a uniform magnetic field and the nucleus in circular orbit of radius 0.53
same current is passed in them. The Å of hydrogen atom, then magnetic field
maximum torque will act on. produced at centre of orbit is:
(1) 0.125 T (2) 1.25 T
P
Q S (3) 12.5 T (4) 125 T
R

78. When direct current is passed through a

(1) P (2) Q
spring then it :
(3) R (4) S
(1) Contracts
(2) Expands
74. Current I is carried in a wire of length L. If
(3) Oscillates
the wire is formed into a circular coil, the
maximum magnitude of torque in a (4) Unchanged

magnetic field B, will be:

79. The charge on a particle is 100 times that
LIB L2 IB
(1) (2) of electron. It is revolving in a circular path
4π 4π
of radius 0.8 m at a frequency of 1011
L2 IB LIB2
(3) (4) revolutions per second. The magnetic field
2 2
at the centre of path will be -
75. A current carrying coil is placed in a (1) 10–7 µ0
constant uniform magnetic field B. Torque 10−7
(2)
is maximum on this coil when plane of coil µ0
is : (3) 10–17 µ0
(1) perpendicular to B (4) 10–6 µ0
(2) parallel to B
(3) at 45° to B 80. A ring of radius r is uniformly charged with
(4) at 60° to B charge q. If the ring is rotated with angular
frequency ω, then the magnetic induction
Atomic Magnetism, Rotation of a charged at its centre will be -
conducting body (1) 10–7 ×
ω
qr

76. An electron is moving in a circle of radius q

(2) 10–7 ×
ωr
5.1 × 10–11 m. at a frequency of 6.8 × 1015
r
revolution/sec. The equivalent current is (3) 10–7 ×
qω
approximately :–
qω
(1) 5.1 × 10–3 A (2) 6.8 × 10–3 A (4) 10–7 ×
r
(3) 1.1 × 10–3 A (4) 2.2 × 10–3 A

Moving Charge and Magnetism 49

 Exercise - II
1. Two parallel, long wires carry currents i1 4. Two thick wires and two thin wires, all of
and i2 with i1 > i2. When the currents are in the same materials and same length form
the same direction, the magnetic field at a a square in the three different ways P, Q
point midway between the wire is 10µT. If and R as shown in fig with current direction
the direction of i2 is reversed, the field shown, the magnetic field at the centre of
becomes 30µT. The ratio i1/i2 is the square is zero in cases
(1) 4 (2) 3
P Q R
(3) 2 (4) 1
(1) in P only (2) in P and Q only
2. Two similar coils of radius R and number (3) in Q and R only (4) P and R only
of turns N are lying concentrically with
their planes at right angles to each other. 5. Current I is flowing in infinitely long wire.
The currents flowing in them are I and I 3 Which of the following graph represents

respectively. The resultant magnetic the variation of B w.r.t. axial distance?

induction at the centre will be

(in Wb/m2).
Ι
µ0NI
(1)
2R
µ0NI B B
(2)
R
NI (1) (2)
(3) 3 µ0
2R
µ0NI r r
(4) 5 B B
2R

(3) (4)
3. All straight wires are very long. Both AB
and CD are arcs of the same circle, both r r

subtending right angles at the centre O.

Then the magnetic field at O is– 6. Two long parallel current carrying wire
A A' placed at 30 cm distance from each other,
R i
B O current flowing in them is 10 A in opposite
C i C'
D direction. A point situated in between the
wires at 10 cm distance from any wire then
B' D' magnetic field at that point will be:
µ0i µ0i (1) 1 × 10–5 T
(1) (2) 2
4πR 4πR (2) 6 × 10–5 T
µ0i µ0i (3) 1.5 × 10–5 T
(3) (4) (π + 1)
2πR 2πR (4) 3 × 10–5 T

50 Moving Charge and Magnetism

7. In a coaxial, straight cable, the central 11. A charged particle is projected from A in
conductor and the outer conductor carry nonuniform magnetic field as shown in
equal currents in opposite directions. The figure.
magnetic field is zero.

A B C

(1) outside the cable

(2) inside the inner conductor The magnitude of velocities at point A, B and
(3) inside the outer conductor C respectively during the motion is :
(4) in between the two conductors (1) Maximum at A and C
(2) Maximum at B
8. A current I flows along the length of an (3) Minimum at A and C
infinitely long, straight, thin walled pipe. (4) Equal at A, B and C
Then
(1) the magnetic field at all points inside
12. A vertical wire carries a current in upward
the pipe is the same, but not zero
direction. An electron beam sent
(2) the magnetic field at any point inside
horizontally towards the wire will be
the pipe is zero
deflected (gravity free space)
(3) the magnetic field is zero only on the
(1) towards right (2) towards left
axis of the pipe
(3) upwards (4) downwards
(4) the magnetic field is different at
different points inside the pipe.
13. Which of the following particles will

9. A toroid of mean radius ' a ' , cross section experience maximum magnetic force
radius 'r' and total number of turns N. It (magnitude) when projected with the same
carries a current 'i'. The torque velocity perpendicular to a magnetic field?
experienced by the toroid if a uniform (1) Electron (2) proton
magnetic field of strength B is applied : (3) He +
(4) Li++
(1) is zero
(2) is B i N π r2 14. An electric current i enters and leaves a
(3) is B i N π a 2
uniform circular wire of radius a through
(4) depends on the direction of magnetic diametrically opposite points. A charged
field. particle q moving along the axis of the
circular wire passes through its centre at
10. A proton beam is going from north to south speed υ. The magnetic force acting on the
and an electron beam is going from south particle when it passes through the centre
to north. Neglection the earth’s magnetic
has a magnitude
field, the electron beam will be deflected:
µ0i µ0i
(1) towards the proton beam (1) qν (2) qν
2a 2πa
(2) away from the proton beam
µ0i
(3) away from the electron beam (3) qν (4) zero
a
(4) None of these

Moving Charge and Magnetism 51

 15. A negative charged particle falling freely 20. A particle having the same charge as of
under gravity enters a region having electron moves in a circular path of radius
uniform horizontal magnetic field pointing 0.5 cm under the influence of a magnetic
towards north. The particle will be field of 0.5 T. If an electric field of 100 V/m
makes it to move in a straight path, then
deflected towards
the mass of the particle is (Given charge of
(1) East (2) West
electron = 1.6×10–19 kg)
(3) North (4) South
(1) 1.6×10–19 kg (2) 2×10–24 kg
(3) 1.6×10 kg
–27
(4) 9.1×10–31 kg
16. A charge particle is moved along a
magnetic field line. The magnetic force on 21. A particle of mass 0.6 g and having charge
the particle is of 25 nC is moving horizontally with a
(1) along its velocity uniform velocity 1.2 × 104 ms–1 in a uniform
(2) opposite to its velocity magnetic field, then the value of the
(3) perpendicular to its velocity minimum magnetic field is (g = 10ms–2)
(1) Zero (2) 10 T
(4) zero
(3) 20 T (4) 200 T

17. A proton, a deuteron and an α-particle

22. A current Ι1 carrying wire AB is placed near
having the same kinetic energy are moving another long wire CD carrying current Ι2.
in circular trajectories in a constant If wire AB is free to move, it will have
magnetic field. If rp, rd and rα denote D

respectively the radii of the trajectories of Ι1

A B
these particles then
Ι2
(1) rα = rp < rd (2) rα > rd > rp
(3) rα = rd > rp (4) rp = rd = rα C

(1) rotational motion only

18. A charged particle is released from rest in (2) translational motion only
a region of steady and uniform electric and (3) rotational as well as translational motion
magnetic fields which are parallel to each (4) neither rotational nor translational motion
other. The particle will move in a
23. Two very long, straight, parallel wires carry
(1) Straight line (2) Circle
steady currents I and – I respectively. The
(3) Helix (4) Cycloid
distance between the wires is d. At a
certain instant of time, a point charge q is
19. Two thin long parallel wires separated by a at a point equidistant from the two wires,
distance 'b' are carrying a current 'i' in the plane of the wires. Its instantaneous

ampere each. The magnitude of the force velocity v is perpendicular to this plane.
per unit length exerted by one wire on the The magnitude of the force due to the
other is magnetic field acting on the charge at this
instant is:
µ0i2 µ0i2
(1) (2) µ0 Iqv µ0 Iqv
b2 2πb (1) (2)
2 πd πd
µ0i µ0i
(3) (4) 2µ0 Iqv
2πb 2πb2 (3) (4) 0
πd

52 Moving Charge and Magnetism

24. Two parallel wires carry currents of 20 A 25. A steady current 'l' flows in a small square
and 40 A in opposite directions. Another loop of wire of side L in a horizontal plane.
wire carrying a current antiparallel to 20 A The loop is now folded about its middle
is placed midway between the two wires. such that half of it lies in a vertical plane.
 
The magnetic force on it will be Let µ1 and µ2 respectively denote the
(1) towards 20 A magnetic moments of the current loop
(2) towards 40 A before and after folding. Then :
(3) zero 
(1) µ2 = 0
(4) perpendicular to the plane of the  
(2) µ1 and µ2 are in the same direction
currents 
µ1
(3)  = 2
µ2

µ1 1
(4)  =
µ2 2

Moving Charge and Magnetism 53

 Exercise - III
1. Match the following columns: Read the Questions (3 to 15)
Assertion and Reason carefully and mark
Column I Column II
the correct options.
(a) Magnetic field inside a (p) not constant
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true
long straight solenoid
and Reason is the correct explanation
is
of Assertion.
(b) Magnetic field inside a (q) zero (B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but
toroidal solenoid is Reason is not correct explanation of
(c) Magnetic field inside a (r) constant Assertion.
conducting hollow (C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
pipe having current (D) Assertion and Reason are false
parallel to its axis is
(d) Magnetic field due to (s) maximum 3. Assertion: Pole pieces of the magnet used
in a moving coil galvanometer are given a
current carrying wire
concave shape to achieve a radial magnetic
on its surface is
field.
(1) a−r; b−p; c−q, r; d−s
Reason: A radial magnetic field ensures a
(2) a−r; b−p; c−q; d−s
better current sensitivity and also makes
(3) a−r; b−p; c−r; d−s
possible to use a linear scale for current
(4) a−r; b−p; c−s; d−s measurement.
(1) A (2) B
2. Match the entries of column I with the (3) C (4) D
entries of column II in the following table.
Column I Column II 4. Assertion: Parallel current in wires attracts
(a) Magnetic field due (p) µ0I to each other due to magnetic force.
B= Reason: Two electron beams moving
to infinite long 2πd
parallel to each other repels to each other
wire
due to electric force.
(b) Magnetic field due (q) µ0IN
B= (1) A (2) B
to current element 2R
(3) C (4) D
(c) Magnetic field at (r) µ0INR 2
B=
centre of current 2(x2 + R2 )3/2 5. Assertion: When a straight wire carrying
carrying coil current is placed along the axis of a
(d) Magnetic field at (s) µ0IdIsin θ current carrying ring, it starts rotating
dB =
2
axis of coil 4π r about the wire.
Reason: Charged ring will experience a
(1) a → r; b → s; c → q; d → p
torque when current carrying cable will
(2) a → p; b → s; c → q; d → r
pass through its axis.
(3) a → s; b → r; c → p; d → q
(1) A (2) B
(4) a → p; b → r; c → q; d → s
(3) C (4) D

54 Moving Charge and Magnetism

6. Assertion: A solenoid tends to expand, 10. Assertion: When a charged particle is
when a current passes through it. projected in a uniform magnetic field with
certain angle to it, during its motion in
Reason: Two straight parallel metallic
helical path it will never move parallel or
wires carrying current in same direction
perpendicular to field.
repel each other. Reason: When the charged particle is
(1) A (2) B projected at a certain angle to the
(3) C (4) D magnetic field, the force experienced by
the charged particle is neither in the
direction of field nor in the perpendicular
7. Assertion: The Lorentz force is a non-
direction of the field.
conservative force. (1) A (2) B
Reason: The work done by the Lorentz (3) C (4) D
force is always zero.
11. Assertion: A charged particle moving in a
(1) A (2) B
magnetic field in general, experiences a
(3) C (4) D
force but its kinetic energy remains
constant.
8. Assertion: A charged particle is moving in Reason: Work done by magnetic force is

a circle with constant speed in uniform always zero.

(1) A (2) B
magnetic field. If we increase the speed of
(3) C (4) D
particle to twice, its acceleration will
become four times. 12. Assertion: Electric force between two like
Reason: A charge particle in circular path charged particles is repulsive but magnetic

with constant speed in magnetic field, force between them could be attractive or
repulsive or absent depending on the
acceleration is given by centripetal
features of their motion.
acceleration. If speed is doubled Reason: Magnetic field does not interact
centripetal acceleration will become four with static charges.
times. (1) A (2) B

(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D

(3) C (4) D
13. Assertion: An electron and a proton enter
a uniform magnetic field at right angles to
9. Assertion: Work done by magnetic force on the field with equal velocities, then,
any moving charge is zero. deviation of both from the original path will
be the same.
Reason: Magnetic force is perpendicular to
Reason: In the situation described above,
velocity.
electron and proton will experience
(1) A (2) B magnetic forces of different magnitude.
(3) C (4) D (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D

Moving Charge and Magnetism 55

 14. Assertion: A charged particle enters a 15. Assertion: A current-carrying coil placed in
uniform magnetic field with a velocity a uniform magnetic field experiences a
inclined to the field direction at 60°. The force which depends on the orientation of
particle will move along a circular path plane of the coil relative to the field
inside the magnetic field. direction.
Reason: Magnetic force on a charge inside Reason: A current-carrying conductor
a magnetic field provides tangential force placed in a magnetic field experiences a
for the circular motion of the charge.
force F = iIB cos θ.
(1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

56 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A current loop in a magnetic field: 4. A proton and an alpha particle both enter
[NEET_2013] a region of uniform magnetic field B
(1) Can be in equilibrium in two moving right angles to the field B. If the
orientations, one stable while the other
radius of circular orbits for both the
is unstable.
particles is equal and the kinetic energy
(2) Experiences a torque whether the field
is uniform or non-uniform in all acquired by proton is 1 MeV, the energy
orientations acquired by the alpha particle will be :
(3) Can be in equilibrium in one orientation [NEET_2015]
(4) Can be equilibrium in two orientations, (1) 1 MeV
both the equilibrium states are (2) 4 MeV
unstable
(3) 0.5 MeV
(4) 1.5 MeV
2. When a proton is released from rest in a
room, it starts with an initial acceleration
a0 towards west. When it is projected 5. A rectangular coil of length 0.12 m and
towards north with a speed v0 it moves width 0.1 m having 50 turns of wire is
with an initial acceleration 3a0 towards suspended vertically in a uniform magnetic
west. The electric and magnetic field in the
field of strength 0.2 Weber/m2. The coil
room are : [NEET_2013]
carries a current of 2 A . If the plane of the
ma0 3ma0
(1) east, down coil is inclined at an angle of 30° with the
e ev 0
direction of the field, the torque required
ma0 2ma0
(2) west, up to keep the coil in stable equilibrium will
e ev 0
be: [NEET_2015]
ma0 2ma0
(3) west, down (1) 0.12 Nm
e ev 0
(2) 0.15 Nm
ma0 3ma0
(4) east, up (3) 0.20 Nm
e ev 0
(4) 0.24 Nm

3. Two identical long conducting wires AOB

and COD are placed at right angle to each 6. An electron moving in a circular orbit of
other, with one above other such that ‘O’ radius r makes n rotations per second. The
is their common point for the two. The magnetic field produced at the centre has
wires carry I1 and I2 currents, respectively.
magnitude: [NEET_2015]
Point ‘P’ is lying at distance ‘d’ from ‘O’
(1) Zero
along a direction perpendicular to the
plane containing the wires. The magnetic µ0n2e
(2)
field at the point ‘P’ will be : [NEET_2014] r
µ0 µ0 µ0ne
(I ) (I )
1/2
(1) 2
− I22 (2) 2
+ I22 (3)
2πd 1
2πd 1
2r
µ0  I1  µ0 µ0ne
(3)
2πd  I2 
(4)
2πd
(I 1
+ I2 ) (4)
2πr

Moving Charge and Magnetism 57

 7. A wire carrying current I has the shape as 10. A long wire carrying a steady current is
shown in adjoining figure. Linear parts of bent into a circular loop of one turn. The
the wire are very long and parallel to X-axis magnetic field at the centre of the loop is
while semicircular portion of radius R is B. It is then bent into a circular coil of n
lying in Y-Z plane. Magnetic field at point O turns. The magnetic field at the centre of
is : [NEET_2015] this coil of n turns will be : [NEET_2016]
Z (1) 2nB (2) 2n B 2
Ι
R (3) nB (4) n2B
Y
Ι
11. An electron is moving in a circular path
X
under the influence of a transverse
 µ I ˆ magnetic field of 3.57 × 10 –2
T. If the value
(1) B =− 0
4π R
π i − 2kˆ ( ) of e/m is 1.76 × 10 C/kg, the frequency of
11

 µ I ˆ revolution of the electron is: [NEET_2016]

(2) B =− 0
4π R
π i + 2kˆ ( ) (1) 62.8 MHz (2) 6.28 MHz
 µ I
(3)=B 0
4π R
πˆi − 2kˆ( ) (3) 1 GHz (4) 100 MHz

 µ I 12. A 250 - Turn rectangular coil of length 2.1

(4)=B 0
4π R
πˆi + 2kˆ( ) cm and width 1.25 cm carries a current of
85 µA and subjected to a magnetic field of
8. A square loop ABCD carrying a current i, is strength 0.85 T. Work done for rotating the
placed near and coplanar with a long coil by 180º against the torque is :
straight conductor XY carrying a current I, [NEET_2017]
the net force on the loop will be : (1) 9.1 µ J (2) 4.55 µ J
[NEET_2016] (3) 2.3 µ J (4) 1.15 µ J
B C
Y
i L 13. An arrangement of three parallel straight
Ι
wires placed perpendicular to plane of
X A D
paper carrying same current 'I' along the
L/2 L
same direction is shown in Fig. Magnitude
2µ0 Ii µ0 Ii
(1) (2) of force per unit length on the middle wire
3π 2π
'B' is given by : [NEET_2017]
2µ0 IiL µ0 IiL
(3) (4) B
d C
3π 2π
90º

9. A long straight wire of radius a carries a

d
steady current I. The current is uniformly
distributed over its cross-section. The
A
ratio of the magnetic fields B and B', at
µ°i2 2µ°i2
radial distances a/2 and 2a respectively, (1) (2)
2πd πd
from the axis of the wire is : [NEET_2016]
(1) 1/4 (2) 1/2 2µ°i2 µ°i2
(3) (4)
πd 2πd
(3) 1 (4) 4

58 Moving Charge and Magnetism

14. A metallic rod of mass per unit length 0.5 18. A thick current carrying cable of radius 'R'
kg/m is lying horizontally on a smooth carries current 'I' uniformly distributed
inclined plane which makes an angle of 300 across its cross-section. The variation of
with the horizontal. The rod is not allowed magnetic field B(r) due to the cable with
the distance 'r' from the axis of the cable
to slide down by flowing a current through
is represented by : [NEET_2021]
it when a magnetic field of induction 0.25
T is acting on it in the vertical direction.
The current flowing in the rod to keep is (1) B
stationary is [NEET_2018]
(1) 7.14 A (2) 5.98 A
r
(3) 14.76 A (4) 11.32 A

(2) B
15. Current sensitivity of a moving coil
galvanometer is 5 div/mA and its voltage
sensitivity (angular deflection per unit r
voltage applied) is 20 div/V. The resistance
of the galvanometer is: [NEET_2018]
(3) B
(1) 40 Ω
(2) 25 Ω
(3) 250 Ω r
(4) 500Ω

(4) B
16. A long solenoid of 50 cm, length having 100
turns carries a current of 2.5 A. The
magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid r
is : (µ0 = 4π×10 –7
Tm A )
–1
[NEET_2020]
(1) 6.28×10 –5
T 19. An infinitely long straight conductor carries
(2) 3.14×10 –5
T a current of 5 A as shown. An electron is
(3) 6.28×10 T –4 moving with a speed of 105 m/s parallel to
the conductor. The perpendicular distance
(4) 3.14×10–4 T
between the electron and the conductor is
20 cm at an instant. Calculate the
17. A wire of length L metre carrying a current
magnitude of the force experienced by the
of I ampere is bent in the form of a circle.
electron at that instant. [NEET_2021]
Its magnetic moment is, Electron v = 10 m/s
5

[NEET_2020(Covid)]
(1) IL2/4 Am2
20 cm
(2) Iπ L2 /4 Am2
(3) 2 IL2 /π Am2
P 5A Q
(4) IL2 /4π Am2 −20
(1) 4 × 10 N (2) 8π × 10−20 N
(3) 4π × 10−20 N (4) 8 × 10−20 N

Moving Charge and Magnetism 59

 20. In the product 23. A long solenoid of radius 1 mm has 100
    ˆ
F= q(υ × B) = qυ × (Biˆ + Bjˆ + B0k) turns per mm. If 1 A current flows in the
 ˆ solenoid, the magnetic field strength at the
For q = 1 and υ= 2iˆ + 4ˆj + 6k
 centre of the solenoid is: [NEET_2022]
ˆ
and F =4iˆ − 20ˆj + 12k –2 –2
(1) 6.28 × 10 T (2) 12.56 × 10 T
What will be the complete expression for (3) 12.56 × 10
–4
T (4) 6.28 × 10
–4
T

B? [NEET_2021]
24. From Ampere’s circuital law for a long
(1) −8iˆ − 8ˆj − 6kˆ (2) −6iˆ − 6ˆj − 8kˆ
straight wire of circular cross-section
ˆ
(3) 8iˆ + 8ˆj − 6k ˆ
(4) 6iˆ + 6ˆj − 8k carrying a steady current, the variation of
magnetic field in the inside and outside
21. A uniform conducting wire of length 12a region of the wire is: [NEET_2022]
and resistance 'R' is wound up as a current (1) Uniform and remains constant for both
carrying coil in the shape of, the regions
[NEET_2021] (2) A linearly increasing function of distance
(i) an equilateral triangle of side 'a'. upto the boundary of the wire and then
(ii) a square of side 'a'. linearly decreasing for the outside
The magnetic dipole moments of the coil region.
in each case respectively are: (3) A linearly increasing function of distance
(1) 3 Ia2 and 3 Ia2 (2) 3 Ia2 and Ia2 r upto the boundary of the wire and
(3) 3 Ia2 and 4 Ia2 (4) 4 Ia2 and 3 Ia2 then decreasing one with 1/r
dependence for the outside region.
22. Given below are two statements: (4) A linearly decreasing function of distance
[NEET_2022] upto the boundary of the wire and then
Statement I: a linearly increasing one for the outside
Biot-Savart's law gives us the expression region.
for the magnetic field strength of an
25. A very long conducting wire is bent in
infinitesimal current element (Idl) of a
semi-circular shape from A to B as shown
current carrying conductor only.
in figure. The magnetic field at point P for
Statement II:
steady current configuration is given by:
Biot-Savart's law is analogous to
[NEET_2023]
Coulomb's inverse square law of charge q,
i→
with the former being related to the field A
produced by a scalar source, Idl while the R
latter being produced by a vector source, q. P
In light of above statements choose the ←i
B
most appropriate answer from the options
given below: µ 0i
(1) pointed into the page
(1) Both statement I and statement II are 4R
correct µ 0i
(2) pointed away from the page
(2) Both statement I and statement II are 4R
incorrect µ i  2
(3) 0  1 –  pointed away from page
(3) Statement I is correct and Statement II 4R  π
is incorrect µ 0i  2 
(4) 1– pointed into the page
(4) Statement I is incorrect and Statement 4R  π 
II is correct

60 Moving Charge and Magnetism

26. A wire carrying a current I along the 28. A uniform electric field and a uniform
positive x-axis has length L. It is kept in a
 magnetic field are acting along the same
magnetic field = ˆ T. The
B (2iˆ + 3ˆj – 4k)
direction in a certain region. If an electron
magnitude of the magnetic force acting on
the wire is: [NEET_2023] is projected in the region such that its
(1) 3 IL (2) 5 ΙL velocity is pointed along the direction of

(3) 5 IL (4) 3 ΙL fields, then the electron:

[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
27. A long straight wire of length 2m and mass (1) will turn towards right of direction of
250 g is suspended horizontally in a
motion
uniform horizontal magnetic field of 0.7 T.
The amount of current flowing through the (2) will turn towards left of direction of
wire will be (g = 9.8 ms–2): motion
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(3) speed will decrease
(1) 2.45 A (2) 2.25 A
(4) speed will increase
(3) 2.75 A (4) 1.75 A

Moving Charge and Magnetism 61

 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 2 1 3 2 4 4 2 4 3 3 1 2 3 1 1 3 2 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 4 2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 4 3 2 3 1 4 3 1 2 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 3 4 2 2 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 4 4 3 1 3 4 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 1 3 1 3 4 4 2 3 4 1 2 4 2 2 3 3 1 4 4

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 2 3 4 1 4 1 2 1 1 4 3 4 4 2 4 1 1 2 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 3 3 4 2 3

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. 1 2 1 2 4 4 3 4 1 3 1 2 4 4 4

Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 3 4 3 1 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Ans. 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3

62 Moving Charge and Magnetism

 2 Magnetism and Matter
1. Magnetic Charge
Based on similarities between electrostatic & magnetic phenomenon, the behaviour of a current
loop can be understood using the following hypothetical model:
There are two types of magnetic charges, positive magnetic charge called north pole and
negative magnetic charge called south pole. A magnetic charge with pole strength m placed in
a magnetic field experiences a force
 
F = mB
A magnetic charge m produces a magnetic field
µ0 m
B=
4π r 2
at a distance r from it. The field is radially outward if magnetic charge is positive & is inward if
it is negative.

2. Bar Magnet & Pole Strength

2.1 Bar Magnet
It is most commonly used form of an artificial magnet. It consists of two equal and opposite
magnetic poles, separated by a small distance.
The shortest distance between the two poles is called effective length or magnetic length (Lm),
whereas the actual length of the magnet is known as geometrical length (Lg). Geometrical length
is always greater than its magnetic length as poles do not lie exactly at ends as shown.
S N
Lm
Lg

• For a bar magnet Lm ≈ 5/6 Lg

• For a semi-circular magnet of radius ‘R’ S N

Lg = πR ; Lm = 2R

2.2 Pole Strength (m)

The strength of a magnetic pole to attract magnetic materials towards itself is known as pole
strength.
S N
SS NN Cross − Sectional Area − more
SS NN
S
S
N
N
Pole strength − more

S N Cross − Sectional Area − less

SS NN
S N Pole strength − less

• Pole strength of the magnet depends on the nature of material of magnet and area of cross
section. It doesn’t depend upon its length.
• It is a scalar quantity.
• Pole strength of N and S pole of a magnet is conventionally represented by +m and –m
respectively.
• Its SI units are ampere metre and newton/tesla.
• Its dimensional formula is [LA].

Magnetism and Matter 1

3. Magnetic Moment of Bar Magnet
Neutral point
Magnetic –m +m A
axis

S  N
a Cross sec tional
view

The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is defined as a vector quantity having magnitude equal
to the product of pole strength (m) with effective length () and directed along the axis of the
magnet from south pole to north pole. S.I. Unit A-m2
 
M = m

3.1 Cutting of Bar magnet :

• If a magnet is cut into two equal parts along the length then pole strength is reduced to half
m M
and length remains unchanged. New magnetic dipole moment M'=m'() = × = .
2 2
The new magnetic dipole moment of each part becomes half of original value.

–m  +m
S N
M= m × 

 =/2 m' = m
m' (m / 2)=
= × 
m' = m  =/2
S N
S N S N
S N
 M  M
M' = m × = M' = m × =
M' (m / 2)=
= × M/ 2 2 2 2 2
along the length P erpendicular to length

• If a magnet is cut into two equal parts transverse to the length then pole strength remains
 M
unchanged and length is reduced to half. New magnetic dipole moment M’ = m   = .
2
  2
The new magnetic dipole moment of each part becomes half of original value.

• Effective length or magnetic length :– It is distance between two poles along the axis of a bar
magnet. As pole are not exactly at the ends, the effective length () is less than the geometrical
length (0) of the bar magnet.   0.83 0
• Inverse square law (Coulomb law) : The magnetic force between two isolated magnetic poles
of strength m1 and m2 lying at a distance 'r' is directly proportional to the product of pole
strength and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres. The
magnetic force between the poles can be attractive or repulsive according to the nature of the
poles.
Fm ∝ m1m2 µ0
mm (S.I.)
Fm = k 1 2 2 where k 4π
1 r
Fm ∝ 1 (C.G.S.)
r2

• Inverse square law of Coulomb in magnetism is applicable only for two long bar magnets
because isolated poles cannot exist.

2 Magnetism and Matter

Example 1:
The force between two magnetic poles in air is 9.604 mN. If one pole is 10 times stronger than
the other, calculate the pole strength of each if distance between two poles is 0.1 m?
Solution:
µ0 m1m2
Force between poles F =
4π r2
–3 10–7 ⋅ m ⋅ 10m
or 9.604 × 10 =
(0.1)
2

2 2 –2
or m = 96.04N T ⇒ m= 9.8N/T
So strength of other pole is 9.8 × 10 = 98 N/T

Example 2:
A steel wire of length L has a magnetic moment M. It is then bent into a semicircular arc. What
is the new magnetic moment ?
Solution:
If m is the pole strength then
M
M = m.L ⇒ m =
L
If it is bent into a semicircular arc then
L
L=π r ⇒ r =
π
So new magnetic moment
M L 2M
M’ = m × 2r = ×2× =
L π π

Example 3:
Two identical bar magnets each of length L and pole strength m are placed at right angles to
each other with the north pole of one touching the south pole of other. Evaluate the magnetic
moment of the system.
Solution:
M1 =M2 = mL

π
∴ MR = M11 + M22 + 2M1M2 cos = 2 mL
2
S M2
φ
M1
MR
NS N
M2 M1

Msin90º
and tan φ = =1
M + Mcos 90º
–1
i.e., φ = tan 1 = 45°

Magnetism and Matter 3

 Concept Builder-1
2
1. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 3.0 A-m is placed in a uniform magnetic induction field of
–5 –4
2 × 10 T. If each pole of the magnet experiences a force of 6 × 10 N, the length of the magnet
is
(1) 0.5 m (2) 0.3 m (3) 0.2 m (4) 0.1 m

2. Two identical bar magnets are placed together in three different ways as shown below.
N

N S S N
N S N S S
N S
(1) (2) (3)
Calculate the magnetic moment of the combination in each case if that of each magnet is M.

3. Find the magnetic dipole moment of the combination of the identical bar magnets each of
dipole moment p0.
N S
N θ

4. Magnetic Field and Field Lines

Space around a magnetic pole of a magnet or a current carrying wire, within which its effect
can be experienced is defined as magnetic field. The pattern of iron filings permits us to plot
the magnetic field lines.

The magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid are shown below.

Field Lines of a Solenoid

4 Magnetism and Matter

Field lines of a Bar Magnet
The properties of magnetic field lines are
(i) The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops. This is
unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on
the negative charge or escape to infinity.
(ii) Inside the magnet, field lines from south to north while outside the magnet, they go from
north to south.
(iii) The tangent to the field line at an given point represents the direction of the magnetic field
at that point.
(iv) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of
the magnetic field .
(v) The magnetic field lines do not intersect, for if they did, the direction of the magnetic field
would not be unique at the point of intersection.
(vi) Magnetic field lines have tendency to contract longitudinally indicating attraction between
unlike magnetic poles. The lines also have tendency to dilate laterally, indicating repulsion
between like magnetic poles as shown below.
N N N S

5. Strength of Magnetic Field

It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at the given point in the
magnetic field.
Hence, magnetic field due to an imaginary magnetic pole with-pole strength m is
F µ m
B= = 0 2
m 4π r

6. Magnetic Field due to Bar Magnet

r+
r–
P
S 2 N B2 B1
r
(i) At Axial position
Magnetic field at point 'P' due to north pole
µ0 m
B1 = (away from north pole)
4 π ( r −  )2

Magnetic field at point 'P' due to south pole

µ0 m
B2 = (towards north pole)
4π (r +  )2
Net magnetic field at point 'P'
Baxis = B1 – B2, (B1 > B2)
µ0 2Mr µ  4rm 
= = 0  2 
4π (r2 –  2 )2 4π  (r –  2 )2 
µ 2Mr
Baxis = 0 2 , where M = m (2)
4π (r – 2 )2
µ0 2M
If magnet is short r >> , then ⇒ Baxis ~
4π r3

Magnetism and Matter 5

 (ii) At equatorial position
Magnetic field at point 'P' due to north pole :–
µ0 m B1
B1= ..... (1) (along NP line)
4π
( )
2
r2 + 2
θ P
Bequatorial
θ
Magnetic field at point 'P' due to south pole
µ0 m r 2 + 2 B2 r 2 + 2
B2= ..... (2) (along PS line)
( )
4π 2 r
r2 + 2
θ θ
S O N
From equation (1) & (2)
2
µ0 m
B1 = B2 = = B (Let) ·
r2 +  2 4π
Net magnetic field at point 'P'
µ0 m 
Beq = 2 B cosθ = 2· cosθ , [where cosθ = ]
4π (r + 2 )2
(r + 2 )
2

µ0 m 
= 2·
4π (r +  ) (r + 2 )
2 2 2

µ0 M
Beq = · where M = m (2)
4π (r +  2 )3/2
2

If magnet is short r >> , then

µ0 M
Beq ~
4π r 3

7. Gauss Law in Magnetism

Net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.
 
B.dS = 0 ∫
It implies that monopole doesn’t exist.
A consequence of the fact that magnetic monopoles do not exist is that the magnetic field lines
are continuous and form closed loops. In contrast, the electrostatic lines of force begin on a
positive charge and terminate on the negative charge.

Example 4:
Calculate the magnetic induction at a point 1Å away from a proton, measured along its axis of
–26 2
spin. The magnetic moment of the proton is 1.4 × 10 A-m .
Solution:
On the axis of a magnetic dipole magnetic induction is given by,
µ0 2M
B= . ·
r34π
Substituting the values, we get
(10–7 )(2)(1.4 × 10–26 ) –3
B= –10 3
= 2.8 × 10 T = 2.8 mT
(10 )

6 Magnetism and Matter

Example 5:
What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial fields due to a bar magnet of length 5.0 cm
2
at a distance of 50 cm from its mid point? The magnetic moment of the bar magnet is 0.40 A m .
Solution:
µ0 M 10–7 × 0.4 –7
Beq = = = 3.2 × 10 T
4π r3 (0.5)3

µ0 2M 10–7 × 2 × 0.4 –7
Baxial = = = 6.4 × 10 T
4π r 3
(0.5) 3

Example 6:
In the figure below, calculate the magnetic field at point A. Dipole moment of each magnet
2
shown is 1Am .

N
A
N S
S
50cm 50cm

Solution:
Point A is on the axial line of first magnet and the field
N
produced by the first magnet is B1 A
N S
µ0 2M –7 S
B1 = = = 16 × 10 T B B2
4π r 3
Point A is on the equatorial line of second magnet and the field produced by the second magnet is
µ0 M 10–7 × 1 –7
B2 = = = 8 × 10 T
4π r 3
(0.5)3

Therefore net magnetic field at A is

B= B21 + B22 = 8 5 × 10–7 T

8. Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field

8.1 Torque

A small compass needle of known magnetic moment M and

moment of inertia I is placed in a uniform magnetic field B
at an angle θ as shown.
Both of its poles experience equal and opposite forces due
to which net force on it is always zero. Hence the magnetic
dipole is always in translational equilibrium in a uniform
magnetic field. But torque on it is non-zero. It can be
calculated as
τ = r⊥ F = (2 sin θ) mB
= m 2 B sinθ (M = m 2)
τ = MB sinθ
 
In vector form τ= M × B

Magnetism and Matter 7

 Special cases
(1) When θ = 0°, τ =0
The dipole is in rotational equilibrium also.

(2) When θ = 180°, τ = 0 again

(3) When θ = 90°, | τ | = τmax = MB

8.2 Work Done in rotating a dipole in external field

Torque on a dipole in magnetic field is given by
τ = MB sin θ
If dipole is rotated by a small angle dθ, then work is done against torque which is given by
dW = τdθ = MB sinθ dθ
Total work done is given by
θ2

∫ dW
W == ∫ MB sin θdθ
θ1

W = MB (cosθ1 – cosθ2)
This work done is stored in the form of potential energy of system.

8.3 Potential Energy of magnetic dipole in external field

Change in potential energy = work done
∆U = W = MB (cosθ1 – cos θ2)
As we are interested only in the change in the potential energy of the dipole, let us define its
potential energy to be zero when it is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Uinitial = 0, when θ1 = 90°
and Ufinal = U, when θ2 = θ
 
U = –MB cosθ = −M.B ]
Special cases
(1) When θ = 0°, = 0, U = Umin = –MB
The dipole is in total equilibrium and its potential energy is minimum, so its equilibrium is
stable.

(2) When θ = 180°, τ = 0, U = Umax = MB

(3) When θ = 90°, | τ | = τmax = MB, U = 0

Example 7:
4
An magnetic dipole is placed at an angle of 30° with an magnetic field of intensity 10 T. It
experiences a torque equal to 5 Nm. Calculate the pole strength of the dipole, If dipole length
is 1 cm.
Solution:
τ
As τ = MB sinθ, M =
B sin θ
5 –3 2
= 4
= 10 Am
[(10 )(0.5)]
M –1
Thus, m = = 10 Am = 0.1 Am
d

8 Magnetism and Matter

Example 8:
–1
A bar magnet of magnetic moment 1.5 JT lies aligned with the direction of a uniform magnetic
field of 0.22 T.
(a) What is the amount of work required to turn the magnet so as to align its magnetic moment-
(i) Normal to the field direction?
(ii) Opposite to the field direction?
(b) What is the torque on the magnet in case (i) and (ii)?
Solution:
–1
Here, M = 1.5 JT , B = 0.22 T.
(a) P.E. with magnetic moment aligned to field = – MB
P.E. with magnetic moment normal to field = 0
P.E. with magnetic moment antiparallel to field = + MB
(i) Work done = increase in P.E. = 0 – (–MB)
= MB = 1.5 × 0.22 = 0.33 J.
(ii) Work done = increase in P.E. = MB – (–MB)
= 2MB = 2 × 1.5 × 0.22 = 0.66 J.
(b) We have τ = MBsinθ
(i) τ = MB sinθ = 1.5 × 0.22 × 1 = 0.33 J.
(θ=90° ⇒sinθ=1)
This torque will tend to align M with B.
(ii) τ = MB sinθ = 1.5 × 0.22 × 0=0
(θ =180° ⇒ sinθ=0)

Example 9:
A short bar magnet of magnetic moment 0.32 J/T is placed in uniform field of 0.15 T. If the bar
is free to rotate in plane of field then which orientation would correspond to its
(i) stable and
(ii) unstable equilibrium? What is potential energy of magnet in each case?
Solution:
(i) If M is parallel to B then θ=0°. So potential
energy U = Umin = – MB
–2
Umin = –MB = –0.32 × 0.15 J = –4.8×10 J
(stable equilibrium)
(ii) If M is antiparallel to B then θ = π
So potential energy
–2
U = Umax=+MB =+0.32×0.15=4.8 × 10 J
(unstable equilibrium)

Magnetism and Matter 9

9. Oscillations of Bar Magnet in a Uniform Magnetic Field
Let a bar magnet of dipole moment M and moment of inertial I is slightly disturbed by a small
angle θ from its stable equilibrium position in a uniform magnetic field B. Restoring torque acting
on it is
τ = MB sin θ
for small angle sin θ ≈ θ
∴ τ = Iα = MBθ
MB  MB  θ
or α= θ or α =– θ
I I 
Which is the standard equation of angular SHM. Hence B

MB I
ω= or T = 2π
I MB

Example 10:
–2 2 –6 2
A magnetic needle has magnetic moment 8 × 10 Am and moment of inertia = 7.5 × 10 kg-m .
It performs 10 complete oscillations in 8s when placed in a uniform magnetic field. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field?
Solution:
The time period of oscillation is
8
T= = 0.8 s
10
I
As T = 2π , therefore
MB
4π2I 4 × (3.14)2 × 7.5 × 10–6
B= = = 0.006T
MT2 8 × 10–2 × (0.8)2

The Electrostatic Analog

Electrostatics Magnetism
1
µ0
ε0
Charge q Magnetic Pole Strength (m)
Dipole Moment Magnetic Dipole Moment
   
p= q ⋅ I M = ml
q1q2 µ0 m1m2
F= 2
F=
4πε0r 4π r 2
   
F = qE F = mB
  
2p  µ0 2M
Axial Field E = B=
4πε0r 3 4π r 3
  
−p  µ0 M
Equatorial field E = B= −
4πε0r 3 4π r 3
     
Torque τ = p × E τ= M × B
   
Potential Energy U =−p ⋅ E U =−M ⋅ B
Work
= W pE ( cosθ1 − cosθ2 ) =W MB ( cosθ1 − cosθ2 )

10 Magnetism and Matter

 Concept Builder-2

Q.1 What is the Intensity of magnetic field at following points due to the bar magnet
2
(M = 1A-m )
P
N S P
(a) (b) 1m
2m N S

P
1m
(c)
30º
S N

(Assume length of bar magnet to be very small)

Q.2 A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with a uniform external magnetic field of 0.25 T
–2
experiences a torque of magnitude equal to 4.5 × 10 N-m. What is the magnitude of magnetic
moment of the magnet?

–3
Q.3 A magnetic dipole of length of 10 cm having pole strength ± 2 × 10 Am, placed at 53° with
respect to a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque of 8 Nm. Calculate
(a) magnitude of magnetic field
(b) The potential energy of the dipole

–2 –2
Q.4 A bar magnet of pole strength ±6 × 10 A-m is placed in a magnetic field of strength 4 × 10 T,
making an angle 60° with the field. Assuming length of the magnet to be 10 mm. Find out
(A) Torque on the magnet
(B) The orientation it will tend to rotate. Stable or unstable equilibrium.
(C) Change in P.E. when it attains
(i) Stable equilibrium
(ii) Unstable equilibrium

10. Earth’s Magnetism [Deleted]

10.1 Introduction of basic elements
The branch of physics which deals with the study of earth's magnetic field is called
geomagnetism.
Important definitions
(a) Geographic axis : It is a straight line passing through the geographical poles of the earth. It is
also called axis of rotation or polar axis of the earth.
(b) Geographic Meridian (GM) : It is a vertical plane at any place which passing through geographical
axis of the earth.

Magnetism and Matter 11

 (c) Magnetic Meridian (MM) : It is a vertical plane passing through N-S line of freely suspended
magnet.
(i) It is a vertical plane at any place which passing through magnetic axis of the earth.
North
N
West S East
South
Magnetic meridian
(ii) It is a vertical plane at any place which passes through axis of free suspended bar magnet
or magnetic needle.
(iii) It is a vertical plane at any place which contains all the magnetic field lines of earth of that
place.

(d) Geographic equator : It is a great circle on the surface of the earth, in a plane perpendicular to
the geographic axis. All the points on the geographic equator are at equal distance from the
geographic poles.
A great plane which passes through geographic equator and perpendicular to the geographic
axis called geographic equatorial plane. This plane cuts the earth in two equal parts, a part has
geographic north called northern hemisphere (NHS) and another part has geographic south
called southern hemisphere (SHS).
Geographical
axis or polar axis
Magnetic Geographical
south pole North pole

Geographical
equator
Magnetic
equator Magnetic
Geogrephical north pole
south pole

(e) Magnetic axis : It is a straight line passing through magnetic poles of the earth. It is inclined to
the geographic axis at nearly 17°.
(f) Magnetic Equator : It is a great circle on the surface of the earth, in a plane perpendicular to
the magnetic axis. All the points on the magnetic equator are at equal distance from the
magnetic poles.

12 Magnetism and Matter

10.2 Components of Earth’s Magnetic Field
Main elements of earth's magnetic field GM
Angle of Declination (φ) MM φ
At a given place, the acute angle between geographic meridian and the
magnetic meridian is called angle of declination, i.e. at a given place it is the
angle between the geographical north south direction and the direction
indicated by a magnetic compass needle in its equilibrium.
Angle of Dip (θ) :
(i) It is an angle which the direction of resultant magnetic field of the earth subtends with the
horizontal line in magnetic meridian at the given place.
GM
φ
horizontal
BH θ
line
B Bv
for NHS

MM

(ii) It is an angle which the axis of freely suspended magnetic needle (up or down) subtends
with the horizontal line in magnetic meridian at a given place.
In northern hemisphere, north pole of freely suspended magnetic needle will dip downwards
i.e. towards the earth surface. In southern hemi sphere, south pole of freely suspended
magnetic needle will dip downwards i.e. towards the earth surface.
Horizontal component of earth magnetic field (BH)
Horizontal component of earth magnetic field at a given place is the component of resultant
magnetic field of the earth along the horizontal line in magnetic meridian.
BH = B cos θ and Bv = B sin θ ....(1)
BV
so that tan θ = and B = BH2 + B2V ....(2)
BH
At magnetic poles θ = 90°
BH = 0 and only BV exist
At magnetic equator θ = 0°
BV = 0 and only BH exist
φ decides the plane in which magnetic field lies at any place, (φ) and (θ) decides the direction
of magnetic field and (θ) and (BH) decides the magnitude of the field.

11. Neutral Points

It is a point where net magnetic field is zero.
At this point, magnetic field of bar magnet or current carrying coil or current carrying wire is
just neutralised by magnetic field of earth. (BH)
A compass needle placed at this neutral point can set itself in any direction.

Magnetism and Matter 13

 Location of Neutral Points
(a) When N–pole of magnet directed towards North :- Two neutral points symmetrically located
on equatorial line of magnet. Let distance of each neutral point from centre of magnet is 'y'
then N
N
Beq = BH
BH BH BH
W y E
µ0 M
BH = . neutral y neutral
4π (y2 +  2 )3/2 point
Bequstorial
S
µ0 M S
. = BH (If y >>> )
4π y3

(b) When S–pole of magnet directed towards North

Two neutral points symmetrically located on the axial line of magnet. Let distance of each
neutral points from centre of the magnet is x, then neutral N
point BH
S Baixs
µ0 2Mx BH
Baxis = BH ⇒ BH =
4π (x2 – 2 )2 x

W E
µ0 2M
= BH (If x >>> )
4π x3 x

N BH
µ0 2M Baixs
= BH (If x >>> ) neutral S
4π x3 point

Example 11:
The magnetic field at a point x on the axis of a small bar magnet is equal to the field at a point
y on the equator of the same magnet. Find the ratio of the distances of x and y from the centre
of the magnet.
Solution:
µ0 2M
Baxis = Bequatorial =
4π x3
µ0 M
=
4π y 3

2 1 x3 2
⇒ = ⇒ =
x 3
y 3
y 3
1
x 1/3
⇒ =2
y

14 Magnetism and Matter

12. Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity

• Magnetising field or Magnetic intensity (H)
Field in which a material is placed for magnetisation, called as magnetising field.

 B0 magnetic field
H= =
µ0 permeability of free space
SI Unit : ampere/meter and dimension [L–1A]

• Intensity of Magnetisation ( I )
When a magnetic material is placed in magnetising field then induced dipole moment per\unit

 M
volume of that material is known as intensity of magnetisation I =
V
SI Unit : ampere/meter and dimension [M0L–1T0A]
 
M IA ampere × meter 2
[ = = ] In free space I = 0
V V meter 3
• Magnetic Susceptibility (χm)
I
χm =
H
[It is a scalar quantity with no units and dimensions]
Physically it represents the ease with which a magnetic material can be magnetised
A material with higher value of xm can easily be magnetised.
• Magnetic Permeability (µ)
Bm Total magnetic field inside the material
µ= =
H magnetisin g field
It measures the degree to which a magnetic material can be penetrated (or permeated) by the
magnetic field lines
Bm Wb / m2 Wb H− A H
SI Unit of µ : µ = ≡ ≡ ≡ = and dimension [MLT–2A–2]
H A /m A −m A −m m
[ φ = L I ∴ weber ≡ henry – ampere]

µ
• Relative Permeability: µr =
µ0
It has no units and dimensions.
• Relation Between Permeability and Susceptibility

When a magnetic material is placed in magnetic field B0 for magnetisation then total magnetic
   
field in material B=
M
B0 + Bi , where Bi = induced field.
      
 B0 = µ0H ; Bi = µ0 I ∴ BM = µ0H + µ0 I

 I B  I
⇒ BM = µ0 (H + I) = µ0 H  1 +  ⇒ M = µ0  1 +  ⇒ µ = µ0(1 + χm) ⇒ µr = 1 + χm
 H  H  H 
for vacuum χm = 0, (µr = 1) at STP for air χm = 0.04
(at S.T.P. for air µr = 1.04)

Magnetism and Matter 15

Example 12:
Obtain the earth’s magnetisation. Assume that the earth’s field can be approximated by a giant
bar magnet of magnetic moment 8.0 × 1022 Am2. The earth’s radius is 6400 km.
Solution:
The earth’s radius R = 6400 km = 6.4 × 106 m
Magnetisation is the magnetic moment per unit volume. Hence,
M 8.0 × 1022 × 3 24.0 × 104
I= = = = 72.9 Am–1
4π 3 4 × π × (6.4 × 106 )3 4 × 3.14 × 262.1
R
3

Example 13:
A solenoid has a core of a material with relative permeability 400. The windings of the solenoid
are insulated from the core and carry a current of 2A. If the number of turns is 1000 per meter,
Calculate H, I and B
Solution:
(a) The field H is independent of the material of the core, and is
µ0ni
H= = ni = 1000 × 2 = 2 × 103 A/m.
µ0
(b) The magnetic field B is given by
B = µr µ0 H = 400 × 4π × 10–7 × 2 × 103 = 1.0 T
(c) Magnetisation is given by
I = χH = (µr – 1) H = 399 × 2 × 103 = 8 × 105 A/m

Example 14:
When a rod of magnetic material of size 10cm × 0.5cm × 0.2 cm is located in magnetising field of
0.5 × 104 A/m then a magnetic moment of 5 A-m2 is induced in it. Find out magnetic induction in rod.
Solution:
Total magnetic induction
M   M  5 
B = µ0 (I + H) = µ0  + H   I =  = 4π × 10–7  −6 + 0.5 × 104  = 6.28 Wb/m2
V   V  10 

Concept Builder-3

Q.1 A solenoid of 500 turns/m is carrying a current of 3A. Its core is made of iron which has a
relative permeability of 5000. Determine the magnitudes of the magnetic intensity,
magnetization and the magnetic field inside the core.

Q.2 A rod of magnetic material of cross section 0.25 cm2 is located in 4000 A/m magnetising field.
Magnetic flux passes through the rod is 25 × 10–6 Wb. Find out for rod
(i) permeability (ii) magnetic susceptibility (iii) magnetization

Q.3 Relation between permeability µ and magnetising field H for a sample of iron is
 0.4 
µ=  + 12 × 10−4  henry/meter. where unit of H is A/m. Find value of H for which magnetic
 H 
induction of 1.0 Wb/m2 can be produce.

16 Magnetism and Matter

13. Magnetic Properties of Materials
Almost all substances have certain magnetic properties. On the basis of magnetic behaviour of
different materials, substances divided into three categories.
(i) Diamagnetism
(ii) Paramagnetism
(iii) Ferromagnetism

14. Classification of Magnetic Materials

On the basis of magnetic properties of the materials [as magnetisation intensity (I),
Susceptibility (χm) and relative permeability (µr)] Faraday divide these materials in three classes–

PROPERTIES DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC

Cause of Orbital motion of
Spin of electrons Magnetic Domains
magnetism electrons
Atoms have permanent
magnetic moment which is
Atoms have permanent
Magnetic Atoms do not have any randomly oriented. (i.e. in
magnetic moment
moment of permanent magnetic absence of external
which are organised in
atoms moment magnetic field the magnetic
domains.
moment of whole material
is zero)
Magnetic
moment of
substance in Value is very less and Value is low but in direction Value is very high and
presence of opposite to B of B in direction of B
external
magnetic field
Poor magnetisation in Poor magnetisation in same
direction. Poor magnetisation in
opposite direction.
Substance Here Bm > B0 same direction.
Here Bm < B0
placed in Here Bm >> B0
uniform
magnetic field

I : Small, negative, I : Large, positive,

I : Small, positive, varies
varies linearly with the varies non-linearly
linearly with the field
field with the field
I
I - H curve I I

H
H H

Magnetism and Matter 17

 χ – very large, positive
χ - small, negative & χ – small, positive & varies & varies above curie
temperature inversely with temperature temperature (Tc)
Susceptibility (χ)
independent 1 1
χ∝ χ∝
χ∝T 0 T T – Tc
(Curie law) (Curie Weiss law)
(for T > Tc)

χ χ χ

χ - T curve
T
T T
Tc

Relative
1 > µr > 0 (µ < µ0) 2 > µr > 1 (µ > µ0) µr >> 1 (µ >> µ0)
permeability (µr)

Substance
N S N S
placed in non- N S

uniform
magnetic field N S
N S
N S

Weak magnetic field

If there is strong magnetic
It becomes perpendicular between magnetic
When rod of field in between the poles
to the direction of poles can made rod
material is then rod becomes parallel to
external magnetic field parallel to field
suspended the magnetic field
direction
freely between
poles of magnet
N S
N S
N S

Bi, Cu, Ag, Pb, H2O, Hg, Fe, Co, Ni all their
H2, He, Ne, Au, Zn, Sb, Na, K, Mg, Mn, Sn, Pt, Al, O2 alloys, Fe3O4, Gd, Alnico
Examples NaCl, Diamond. (May be (May be found in solid, liquid etc,
found in solid, liquid or or gas). (Normally found in
gas). solids only)

Example 15:
What is the susceptibility and permeability of a perfectly diamagnetic substance?
Solution:
χm = –1 and µ = 0

18 Magnetism and Matter

15. Magnetic Hysteresis & Hysteresis Loss

B ( + )ve saturation
a
b

Br
c
H
Hc O f

e
d
(–)ve saturation

Only Ferromagnetic materials show magnetic hysteresis, when Ferromagnetic material is placed
in external magnetic field for magnetisation then B increases with H non-linearly along Oa. If H
is again bring to zero then it decreases along path ab. Due to lagging behind of B with H, this
curve is known as hysteresis curve. [Lagging of B behind H is called hysteresis]
Cause of hysteresis: By removing external magnetising field (H = 0), the magnetic moment of
some domains remains aligned in the applied direction of previous magnetising field which
results into a residual magnetism.

• Residual magnetism (ob) = Br retentivity or remanence

Retentivity of a specimen is a measure of the magnetic field remaining in the ferromagnetic
specimen when the magnetising field is removed.

• Coercivity (oc) : Coercivity is a measure of magnetising field required to destroy the residual
magnetism of the ferromagnetic specimen.

Ferromagnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

Low retentivity, low coercivity and small High retentivity, high coercivity
hysteresis loss and large hysteresis loss

suitable for making electromagnets, cores suitable for permanent magnet

of transformers etc.

Ex. Soft iron, Ex. Steel, Alnico, lodestone

(used in magnetic shielding)

Magnetism and Matter 19

 Hysteresis loss:
(i) The area of hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material is equal to the energy loss per cycle
of magnetisation and demagnetisation per unit volume.
WH = ∫ B.dH = µ0 ∫ I.dH
B
Soft
magnetic
material

H H
Hard
magnetic
material
B
(ii) Its value is different for different materials.
(iii) The work done per cycle per unit volume of material is equal to the area of hysteresis loop.
∴ Total energy loss in material
VAnt
WH = V A n t (joule) = (calorie)
J
i.e., WH = volume of material (V) × area of hysteresis curve (A) × frequency (n) × time (t).
M M M

B0 B0 B0

fig.(a) fig.(b) fig.(c)

The materials of both (a) and (b) remain strongly magnetized when B0 is reduced to zero. The
material of (a) is also hard to demagnetize, it would be good for permanent magnets.
The material of (b) magnetizes and demagnetizes more easily, it could be used as a computer
memory material. The material of (c) would be useful for transformers and other alternating-
current devices where zero hysteresis would be optimal.

Example 16:
The B-H curves (a) and (b) drawn below are associated with :
B a
b

(1) a diamagnetic and a ferromagnetic substance respectively

(2) a paramagnetic and a ferromagnetic substance respectively
(3) soft iron and steel respectively
(4) steel and soft iron respectively
Solution:
Soft iron and steel respectively (3)

20 Magnetism and Matter

 Concept Builder-4

Q.1 Fill in the blanks :

The magnetic materials having negative magnetic susceptibility are called ............ and those
having positive susceptibility are called ...........

Q.2 State whether the statement given below is true or false giving reason in brief :
The product of magnetic susceptibility and absolute temperature T for a paramagnetic
substance is a constant.

Q.3 Soft iron is used in many parts of electrical machines for :

(1) low hysteresis loss and low permeability
(2) low hysteresis loss and high permeability
(3) high hysteresis loss and low permeability
(4) high hysteresis loss and high permeability

16. Magnetic Shielding

If a soft iron ring is placed in magnetic field, most of the lines are found to pass through the
ring and no lines pass through the space inside the ring. The inside of the ring is thus protected
against any external magnetic effect. This phenomenon is called magnetic screening or shielding
and is used to protect costly wrist–watches and other instruments from external magnetic
fields by enclosing them in a soft–iron case or box.

B=0 B=0

Iron ring in a field Super conductor in a field

(i) Super conductors also provides perfect magnetic screening due to exclusion of lines of
force. This effect is called 'Meissner effect'
(ii) Relative magnetic permeability of super conductor is zero. So, we can say that super
conductors behaves like perfect diamagnetic.

Magnetism and Matter 21

 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 4. (A) 12 3 × 10

–6
N-m
1. (4)
(B) The torque on the magnet will
2. In Case I, Meq = M + M = 2M always try to bring the magnet into

In Case II, Meq = M – M = O stable equilibrium due to minimum

potential energy in this orientation.

In Case III, Meq = M2 + M2 = 2M
–6
(C) (i) ∆U = Ustable – Ui = –12 × 10 J
θ
3. 2p0 cos
2 (ii) ∆U = Uunstable – Ui = 36 × 10
–6
J

CONCEPT BUILDER-3
CONCEPT BUILDER-2
1. 1500 A/m, 7.5 ×106 A/m, 9.4 T
–7
1. (a) B = 0.25 × 10 T 2. (i) 2.5 × 10–4 wb/A-m, (ii) 198,
–7
(b) B = 10 T (iii) 7.92 × 105 A/m

13 3. 500 A/m
(c) Bp = × 10−7 T
2
–1
2. 0.36 JT
CONCEPT BUILDER-4
4
3. (a) 5 × 10 T (b) –6 J 1. Dia, para (or ferro)

2. χm ∝ (1/T)

3. (2)

22 Magnetism and Matter

 Exercise - I
Bar Magnet and Earth's Magnetism 6. A bar magnet of length 3 cm has points A
and B along its axis at distances of 24 cm
1. Two identical short magnetic dipoles of
and 48 cm from centre on the opposite
magnetic moments 1.0 A-m2 each, placed
at a separation of 2 m with their axes sides. Ratio of magnetic fields as these
perpendicular to each other. The resultant points will be :
magnetic field at a point midway between A B
24 cm 48 cm
the dipole is:
1
(1) 8 (2)
2 2
(1) 5 × 10–7 T (2) 5 × 10–7 T
(3) 3 (4) 4
(3) 10–7 T (4) 2 × 10–7 T

7. Magnetic field intensity of a short magnet

2. A bar magnet has a magnetic moment 2.5
JT–1 and is placed in a magnetic field of 0.2 at a distance 1m. on axial line is 1 oersted.
T. Work done in turning the magnet from At a distance 2 m. on the same line the
parallel to antiparallel position relative to intensity in oersted is :-
the field direction. (1) 0.75 (2) 0.125
(1) 0.5 J (2) 1 J (3) 0.25 (4) 0.5
(3) 2.0 J (4) Zero

Magnetic Properties of Materials

3. Magnetic field lines produced by a bar
magnet, cuts each other :
8. Powerful permanent magnets are made
(1) At neutral points
(2) Near the poles of the magnets of:-

(3) At equatorial axis (1) Cobalt (2) Aluminum

(4) Never intersect each other (3) Tin–coal (4) Cobalt–steel

4. Value of earth’s magnetic field at any point 9. The value of magnetic susceptibility for
is 7 × 10–5 wb/m2. This field is neutralised super–conductors is :-
by field which is produced at the centre of (1) Zero (2) Infinity
a current carrying loop of radius 5 cm. The
(3) +1 (4) –1
current in the loop (approx) :
(1) 0.56 A (2) 5.6 A
10. The correct I–H curve for paramagnetic
(3) 0.28 A (4) 28 A
materials is :-

5. For a magnetic needle placed in a uniform Ι Ι

magnetic field, which of following are (1) (2)
correct :- H H

(a) F ≠ 0, τ ≠ 0 (b) F ≠ 0, τ = 0
Ι Ι
(c) F = 0, τ ≠ 0 (d) F = 0, τ = 0
(1) a, b (2) a, c (3) (4)
H H
(3) c, d (4) b, d

Magnetism and Matter 23

11. The correct measure of magnetic hardness 17. For an isotropic medium B, µ0, H and I are
of a material is :- related as (where B, µ0, H and I have their
(1) Remanence magnetism usual meaning in the context of magnetic
(2) Hysteresis loss material:
(1) (B–I) = µ0H (2) B = µ0(H–I)
(3) Coercivity
(3) H = µ0(B+I) (4) B = µ0 (H+I)
(4) Curie temperature

18. Curie-Weiss law is obeyed by iron at a

12. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic temperature:
substance is 3 × 10–4. It is placed in a (1) Below Curie temperature
magnetising field of 4 × 104 A/m. The (2) Above Curie temperature
intensity of magnetisation will be: (3) At Curie temperature only
(1) 3 × 10 A/m
8
(2) 12 × 10 A/m
8 (4) At all temperatures
(3) 12 A/m (4) 24 A/m
19. If the permeability of iron piece is
3 × 10–3 Wb/A-m and intensity of
13. The magnetic susceptibility of a magnetic
magnetising field of iron piece is 120 A/m,
material is 30 × 10–4. Its relative
then what is the magnetic induction of iron
permeability will be:
piece:
(1) 31 × 10–4 (2) 1.003
(1) 0.36 Wb/m2 (2) 5 × 10–3 Wb/m2
(3) 1.0003 (4) 29 × 10–4 (3) 40 Wb/m2 (4) 2.5 × 10–4 Wb/m2

14. The coercivity of a bar magnet is 100A/m. 20. Relative permittivity and permeability of a
It is to be demagnetised by placing it inside material are εr and µr respectively. Which
a solenoid of length 100 cm and number of of the following values of these quantities
turns 50. The current flowing in the are allowed for a diamagnetic material:
solenoid will be :- (1) εr = 0.5, µr = 1.5 (2) εr = 1.5, µr = 0.5
(3) εr = 0.5, µr = 0.5 (4) εr = 1.5, µr = 1.5
(1) 4A (2) 2A
(3) 1A (4) zero
Classification of Magnetic Materials

15. When a magnetic substance is heated,

21. If a diamagnetic material is placed in a
then it:
magnetic field, the flux density inside the
(1) Becomes a strong magnet material compared to that outside will be:
(2) Losses its magnetism (1) Slightly less (2) Slightly more
(3) Does not effect the magnetism (3) Very much more (4) Same
(4) Either (1) or (3)
22. To protect a sensitive instrument from
16. When a small magnetising field H is applied external magnetic jerks, it should be
placed in a container made of:
to a magnetic material, the intensity of
(1) Non magnetic substance
magnetisation is proportional to :
(2) Diamagnetic substance
(1) H–2 (2) H1/2
(3) Paramagnetic substance
(3) H (4) H2
(4) Ferromagnetic substance

24 Magnetism and Matter

23. Substances in which the magnetic moment 29. The cause of diamagnetism is:
of a single atom is zero, are known as :- (1) Orbital motion of electrons
(1) Diamagnetic (2) Ferromagnetic (2) Spin of electrons
(3) Paramagnetic (4) Non magnetic (3) Paired electrons
(4) None of the above
24. Property possessed by only ferromagnetic
substance is :
30. The magnetic moment of diamagnetic
(1) Attracting magnetic substance
materials is
(2) Hysteresis
(1) Infinity
(3) Susceptibility independent of temperature
(2) Zero
(4) Directional property
(3) 100 amp–m2
(4) None of the above
25. When a diamagnetic substances is inserted
in a current carrying coil, then magnetic
field is :- 31. Which of the following statements is

(1) Decreased correct for diamagnetic materials:

(2) Unchanged (1) µr < 1
(3) Increased (2) χ is negative and low
(4) Increased or decreased depending upon (3) χ does not depend on temperature
the relative volume of the substance (4) All of the above

26. The hard ferromagnetic material is 32. The liquid in the watch glass in the
characterized by :-
following figure is:
(1) Narrow hysteresis loop
(2) Broad hysteresis loop
(3) Low permeability N S

(4) Mechanically hard surface (1) Ferromagnetic (2) Paramagnetic

(3) Diamagnetic (4) Nonmagnetic
27. The magnetic moment of paramagnetic
materials is :- 33. Which of the following statements is
(1) Infinity (2) Zero correct for ferromagnetic material:
(3) Constant but low (4) None of above
(1) These become diamagnetic above
Curie temperature
28. The cause of paramagnetism is:
(2) These become paramagnetic above
(1) Unpaired electrons
Curie temperature
(2) Electron excess and spin of electrons
(3) Their magnetic susceptibility becomes
(3) Paired electrons and orbital motion of
zero at Curie temperature
electrons
(4) Its magnetic properties are explained
(4) Electrons and orbital motion of
electrons on the basis of electron principle

Magnetism and Matter 25

34. A material rod, when placed in a strong 41. How does the magnetic susceptibility of a
magnetic field, aligns itself at right angles paramagnetic material change with absolute
temperature T:
to the magnetic field. The nature of
(1) ∝ T (2) ∝ T–1
material is :-
(3) = constant (4) ∝ eT
(1) Diamagnetic (2) Paramagnetic
(3) Ferromagnetic (4) Low ferromagnetic 42. Consider the following statements for a
paramagnetic substance kept in a magnetic
35. If the magnetic susceptibility of a magnetic field
(a) If the magnetic field increases, the
material is – 0.004 then its nature will be:
magnetisation increases.
(1) Diamagnetic (2) Paramagnetic
(b) If temperature rises, the magnetization
(3) Ferromagnetic (4) Non magnetic increases.
(1) Both (a) and (b) are true
36. If the relative permeability of a material is (2) (a) is true but (b) is false
0.9999 then its nature will be: (3) (b) is true but (a) is false
(4) Both (a) and (b) are false
(1) Paramagnetic (2) Diamagnetic
(3) Ferromagnetic (4) Non–magnetic 43. For protecting a sensitive equipment from
the external magnetic field, it should be:
37. The magnetic property inherent in all (1) placed inside an aluminium can
materials is (2) placed inside an iron can
(3) wrapped with insulation around it when
(1) Ferromagnetism (2) Diamagnetism
passing current thought it
(3) Paramagnetism (4) Non–magnetism
(4) surrounded with fine copper sheet

38. Cause of Ferromagnetism: 44. Which of the following is true :-

(1) Orbital motion of electron (1) Diamagnetism is temperature dependent
(2) Spin of electron (2) Paramagnetism is temperature dependent
(3) Paramagnetism is temperature independent
(3) Permanent magnetic dipole moment
(4) None of these
(4) None
45. Which one of the following is ferro-magnetic :-
39. The magnetic susceptibility of a (1) Co (2) Zn
paramagnetic material at –73°C is 0.0075 (3) Hg (4) Pt
then its value at –173°C will be:
46. A superconductor exhibits perfect:
(1) 0.0045 (2) 0.0030
(1) Ferrimagnetism (2) Antiferromagnem
(3) 0.015 (4) 0.0075 (3) Paramagnetism (4) Diamagnetism

40. Diamagnetic substance are: 47. Magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic

(1) Feebly attracted by magnets substance varies with absolute temperature as:
(1) directly proportional to T
(2) Strongly attracted by magnets
(2) inversely proportional to T
(3) Feebly repelled by magnets
(3) remains unchanged with T
(4) Strongly repelled by magnets (4) exponential decrease with T

26 Magnetism and Matter

48. When a piece of a ferromagnetic substance 53. Which of the following statements is
is put in a uniform magnetic field. Flux incorrect about hysteresis :-
density inside it is four times the flux (1) This effect is common to all
density away from the piece. The magnetic ferromagnetic substances
permeability of the material is: (2) The hysteresis loop area is proportional
(1) 1 (2) 2 to the thermal energy developed per
(3) 3 (4) 4 unit volume of the material
(3) The hysteresis loop area is independent of
49. Among the following properties describing the thermal energy developed per unit
diamagnetism, identify the property that is volume of the material
wrongly stated: (4) The shape of the hysteresis loop is
(1) Diamagnetic material do not have characteristic of the material
permanent magnetic moment
(2) Diamagnetism is explained by orbital 54. The material of permanent magnet has
motion of electron (1) High retentivity, low coercivity
(3) Diamagnetic materials have a small (2) Low retentivity, high coercivity
positive susceptibility (3) Low retentivity, low coercivity
(4) The magnetic moment of individual (4) High retentivity, high coercivity
electrons neutralize each other.
55. It the coercivity of Fe is 2000 A/m, then
Hysteresis Loss magnetic field required is
(1) 4π × 10–7 T
50. The area of B–H loop for soft iron, as
(2) 8π × 10–7 T
compared to that for steel is:
(3) 8π × 10–4 T
(1) More (2) Less
(4) 4π × 10–3 T
(3) Equal (4) None of the above

56. The variation of the intensity of

51. The hysteresis loop for the material of a
magnetization (I) with respect to the
permanent magnet is:
magnetizing filed (H) in a diamagnetic
(1) short and wide (2) tall and narrow
substance is described by the graph
(3) tall and wide (4) short and narrow

52. Select the incorrect alternative (s) :

When a ferromagnetic material goes through
a complete cycle of magnetization, the
magnetic susceptibility :
(1) has a fixed value
(2) may be zero (1) OC (2) OD
(3) may be infinite (3) OA (4) OB
(4) may be negative

Magnetism and Matter 27

 Exercise - II
1. The magnetic lines of force inside a bar 4. Hysteresis loops for two magnetic

magnet: materials A and B are as given below:

B B
(1) are from north – pole to south – pole
of the magnet H H

(2) do not exist

(3) depend upon the area of cross– (A) (B)

section of the bar magnet These materials are used to make

(4) are from south–pole to north–pole of magnets for electric generators,

the magnet transformer core and electromagnet core.

Then, it is proper to use
(1) A for electric generators and
2. A bar magnet is demagnetized by inserting transformers
it inside a solenoid of length 0.2 m, 100 (2) A for electromagnets and B for electric
turns, and carrying a current of 5.2 A. The generators
coercivity of the bar magnet is : (3) A for transformers and B for electric
generators
(1) 1200 A/m
(4) B for electromagnets and transformers
(2) 2600 A/m

(3) 520 A/m 5. Needles N1, N2 and N3 are made of a

(4) 285 A/m ferromagnetic, a paramagnetic and a
diamagnetic substance respectively. A
magnet when brought close to them will
3. A magnetic dipole in a constant magnetic (1) attract all three of them
field has : (2) attract N1 and N2 strongly but repel N3
(1) maximum potential energy when the (3) attract N1 strongly, N2 weakly and repel
torque is maximum. N3 weakly
(4) attract N1 strongly, but repel N2 and N3
(2) zero potential energy when the torque
weakly
is maximum

(3) zero potential energy when the torque 6. The material suitable for making
is minimum electromagnets should have

(4) minimum potential energy when the (1) high retentively and high coercively

torque is maximum (2) low retentively and low coercively

(3) high retentively and low coercively
(4) low retentively and high coercively

28 Magnetism and Matter

7. The B-H curve for a ferromagnet is shown 8. An example of a perfect diamagnet is a
in figure. The ferromagnet is placed inside superconductor. This implies that when a
a long solenoid with 1000 turns/cm. The superconductor in put in a magnetic field
current that should be passed in the of intensity B, the magnetic field Bs inside
solenoid to demagnetise the the super conductor will be such that:
ferromagnetic completely is (1) BS = –B
B(T) (2) BS > B
2,0
1,0
(3) BS = 0
H(A / m)
–200 –100
100
200 (4) BS = B
1,0
2,0

(1) 2 mA (2) 20 µA

(3) 1 mA (4) 40 µA

Magnetism and Matter 29

 Exercise - III
Read the (1 to 13) 4. Assertion: At high temperature,
Assertion and Reason carefully and mark ferromagnetic substances behave as
the correct options. paramagnetic.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason: The domains gets distorted at high
Reason is the correct explanation of temperatures due to random motion of
Assertion. atoms.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but
(1) A (2) B
Reason is not correct explanation of
(3) C (4) D
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion and Reason are false. 5. Assertion: Magnetic field also represent
the lines of force on a moving charged

1. Assertion: It is not possible to have particle at every point.

magnetic moment of system without Reason: The magnetic force is always


having net charge. parallel to B [where magnetic force
 
Reason: Magnetic moment depends = q(v × B)]
directly on charge.
(1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

6. Assertion: The surface integral of magnetic

2. Assertion: The direction of magnetic field over any closed surface is always
moment and orbital angular momentum zero.
are opposite to each other for electron.
Reason: Magnetic poles are always exists
Reason: Electron is negatively charged. in pairs.
(1) A (2) B (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (3) C (4) D

3. Assertion: In an AC adapter soft iron core 7. Assertion: A superconductor is a perfect

is used. diamagnetic substance.
Reason: Soft iron show significant Reason: A superconductor is a perfect
reminiscent magnetism. conductor.
(1) A (1) A
(2) B (2) B
(3) C (3) C
(4) D (4) D

30 Magnetism and Matter

8. Assertion: In one arm of a U-tube 11. Assertion: Soft iron is used as transformer
containing a diamagnetic solution is placed core.
in between the poles of a strong magnet Reason: Soft iron has narrow hysteresis
level of the solution falls. loop.

Reason: Diamagnetic substances are (1) A (2) B

repelled by the magnetic field. (3) C (4) D
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D 12. Assertion: For making permanent magnets,
steel is preferred over soft iron.
Reason: As retentivity of steel is smaller.
9. Assertion: An artificial man-made
(1) A (2) B
diamagnetic substance can be suspended
(3) C (4) D
in mid air above a current carrying vertical
solenoid.
13. Assertion: The density of magnetic field
Reason: When we placed a diamagnetic
lines decreases in a medium of high
substance in non-uniform magnetic field, permeability.
it moves from stronger field position to Reason: Because magnetic field
weaker field position. 1
∝ .
(1) A (2) B permeability

(3) C (4) D (1) A

(2) B
(3) C
10. Assertion: All magnetic materials lose their
(4) D
magnetic properties when strongly heated.
Reason: Few of the substances show
diamagnetism.
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D

Magnetism and Matter 31

 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A bar magnet of length  and magnetic 5. A thin diamagnetic rod is placed vertically
dipole moment M is bent in the form of an between the poles of an electromagnet.
arc as shown in figure. The new magnetic When the current in the electromagnet is
dipole moment will be : [NEET_2013]
switched on, then the diamagnetic rod is
pushed up, out of the horizontal magnetic
r field. Hence the rod gains gravitational
60º r
potential energy. The work required to do
(1) 3 M / π (2) 2 M / π this comes from [NEET_2018]
(3) M / 2 (4) M
(1) the current source

2. Following figures show the arrangement (2) the magnetic field

of bar magnets in different configuration. (3) the lattice structure of the material of
Each magnet has magnetic dipole moment the rod

m . Which configuration has highest net (4) the induced electric field due to the
magnetic dipole moment? [NEET_2014]
charging magnetic field
N
N S
(a) (b)
S N 6. An iron rod of susceptibility 599 is subjected
S S N
–1
to a magnetising field of 1200 A m . The
N
N permeability of the material of the rod is:
(c) 30º (d)
60º (µ0 = 4π × 10
–7
T mA )
–1
[NEET_2020]
S N
S N
–5 –1
(1) 2.4π × 10 T mA
(1) (c) (2) (d)
–7 -1
(3) (a) (4) (b) (2) 2.4π × 10 T mA
–4 –1
(3) 2.4π × 10 TmA
3. A bar magnet is hung by a thin cotton –5 –1
(4) 8.0 × 10 T mA
thread in a uniform horizontal magnetic
field and is in equilibrium state. The
energy required to rotate it by 60° is W. 7. The variation of susceptibility (x) with
Now the torque required to keep the magnet absolute temperature (T) for a
in this new position is: [NEET_2016] paramagnetic material is represented as:
3W 2W [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) (2)
2 3
W
(3) (4) 3W (1) (2)
3

4. A 250 True rectangular coil of length 2.1 cm.

and width 1.25 cm carries a current of 85 µA
and subjected to a magnetic field of strength
0.85 T. work done for rotating the coil by (3) (4)
180° against two torque is: [NEET_2017]
(1) 9.1 µJ (2) 4.55 µJ
(3) 2.3 µJ (4) 1.15 µJ

32 Magnetism and Matter

 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 4 2 3 1 2 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 4 2 1 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 4 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
Ans. 2 2 2 2 1 4 3 4 3 2 3 1 3 4 3 1

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 4 2 2 4 3 2 3 3

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 4 1 3 1 4 1 2 1 1 3 1 3 4

Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ans. 1 1 4 1 1 3 1

Magnetism and Matter 33

 4 Alternating Current
1. Direct Current
The current which flows only in one direction is called a direct current. The current produced
by batteries/cells is a direct current. In ordinary circuits such as in a car, a torch light and toys,
this current is normally constant as shown in figure and is called a steady current.
Current

Time

2. Alternating Current
Current is said to be alternating if it changes continuously in magnitude and periodically in
direction with time. It can be represented by a sine curve or cosine curve.
I = I0 sin ω t or I = I0 cos ω t
where I = Instantaneous value of current at time t,
I0 = Amplitude or peak value
ω = Angular frequency ω = 2πf
T = time period f = frequency
Ι = Ι0 sin ω t Ι = Ι 0 cos ω t
Ι0 Ι0
T 3 T
T
2 4 T 2 T
t t
T T 3
T
4 4 4
– Ι0 – Ι0
Ι as a sin e function of t Ι as a co sin e function of t

The alternating current continuously varies in magnitude and periodically reverses its direction.
Ι Sinosudial AC Ι triangular AC
+ +
– – t

Ι Square wave AC Ι Saw tooth wave

t t

Ι Ι

t t
Not AC (diection does
not change) Not AC (not periodic)

Alternating Current 1
3. Characteristics of AC
3.1 Amplitude
The maximum value of current in either direction is called peak value or the amplitude of
current. It is represented by I0. Peak to peak value = 2I0

3.2 Time Period

The time taken by alternating current to complete one cycle of variation is called periodic time
or time period of the current.

3.3 Frequency
The number of cycle completed by an alternating current in one second is called the frequency
of the current.
Unit : cycle/s ; (Hz)
In India : f = 50 Hz, supply voltage = 220 volt
In USA : f = 60 Hz ,supply voltage = 110 volt

4. Mean Value or Average Value

The mean value of AC over any half cycle (either positive or negative) is that value of DC which
would send same amount of charge through a circuit as is sent by the AC through same circuit
in the same time.
average value of current for half cycle
T/2

∫ Ιdt
<I>= 0
T/2

∫ dt
0

average value of I = I0 sin ωt over the positive half cycle :

T

Iav =
∫
0
2
Ι0 sin ωt dt
=
2 I0 T
 − cos ωt  2 =
2 Ι0
T
ωT  0
π
∫ 0
2
dt

average value of function over full cycle:

< sin θ > = < sin2θ > = 0
< cos θ > = < cos 2θ > = 0
< sin θ cos > = 0
1
< sin2 θ > = < cos2 θ > =
2

Maximum Value
• I = a sinθ ⇒ IMax. = a
• I = a + b sinθ ⇒ IMax. = a + b (if a and b > 0)

• I = a sinθ + b cosθ ⇒ IMax. = a2 + b2

2
• I = a sin θ ⇒ IMax. = a (a > 0)

2 Alternating Current
Example 1:
A periodic voltage waveform is shown in figure. V(in volt)
Determine 10
(a) Frequency of the waveform 5
(b) Average value t(in ms)
100 200
Solution:
(a) After 100 ms wave is repeated so time period is
1
T = 100 ms. ⇒ f= = 10 Hz
T
(1 / 2) × ( 100) × 10
(b) Average value = Area/time period = = 5 volt
(100)

Example 2:
1
If E = 20 sin (100π t) volt then calculate value of E at t = s
600
Solution:
1  1  π 1
At t = s, E = 20 sin  100π ×  = 20 sin   = 20 × = 10V
600  600  6
  2

5. Root Mean Square (RMS) Value

5.1 RMS Value
It is value of DC which would produce same heat in given resistance in given time as is done by
the alternating current when passed through the same resistance for the same time.
T
∫ I dt
2

Irms = 0
T
rms value = effective value = virtual value
∫ dt 0

T
∫
T
(I0 sin ωt)2dt Ι20 T 1 T  1 − cos 2ωt  1  t sin2ωt  Ι
Irms = = ∫ sin ωt dt = I 0 ∫ dt = I0 − = 0
0 2
   
T
T 0 T 0 2 T  2 2 × 2ω  0 2
∫
0
dt 

• If nothing is mentioned then values printed in AC circuit on electrical appliances and reading
of AC meters are assumed to be RMS.
Average Angular Average
Current Peak RMS
(full cycle) frequency (half cycle)
Ι0 2Ι0
I1 = I0 sinωt 0 I0 ω
2 π
I2= I0sinωtcosωt
Ι0 Ι0 Ι0
Ι0 0 2ω
= sin2ωt 2 2 2 π
2
2 2Ι0
I3p = I0 sinωt + I0cosωt 0 2Ι0 I0 ω
π
• For above varieties of current
Peak value
rms value =
2

Alternating Current 3
Example 3:
If the current in an AC circuit is represented by the equation
i = 5 sin (300t – π/4)
Here, t is in second and i is in ampere. Calculate
(a) Peak and rms value of current
(b) Frequency of AC
(c) Average current
Solution:
(a) As in case of AC, i = i0sin (ωt ± φ)

∴ The peak value i0 = 5A

i0 5
and irms = =
2 2
= 3.535 A
(b) Angular frequency ω = 300 rad/s
ω 300
∴f= = ≈ 47.75 Hz
2π 2π
2 2
(c)
= iav = i0  =
 (5) 3.18A
π π

Example 4:
An electric heater draws 2.5 A current from a 220-V, 60-Hz power supply. Find
(a) The average current
(b) The average of the square of the current
(c) The current amplitude
(d) The supply voltage amplitude
Solution:
In AC circuit, the average value of current over a long time interval is zero but I2 is not zero. The
Imax Vmax
r.m.s. value of current and voltage is given
= by Irms = and Vrms .
2 2
(a) The average of sinusoidal AC values over any whole number of cycles is zero.
(b) RMS value of current = Irms = 2.5 A

() (=
I )
2
I2
so, = rms
6.25A2
av

I0
(c) Irms = ; So, current amplitude
= I0 2Irms
= 2(2.5A)
= 3.5A
2
Vm
(d) Vrms = 220V = ; So, supply voltage amplitude
= Vm 2 ( Vrms )
= 2(220V) = 311 V.
2

4 Alternating Current
Example 5:
π π 3π
Find the RMS value of current I = Im sin ωt from (i) t = 0 to t = (ii) t = to t =
ω 2ω 2ω
Solution:
In AC circuit over time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T the RMS value of current is given by

∫ 0TI2dt ∫ 0TI20 sin2 (ωτ)dt

Irms
= =
∫ 0T dt ∫ 0T dt

I0 2π
= = where T
2 ω
π
∫ 0ω Im
2
sin2 (ωt)dt Im
2
Im
Irms
(i) = = =
π 2 2
ω
3π
∫ 2πω Im
2
sin2 (ωt)dt
(ii) Irms = 2ω

π
ω

Im
2
Im
= = A
2 2

Example 6:
If I = 2 t ampere then calculate average and rms values over t = 2 to 4 s
Solution:
4

∫2 t.dt 3

4 (t 2 )2 2 
4
∫
4
(2 t)2 dt ∫
4
4t dt
4
 t2 
<I>= 2
= = 8 − 2 2  and Irms = 2
= 2
= 2  = 2 3 A
4
3 (t)24 3  4
2  2 2
∫ dt ∫2
dt
2

Example 7:
Electric mains in the residential areas in India is marked as 220 V, 50 Hz. What is the
(i) rms value of the voltage (ii) mean value of the voltage over half a cycle
(iii) Possible equation for instantaneous voltage
Solution:
(i) Marked value is rms value. So Vrms = 220 V

V0
(ii) Vrms = or V0 = 2 Vrms = 1.414 × 220 = 311 V
2
∴ Vav = 0.637 V0 = 0.637 × 311 = 198 V

(iii) V = V0 sin ωt = V0 sin (2π ft) = 311 sin (2π × 50t) or V = 311 sin (100πt)

Alternating Current 5
Example 8:
If a direct current of value ‘a’ ampere is superimposed on an alternating current I = b sinωt
flowing through a wire, what is the effective value of the resulting current in the circuit?
Ι Ι
AC
a DC b
+ =?
t t

Solution:
As current at any instant in the circuit will be,
I = I + I = a + b sin ωt
DC AC

T T
1 2 1
T ∫0 ∫
∴=Ieff = I dt (a + bsinωt)2 dt
T0

T
1
T ∫0
= (a2 + 2absinωt + b2 sin2 ωt)dt

T
1
T ∫0
but as sinωtdt = 0

T
1 1
T ∫0
and sin2 ω tdt =
2

1
∴ Ieff
= a2 + b2
2

Example 9:
What is average and RMS current over half cycle if instantaneous current is given by
i = 4 sin ωt + 3 cos ωt.
Solution:
Reduce the given expression of current in standard form
= i i0 sin(ωt + φ) where i0 is the

maximum current in the circuit.

Given=i 4 sin ωt + 3 cos ωt.

4 3 
= 5  sin ωt + cos ω=
t  5 sin(ωt + α)
5 5 
4 3
where
= cos α and
= sin α ；
5 5
Comparing with
= i i0 sin(ωt + φ)

 5   10 
i0 =
5A; ⇒ irms =  A;iavg = A
 2  π 

6 Alternating Current
 Table : 1. Some common wave form with mean values & effective values (I0 = Peak value)

Nature of wave from Value Wave-form RMS Value Average or mean

Sinusoidal wave + Ι0 2Ι0
0 = 0.707 I0 = 0.637 I0
π – π
2π 2

Half wave rectified Ι0 Ι0

0 = 0.5 I0 = 0.318 I0
π 2π
2 π

Full wave rectified Ι0 2Ι0

0 π
= 0.707 Ι0 = 0.637 I0
2π 2 π

Square or Rectangular wave +

I0 I0
–

Saw Tooth wave Ι0 Ι0

π 2π
0
3 2

6. Measurement of Alternating Quantities

Alternating current shows heating effect only, hence meters used for measuring ac are based
on heating effect and are called hot wire meters.

• Measurement of AC and DC

AC Measurement DC Measurement
1 All AC meters read r.m.s. value. All DC meters read average value.
2 All AC meters are based on heating All DC meters are based on magnetic effect
effect of current of current
3 Deflection in hot wire meters. Deflection in DC meters.
2
θ ∝ Ιrms (1: 4 : 9 : 16) θ∝Ι (1: 2 : 3 : 4)

(Linear scale)
(Non − linear scale)

4 AC meter can read both AC & DC value DC meter can read only DC value because
average of AC is zero

Example 10:
Why a dc voltmeter and dc ammeter can not read AC ?
Solution:
DC voltmeter and ammeter are based on magnetic effect of current. Which can read only
Average value. Average of AC in a full cycle is zero, hence DC meter always show zero reading.

Alternating Current 7
 Concept Builder-1

Q.1 Find out the frequency & average value of following current wave form.
Ι
10A

1 1.5 2.5 3 4 4.5

t(in s)

Q.2 A 20Ω resistor is connected with an alternating voltage supply given by the expression V = 200
sin 100πt. Calculate
1
(a) Potential drop across resistor at t = s
300
1
(b) Current flowing through resistor at t = s
300
(c) Variation of current with time

Q.3 Find the time required for 50 Hz alternating current to change its value from zero to rms value
first time.

Q.4 An AC current in amperes is given by I = 50 sin (400πt + φ). Find

(i) frequency
(ii) mean value of the current over half a cycle
(iii) rms value of the current

Q.5 Let the effective current in 50 cycle/sec. ac circuit is 50 A. Then find the value of the current
1
at s (for sinusoidal current)?
400

Q.6 A periodic voltage V varies with time t as shown in the figure. T is the time period. The r.m.s.
value of the voltage is :-
V
V0

T/4 T t

V0 V0
(1) (2)
8 2
V0
(3) V0 (4)
4

Q.7 A light bulb has the rating 200 W, 220 V. Find (i) resistance of the bulb filament (ii) rms value
of current flowing through the filament.

8 Alternating Current
 Passage for (Q.8 & 10)
A light bulb has the rating 200 W 220 V.

Q.8 Find the peak value of current.

Q.9 If the supply voltage is 200 V, then find power consumed by the bulb.

Q.10 Can AC voltmeter/ammeter be used to read DC voltage/current?

7. Phase, Phase Difference & Phasor Diagrams

7.1 Phase
I = I0 sin (ωt + φ)
Initial phase = φ (it does not change with time)
Instantaneous phase = ωt + φ (it changes with time)
• Phase decides both value and sign. Unit: radian

7.2 Phase Difference

Voltage V = V0 sin ( ωt + φ1)
Current I = I0 sin (ωt +φ2)
• Phase difference of I w.r.t. V φ = φ2 – φ1
• Phase difference of V w.r.t. I φ = φ1 – φ2

7.3 Lagging and Leading

V,Ι
(a) V leads I or I lags V → It means, V reach maximum before I Ι = Ι 0 sin(ωt – φ)
If V = V0 sin ωt then I = I0 sin (ωt – φ) ωt
and if V = V0 sin (ωt + φ) then I = I0 sin ωt
=V V0 sin ωt

(b) V lags I or I leads V → It means V reach maximum after I V,Ι

Ι = Ι 0 sin(ωt + φ)
Let if V = V0 sin ωt then I = I0 sin (ωt + φ)
ωt
and if V = V0 sin (ωt – φ) then I = I0 sin ωt
=V V0 sin ωt

7.4 Phasor Diagram

A diagram representing alternating current and voltage (of same frequency) as vectors (phasor)
with the phase angle between them is called phasor diagram.
Y
V
Ι V0
Ι0
φ
ωt
X
Let V = V0 sin ωt and I = I0 sin (ωt +φ)
In figure (a) two arrows represents phasors. The length of phasors represents the maximum
value of quantity. The projection of a phasor on y-axis represents the instantaneous value of quantity

Alternating Current 9
8. Advantages of AC
• A.C. is cheaper than D.C.
• It can be easily converted into D.C. (by rectifier)
• It can be controlled easily (choke coil)
• It can be transmitted over long distance at negligible power loss.
• It can be stepped up or stepped down with the help of transformer.

Example 11:
 π
The Equation of current in ac circuit is I = 4sin  100π t +  A. Calculate
 3
(i) RMS Value (ii) Peak Value
(iii) Frequency (iv) Initial phase
(v) Current at t = 0
Solution:
I0 4
(i) Irms = = = 2 2A
2 2
(ii) Peak value I0 = 4A

(iii)  ω = 100 π rad/s

100π
∴ frequency f = = 50 Hz
2π
π
(iv) Initial phase =
3
(v) At t = 0,
 π 3
I = 4sin  100π × 0 +  = 4 × =A
 3  2

Example 12:
 π
If I= I0 sin ωt, E = E0 cos ωt +  . Calculate phase difference between E and I
 3
Solution:
Phase of AC quantities can be compared only if both of them are either sine function or cos
function
I = I0 sin ωt

π π
and E = E0sin  + ωt + 
2 3

π π 5π
∴ phase difference =  +  – 0 =
2 3 6

10 Alternating Current
9. A.C. Circuit with Pure Resistance
R
Let at any instant t the current in the circuit = Ι
Potential difference across the resistance = Ι R Ι V = ΙR

with the help of Kirchhoff’s circuital law E – Ι R = 0 =E E0 sin ωt

E0
⇒ E0 sin ωt = Ι R ⇒ I = sin ωt = I0sin ωt
R
E0
I0 = (maximum)
R
=E E0 sin ωt
E and Ι
Ι = Ι 0 sin ωt

π 3π / 2 ωt
O 2π
π/2

In the AC circuit having R only, as current and voltage are in the same phase, hence in fig. both
phasors E0 and Ι0 are in the same direction, making an angle ωt with OX. Their projections on Y-
axis represent the instantaneous values of alternating current and voltage.
i.e. Ι = Ι0 sinωt and E = E0 sinωt.
Y
P
E Ι E E E0
Since Ι0 = 0 , hence 0 = 0 ωt
R 2 R 2 Ι Ι0
Erms ωt X
⇒ Ιrms = O
R

Example 13:
A light bulb is rated at 60 W for a 220 V supply. Find (a) the resistance of the bulb; (b) the peak
voltage of the source; and (c) rms current through the bulb.
Solution:
(a) We are given P = 60 W and V = 220 V. (b) The peak voltage of the source is
The resistance of the bulb is =V0 2 Vrms 311V
=

(220=
)
2
V2
R
= = 807.67 Ω
P 60
(c) Since, P = I V
P 60
I
= = = 0.27A
V 220

10. AC Circuit with Pure Inductance

A circuit containing a pure inductance L (having zero ohmic resistance)
L
connected with a source of alternating emf. Let the alternating e.m.f.
E = E0 sin ωt
When AC flows through the circuit, emf induced across inductance =E E0 sin ωt
dΙ
= −L
dt

Alternating Current 11
 Negative sign indicates that induced emf acts in opposite direction to that of applied emf.
Because there is no other circuit element present in the circuit other then inductance so with
the help of
 dΙ 
Kirchhoff’s circuital law E +  −L  =0
 dt 
dΙ E0  π
⇒ E=L so we =
get Ι sin  ωt − 
dt ωL  2
E0 E
Maximum current I0 = ×1=0
ωL ωL
 π
Hence, Ι = Ι0 sin  ωt − 
 2
In a pure inductive circuit current always lags behind the emf
=E E0 sin ωt
π E and Ι
by .
2
π/2 π 3π / 2 ωt
π O
or alternating emf leads the AC by a phase angle of . 2π

2
Ι = Ι 0 sin( ωt – π / 2)
E0 E
Expression Ι0 = resembles the expression I = .
ωL R
This non-resistive opposition to the flow of A.C. in a circuit is
called the inductive reactance (XL) of the circuit. Y P
E E0
XL = ωL = 2 π f L where f = frequency of A.C.
Unit of XL : ohm ωt X
–1 O
(ωL) = Unit of L × Unit of ω = henry × sec π / 2 – ωt

Volt Volt
= × sec –1 = = ohm Ι Ι0
Ampere / sec Ampere Q
=E E0 sin ωt
Ι = Ι 0 cos ωt
Inductive reactance XL ∝ f
Higher the frequency of A.C., higher is the inductive reactance offered by an inductor in an A.C.
circuit.

For DC circuit, f = 0 XL
∴ XL = ωL = 2 π f L = 0
Hence, inductor offers no opposition to the flow of DC whereas a
resistive path to AC f

Example 14:
An ideal inductor of inductance 50µH is connected to an AC source of 220 V, 50 Hz. Find the
inductive reactance.
Solution:
–6
XL = ωL = 2πfL = 2 × π × 50 × 50 × 10
–4
= 2π × 25 × 10 Ω
–3
= 5π × 10 Ω = 5π mΩ

12 Alternating Current
Example 15:
In given circuit, applied voltage V = 50 sin 100πt volt and ammeter reading is 2A then calculate
value of L.
L

V
Solution:
Vrms = Irms XL  Reading of ammeter = Irms

Vrms V0 50 2
XL = = = = 25 Ω
Irms 2 Irms 2 ×2
XL 25 1
⇒ L= = = H
ω 100π 4π

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 If a voltage source E = 500 sin (100 πt) volt is connected across a resistor then calculate time
taken by the current to reach from zero to maximum.

Q.2 If Phase difference between E and I is π/4 and f = 50 Hz, then calculate time difference.

Q.3 A resistance of 20Ω is connected to a source of alternating current rated 110 V, 50 Hz. Find
(a) the rms current,
(b) the maximum instantaneous current in the resistor
(c) the time taken by the current to change from its maximum value to the rms value.

Q.4 Find inductive reactance of the inductor when it is connected in D.C. circuit.

Q.5 What is the inductive reactance of a coil, if the current through it is 20 mA and voltage across
it is 100 V.

Q.6 A coil of inductance 5.0 mH and negligible resistance is connected to an alternating voltage V =
10 sin (100t). The peak current in the circuit will be :
(1) 2A (2) 5A (3) 10 A (4) 20 A

11. AC Circuit Containing Pure Capacitance C

A circuit containing an ideal capacitor of capacitance C connected with a source
of alternating emf as shown in fig. The alternating e.m.f. in the circuit E = E0 sin
ωt. =E E0 sin ωt

Alternating Current 13
 When alternating e.m.f. is applied across the capacitor, a similarly varying alternating current
flows in the circuit.
The two plates of the capacitor become alternatively positively and negatively charged and the
magnitude of the charge on the plates of the capacitor varies sinusoidally with time. Also the
electric field between the plates of the capacitor varies sinusoidally with time. Let at any instant
t charge on the capacitor = q
q
Instantaneous potential difference across the capacitor E =
C =E E0 sin ωt
E and Ι
⇒q = C E ⇒ q = CE0 sin ωt
π ωt
O
The instantaneous value of current π/2 3 π / 2 2π

dq d Ι = Ι 0 sin(ωt + π / 2)
I= = (CE0 sin ωt) = CE0ωcos ωt
dt dt
E0  π  π
⇒ I= sin  ωt +  = I0 sin  ωt + 
( 1 / ωC )  2  2

V0
where I0 = ωCV0 = P
XC E E0
In a pure capacitive circuit, the current always leads the e.m.f. by a phase Q
Ι0 Ι
angle of π/2. The alternating emf lags behind the alternating current by 90º
ωt
O
a phase angle of π/2.

Important Points
E
is the resistance R when both E and Ι are in phase, in present case they f
Ι
π 1 XC
differ in phase by , hence is not the resistance of the capacitor, the
2 ωC
capacitor offer opposition to the flow of A.C. This non-resistive opposition
to the flow of A.C. in a pure capacitive circuit is known as capacitive reactance XC.
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πfC

Unit of XC: ohm

Capacitive reactance XC is inversely proportional to frequency of A.C. XC decreases as the
frequency increases.
This is because with an increase in frequency, the capacitor charges and discharges rapidly
following the flow of current.

For DC circuit f = 0
1
∴ XC = =∞
2πfC
but has a very small value for AC
This shows that capacitor blocks the flow of DC but provides an easy path for AC

14 Alternating Current
Example 16:
A capacitor of 50 pF is connected to an AC source of frequency 1kHz. Calculate reactance
offered by capacitor to AC voltage.
Solution:
1
XC =
ωC
1
=
2π × 10 × 50 × 10−12
3

107
= Ω
π

12. Comparative Study of Individual R, L & C Circuits

Terms R L C
R L
C
Circuit

Supply Voltage V=V0 sin ωt V=V0 sin ωt V=V0 sin ωt

 π  π
Current I = I0 sin ωt I = I0 sin  ωt –  I = I0 sin  ωt + 
 2  2
V0 V0 V0
Peak Current I0 = I0 = I0 = =V0ωC
R ωL 1 / ωC
V0 V0 V0 1
Impedance (Ω) =R =ωL =XL = = XC
Ι0 Ι0 Ι0 ωC

V0 Vrms
Z= = R= Resistance XL = Inductive reactance XC = Capacitive reactance
Ι0 Ιrms
Zero (in same π π
Phase difference + (V leads I) – (V leads I)
phase) 2 2
V Ι
Ι
Phasor diagram V
Ι V
R
XL f
Variation of Z
f XL ∝ f
with f R does not f XC
depend on f

G, SL, SC G = 1/R
SL = 1/XL SC= 1/XC
(mho, seiman) = conductance
L passes DC easily C-blocks DC (because XC = ∞)
Behaviour of
Same in A C and D (because XL = 0) while while provides an easy path for the
device in D.C.
C gives a high impedance  1
and A.C. A.C. of high frequency XC ∝ 
for the A.C. of high  f 
Ohm’s law VR = IR VL = IXL VC = IXC

Alternating Current 15
 Concept Builder-3

Q.1 Current I across the capacitor in a purely capacitive AC circuit is

(1) im sin(ωt + π / 4) (2) im sin(ωt + π / 2) (3) im cos(ωt + π / 4) (4) im cos(ωt + π / 2)

Q.2 Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to

(1) frequency (2) capacitance (3) voltage (4) Both (1) and (2)

Q.3 A 15.0µF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. The capacitive reactance is

(1) 220 Ω (2) 215 Ω (3) 212 Ω (4) 204 Ω

Q.4 Refer the above question, the current (rms and peak) in the circuit is
(1) 1.47 A, 2.04 A (2) 1.08 A, 1.0 A (3) 1.04 A, 1.47 A (4) 2.4 A, 1.08 A

13. Series L-R Circuit

A circuit containing a series combination of a resistance R and an inductance L, connected with
a source of alternating e.m.f. E as shown in figure.
R L

=E E0 sin ωt

Phasor Diagram For L-R Circuit

Let in a L-R series circuit, applied alternating emf is E = E0 sinωt. As R and L are joined in series,
hence current flowing through both will be same at each instant. Let Ι be the
current in the circuit at any instant and VL and VR the potential differences Q R
across L and R respectively at that instant.
VL E
Then VL = ΙXL and VR = ΙR
φ
π O
Now, VR is in phase with the current while VL leads the current by . VR P
2
So VR and VL are mutually perpendicular (Note : E ≠ VR + VL)
The vector OP represents VR (which is in phase with Ι), while OQ represents VL (which leads Ι by
90°).
The resultant of VR and VL = the magnitude of vector OR which is E = VR2 + VL2
Thus E² = VR² + VL² = Ι² (R² + XL²)
E
⇒I =
R + XL2
2

The phasor diagram shown in fig. also shows that in L-R circuit the applied emf E leads the
current Ι or conversely the current Ι lags behind the e.m.f. E. by a phase angle φ
VL ΙXL XL ωL
tan=
φ = = =
VR ΙR R R

–1  ωL 
⇒ φ = tan  
 R 

16 Alternating Current
 Inductive Impedance ZL
In L-R circuit the maximum value of current
E0
Ι0 = Here R2 + ω2L2 represents the effective opposition offered by L-R circuit to the
R +ωL
2 2 2

flow of A.C. through it. It is known as impedance of L-R circuit and is represented by ZL.

ZL
= R2 + ω2L2 = R2 + (2πfL)2
The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance
1 1
YL = =
ZL R + ω2L2
2

Example 17:
An alternating voltage of 220V RMS at a frequency of 40 cycles/second is supplied to a circuit
containing a pure inductance of 0.01 H and a pure resistance of 6Ω in series. Calculate (a) The
current, (b) Potential difference across the resistance, (c) Potential difference across
inductance, (d) The time lag.
Solution:
Vrms
The impedance of LR circuit is =
Z R2 + (ωL)2 . The RMS value of the current is Irms =
. In LR
Z
−1  ωL 
circuit, the current lags the applied voltage by phase angle φ obtained as φ =tan  .
 R 
The impedance of the L-R series circuit is given by:
1/2
Z=
2
R2 + (ωL)2 
 
1/2
= (R)2 + (2πfL)2 
1/2
= 62 + (2 × 3.14 × 40 × 0.01)2 

= 6.504Ω
Vrms
(a) RMS value of the current: Irms =
Z
220
= = 33.83A
6.504
(b) The potential difference across the resistance is given by: VR = Irms × R = 33.83 × 6 = 202.83
V
(c) Potential difference across the inductance is given by:
VL = Irms × (ωL) = 33.83 × (2 × 3.14 × 0.01) = 96.83 V
−1  ωL 
(d) Phase angle φ =tan  ;
 R 
So, tan–1 (0.4189) = 22.46
φ 22.46
Now time lag= = T=
360 360
= 0.0623s

Alternating Current 17
 Example 18:
9
A H inductor and a 12 Ω resistance are connected in a series to a 225
100π
V, 50 Hz ac source. Calculate the current in the circuit and the phase angle
between the current and the source voltage.
Solution:
Here XL =ωL =2πfL

9
= 2π × 50 × = 9Ω
100π
So, Z = R2 + XL2 = 122 + 92 = 15Ω

V 225
I
(a) = = = 15A and
Z 15
X 
(b) φ =tan−1  L 
R 
−1  9 
= tan
=   tan
−1
= 3 / 4 37
 12 
i.e., the current will lag the applied voltage by 37o in phase.

Example 19:
An iron cored coil is connected in series with an electric bulb, with an A.C.
source as shown in figure. As the iron piece is taken out of the coil, how will
the brightness of bulb change ?
Solution:
As the iron rod is taken out of the coil, the self inductance of the coil decrease, the impedance
of circuit decreases, hence current increases. So power consumed (and hence brightness of
bulb) by bulb increases.

Example 20:
When 10V, DC is applied across a coil current through it is 2.5 A, if 10V, 50 Hz A.C. is applied
current reduces to 2 A. Calculate reactance of the coil.
Solution:
For 10 V D.C. V = ΙR
10
∴ Resistance of coil R = = 4Ω
2.5
For 10 V A.C. V = ΙZ
V 10
⇒Z = = = 5Ω
Ι 2
Z= R2 + XL2 = 5
2 2
⇒R +X L = 25
2 2 2
⇒X L =5 –4 ⇒ XL = 3Ω

18 Alternating Current
Example 21:
A choke coil is needed to operate an arc lamp at 160 V (RMS) and 50 Hz. The arc lamp has an
effective resistance of 5Ω when running of 10 A (RMS). Calculate the inductance of the choke
coil. If the same arc lamp is to be operated on 160V (dc), what additional resistance is required?
Compare the power losses in both cases.
Solution:
The choke coil is an LR circuit having large inductance and small resistance. The potential
difference across the resistor and inductor is added vectorially:
V=
2
VR2 + VL2

As for the lamp, VR = I × R = 10 × 5 = 50V, so when it is connected to 160 V ac source through a

choke in series,

V2 =VR2 + VL2 , VL = 1602 − 502 =152V

And as, VL = IXL
VL 152
⇒ L= = = 4.84 × 10−2 H
2πfI 2 × π × 50 × 10
Now the lamp is to be operated at 160 V dc; instead of choke, if additional resistance r is put
in a series with it, V = I(R + r), i.e. 160 = 10(5 + r) i.e. r = 11Ω In case of AC, as choke has no
resistance, power loss in the choke will be zero, while the bulb will consume P = I2 R = 102 × 5
= 500 W. However, in case of DC, as resistance r is to be used instead of choke, the power loss
in the resistance r will be I2r = 102 × 11 = 1100 W
While the bulb will still consume 500 W, i.e., when the lamp is run with resistance r instead of
choke, more than double the power consumed by the lamp is wasted by the resistance r.

14. Series R-C Circuits

A circuit containing a series combination of a resistance R and a capacitor C, connected with a
source of e.m.f. of peak value E0 as shown in figure.
C R

=E E0 sin ωt

Alternating Current 19
 Phasor Diagram for R-C Circuit
Current through both the resistance and capacitor will be same at every O VR P
instant and the instantaneous potential differences across C and R are φ
VC = Ι XC and VR = Ι R E
= VR2 + VC2
VC
where XC = capacitive reactance and Ι = instantaneous current.
Now, VR is in phase with Ι, while VC lags behind Ι by 90°. Q S
The phasor diagram is shown in fig.
VR P
The vector OP represents VR (which is in phase with Ι) O
φ R
π
and the vector OQ represents VC (which lags behind Ι by ). Z
= R2 + XC2
2 VC
The vector OS represents the resultant of VR and VC = the applied e.m.f. E.
XC
2
Hence VR + VC = E
2 2
E
⇒= VR2 + VC2 Q S

E
⇒ E² = Ι² (R² + XC²) ⇒ I =
R + XC2
2

The term (R2 + XC2 ) represents the effective resistance of the R-C circuit and called the
capacitive impedance ZC of the circuit. Hence, in C-R circuit
2
 1 
ZC = R2 + XC2 = R2 +  
 ωC 
Capacitive Impedance ZC

In R-C circuit, the term R2 + XC2 is effective opposition offered by R-C circuit to the flow of
A.C. through it. It is known as impedance of R-C circuit and is represented by ZC.
The phasor diagram also shows that in R-C circuit the applied e.m.f. lags behind the current
Ι (or the current Ι leads the emf E) by a phase angle φ given by
VC XC 1 / ωC 1
tan=
φ = = =
VR R R ωCR

–1  1 
⇒ φ = tan  
 ωCR 

Example 22:
In an RC series circuit, the RMS voltage of source is 200V, and its frequency is 50 Hz. If
100
C
R = 100 Ω and= µF , find
π

(a) Impedance of the circuit (b) Power factor angle

(c) Power factor (d) Current
(e) Maximum current (f) Voltage across R
(g) Voltage across C (h) Max voltage across R
(i) Max voltage cross C (j) < P >
(k) < PR > (l) < PC >

20 Alternating Current
Solution:
The impedance of RC circuit is
2
 1 
Z
= R2 +  
 ωC 
Vrms
The RMS current is Irms = . The phase angle between current and voltage is given by
Z
XC I0 V0
tan φ = . The RMS value of current and voltage
= is Irms = and Vrms . Power developed
R 2 2
in circuit is P = Vrms Irms cos φ .
106
=XC = 100Ω
100
(2π50)
π
Z
(a)= R2 + XC2
= 1002 + (100)2 = 100 2Ω
XC
(b) tan=
φ = 1 φ 45
∴=
R
1
= cos=
(c) Power factor φ
2
Vrms 200
(d) Current =
Irms = = 2A
Z 100 2
(e) Maximum current
= Irms
= 2 2A
(f) Voltage across R = VR,rms

= Irms=
R 2 × 100V
(g) Voltage across C = VCrms
= Irms X=
c
2 × 100V
(h) Max voltage across
=R 2VR,rms 200V
=
(i) Max voltage across
=C 2Vcrms 200V
=

1
(j) <P> VrmsIrms cos φ = 200 × 2 ×
= W
2
(k) < PR > Irms 2R = 200W
(l) < Pc >= 0

Example 23:
An ac source of angular frequency ω is fed across a resister R and a capacitor C in series. The
current registered is I. If now, the frequency of source is changed to ω/3 (but maintaining the
same voltage), the current in the circuit is found to be halved. Calculate the ratio of reactance
to resistance at the original frequency ω.

Alternating Current 21
Solution:
The impedance of RC circuit is:
2
 1 
Z
= R2 +  
 ωC 
Vrms
The RMS current is Irms =
Z
V V
I
According to the given problem, = =
Z R2 + (1 / Cω)2  1/2
 
ω I V
And for frequency of , =
3 2 R2 + (3 / Cω)2  1/2
 
Substituting the value of I from equation (i) in (ii),
1 3
i.e.. = R2
Cω 22
5
1/2
3 2
 R 
X (1 / cω) 5  3
= =  =
So that,
R R R 5

Example 24:
When an alternating voltage of 220V is applied across a device X, a current of 0.5 A flows
through the circuit and is in phase with the applied voltage. When the same voltage is applied
across another device Y, the same current again flows through the circuit but it leads the applied
voltage by π/2 radians.
(a) Name the devices X and Y.
(b) Calculate the current flowing in the circuit when same voltage is applied across the series
combination of X and Y.
Solution:
(a) X is resistor and Y is a capacitor
(b) Since the current in the two devices is the same (0.5A at 220 volt)
When R and C are in series across the same voltage then
220
R = XC = = 440 Ω
0.5
Vrms
⇒ Ιrms =
R2 + XC2
220
Irms =
(440)2 + (440)2

220
= = 0.35A
440 2

22 Alternating Current
15. Comparative Study of Series R-L, R-C and L-C Circuits

Terms R-L R-C L-C

R L R C L C
Circuit
Ι is same in R & L Ι is same in R & C Ι is same in L & C

VL VR VL
Ι Ι
V
Phasor Diagram
Ι VC
VR VC V = VL – VC (VL > VC )
V 2 = VR2 + VL2 V 2 = VR2 + VC2 V = VC – VL (VC > VL )

Phase Difference V lags I (φ = –π/2, if XC > XL)

V leads I (φ = 0 to π/2) V lags I (φ = –π/2 to 0)
in Between B & I V leads I (φ = +π/2, if XL > XC)

Impedance Z= R2 + XL2 Z= R2 + (XC )2 Z = |XL–XC|

as f ↑,Z ↑ as f ↑,Z ↓ as f ↑,Z first ↓ then ↑

Variation of Z Z Z Z
with f R R
f f f

At very low f Z = R(XL → 0) Z = XC Z = XC

At very high f Z = XL Z = R(XC → 0) Z = XL

Concept Builder-4

Q.1 Calculate the impedance of the circuit shown in the figure.

30Ω 40Ω

Q.2 In given circuit find out

(i) impedance of circuit
(ii) current in circuit
6Ω 8Ω

=V 20 sin ωt(volt)

Alternating Current 23
Q.3 Find the capacity of a condenser to run a 30 V, 10W lamp when connected in series with an
alternating emf of 220 V and frequency 50 C/s.

1
Q.4 Consider a series L-R circuit in which L = H and resistance R = 100Ω. When the circuit is
π
connected to A.C. source 220 V, 50 Hz. Find the current drawn from the source.

Q.5 When a coil is connected to a 100 V DC supply, the current is 2A. When the same coil is
connected to A.C. source E = 100 2 sin ωt, the current is 1A. Find the inductive reactance used
in the circuit.

Q.6 A resistance of 300 Ω and an inductance of 1 / π henry are connected in a series to an AC voltage
of 20 V and 200 Hz frequency. The phase angle between the voltage and current is
(1) tan−1 4/3 (2) tan-1 3/4 (3) tan−1 3/2 (4) tan−1 2/5

Q.7 A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series with an AC source. If the potential drop across
the capacitor is 5V and that across the resistor is 12 V, then applied voltage is
(1) 13 V (2) 17 V (3) 5 V (4) 12 V

Q.8 A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15µF are connected in series to a 220 V, 50 Hz AC source.
The current in the circuit is
(1) 755 A (2) 7.55 mA (3) 0.755A (4) 0.755 mA

1
Q.9 If power factor of a R-L series circuit is when applied voltage is V = 100 sin 100πt volt and
2
resistance of circuit is 200Ω, then calculate the inductance of the circuit.

16. L-C-R Series Circuit

A circuit containing a series combination of an resistance R, a coil of inductance L and a
capacitor of capacitance C, connected with a source of alternating e.m.f. of peak value of E0,
as shown in fig.
L C R

A.C.source

E = E0 sin ω t

16.1 Phasor Diagram for Series L-C-R Circuit

Let in series LCR circuit applied alternating emf is E = E0 sin ωt.
As L, C and R are joined in series, therefore, current at any instant through the three elements
has the same amplitude and phase.

24 Alternating Current
 However voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with the current.

VL Q

O
VC VR P
S

Let at any instant of time t, the current in the circuit is Ι

Let at this time t, the potential differences across L, C, and R is
VL = Ι XL, VC = Ι XC and VR = Ι R

VL Q
K
T
E(pplied emf)

(VL – VC )

φ
O
S VR P
VC

Now, VR is in phase with current Ι but VL leads Ι by 90° While VC legs behind Ι by 90°. The vector

OP represents VR (which is in phase with Ι) the vector OQ represent VL (which leads Ι by 90°)

and the vector OS represents VC (which legs behind Ι by 90°) VL and VC are opposite to each

other.
If VL > VC (as shown in figure) then their resultant will be (VL – VC) which is represented by OT.

Finally, the vector OK represents the resultant of VR and (VL – VC), that is, the resultant of all

the three = applied e.m.f.

Thus
XL Q
E= VR2 + (VL − VC )2 = I R2 + (XL − XC )2 K
T
E
⇒ I= (XL – XC ) Z
R + (XL − XC )2
2

φ R
O
Impedance Z= R + (XL − XC )
2 2
S P
XC
2
 1 
= R2 +  ωL − 
 ω C

The phasor diagram also shows that in LCR circuit the applied e.m.f. leads the current Ι by a
phase angle φ
XL − XC
⇒ tanφ =
R

Alternating Current 25
16.2 Series LCR Combination
1. Circuit Diagram
R L C

I same for R, L & C

2. Phasor Diagram
VL
Ι
VR
VC

(i) If VL > V C then

VL – VC
Ι
VR

(ii) If VC > VL then

VR Ι
VC – VL

(iii) V = VR2 + (VL − VC )2

Impedance

Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2

(iv) Impedance triangle

XL − XC
tanφ = Z
R X = XL – XC

VL − VC φ R
=
VR

Key Points

• In A.C. circuit, voltage for L or C may be greater than source voltage or current but it happens
only when circuit contains L and C both and for R it is never greater than source voltage or
current.

• In parallel A.C. circuit, phase difference between IL and IC is π

26 Alternating Current
Example 25:
In the circuit shown in the Figure, find
(a) The reactance of the circuit
(b) Impedance of the circuit
(c) The current
(d) Reading of the ideal AC voltmeters
(These are hot wire instruments and read RMS values)

Solution:

R2 + ( XC − XL )
2
In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC and XL are the capacitive

reactance and inductive reactance respectively.

2
(a) XL = 2πfL = 2π × 50 × = 200 Ω
π
1
⇒ XC = = 100 Ω
100
2π50 × 10−6
π
The reactance of the circuit X = XL – XC = 200 – 100 = 100 Ω
Since XL > XC, the circuit is called inductive.

Z
(b) Impedance of circuit= R2 + X2

= 1002 + 1002 = 100 2 Ω

vrms
(c) The current Irms =
Z
200
= = 2A
100 2
(d) Readings of ideal voltage
V1 : Irms XL = 200 2V

V2 : IrmsR = 100 2V

V3 : Irms Xc = 100 2V

V4 : Irms R2 + XL2 =
100 10V

V4 : IrmsZ = 200V
which also happens to be the voltage of source.

Alternating Current 27
 Example 26:
A resistance R, inductance L and a capacitor C all are connected in series with ac supply. The
resistance of R is 16 Ω and for a given frequency, the inductive reactance of L is 24 Ω and
capacitive reactance of C is 12 Ω. If the current in the circuit is 5 amp, find:
(a) The potential difference across R, L and C
(b) The impedance of the circuit
(c) The voltage of ac supply
(d) Phase angle
Solution:

R2 + ( XC − XL )
2
In series LCR circuit, the impedance is Z = where XC and XL are the capacitive

reactance and inductive reactance respectively. The phase angle between voltage and current
 X − XC 
is given by φ =tan−1  L  .
 R
 
(a) Potential difference across resistance: VR = iR = 5 × 16 = 80 V
Potential difference across inductance: VL = I × (ωL) = 5 × 24 = 120 V
Potential difference across capacitor: VC = i × (1 / ωC) = 5 × 12 = 60 V
  1  
2

(b)=Z R2 +  − ωL  
  ωC  

= (16)2 + (12)2 = 20Ω

(c) The voltage of ac supply is given by: V = IZ = 5 × 20 = 100 V
−1  ωL − (1 / ωC) 
(d) φ =tan  
 R 
 24 − 12 
= tan−1=
  tan
= −1
(0.75) 36 46′′
 16 

Example 27:
If XL = 50 Ω and XC = 40 Ω Calculate effective value of current in given circuit.
Solution: X= 50Ω
L XC= 40Ω
Z = XL – XC = 10 Ω

V0 40
Ι0 = = =4A
Z 10
4 =V 40 sin(100π t) volt
⇒ Irms = = 2 2 A
2

Example 28:
(a) The reactance of capacitor is 20 ohm. What does it mean?
(b) What will be its reactance, if frequency of AC is doubled?
(c) What will be its reactance when connected in DC circuit? What is its consequence?

28 Alternating Current
Solution:
(a) The reactance of capacitor is 20 ohm. It means that the opposition offered by it to the flow
of AC at a specific frequency is equivalent to a resistance of 20 ohm. The reactance of capacitor
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πfC
(b) Therefore by doubling frequency, the reactance is halved i.e., it becomes 10 ohm.
(c) In DC circuit f = 0. Therefore reactance of capacitor = ∞ (infinite). Hence the capacitor can
not be used to conduct DC.

Example 29:
If the reading of voltmeter V1 is 40 V, What is the reading of voltmeter V2?
V2

V1

50 2 sin ωt
Solution:
V0
A.C. voltmeter reads rms value of voltage. RMS voltage applied = = 50 V
2
Reading of voltmeter V2 is x, then

x2 + 402 = 50 V
⇒ x = 30 volt

Concept Builder-5

Q.1 Find out the impedance of given circuit.

9Ω 4Ω 6Ω

 π
Q.2 A series LCR circuit is connected across a source of emf E = 10sin  100πt −  . The current from
 6 
 π
the supply is I = 2 sin  100πt +  . Find the phase difference.
 12 

Q.3 Calculate impedance of the given circuit:

10Ω 20Ω 10Ω 10Ω 20Ω 10Ω

A A
(i) (ii)
=V 100 sin100πt volt =V 100 sin100πt volt

Alternating Current 29
Q.4 An inductor (XL = 2Ω) a capacitor (XC = 8Ω) and a resistance (8Ω) is connected in series with an
A.C. source. The voltage output of A.C. source is given by V = 10 cos 2π 50t. Find the
instantaneous potential difference between A and B when the voltage output from source is
half of its maximum.
XC = 8 Ω
XL = 2Ω
8Ω
A

Q.5 Find the potential difference across resistance, capacitance and inductance in series LCR circuit
where L = 2.0 H, C = 1 µF and R = 1000 Ω. The applied emf has the form V = sin (1000t).

Q.6 Find out reading of A.C. ammeter and also calculate the potential difference across, resistance
and capacitor.
10Ω 20Ω 10Ω

=V 100 sin100πt volt

Q.7 In LCR circuit with an AC source R = 300 Ω , C = 20 µF, L = 1.0 H, Erms = 50V and f = 50/π Hz.
Find RMS current in the circuit.

17. Resonance
A circuit is said to be in resonance when the natural frequency of circuit is equal to frequency
of the applied voltage. For resonance both L and C must be present in circuit.

17.1 Series LCR

(a) At Resonance
(i) XL = XC
(ii) VL = VC
(iii) φ = 0 (V and I in same phase)
(iv) Zmin = R (impedance minimum)
V
(v) Imax = (current maximum)
R
(b) Resonance Frequency
1 1
 XL = X C ⇒ ωrL = ⇒ ωr2 =
ωrC LC
1 1
⇒ ωr = ⇒ fr = (Hz)
LC 2π LC

30 Alternating Current
 (c) Variation of Z with f
(i) If f< fr then XL < XC
circuit nature capacitive, φ is negative
z
(ii) At f = fr then XL = XC
R
circuit nature resistive, φ = zero
fr f
(iii) If f > fr then XL > XC
circuit nature is inductive, φ is positive
(iv) as f increase, Z first decreases then increase
(d) Variation of I with f
as f increase, I first increases then decreases
• At resonance, impedance of the series resonant circuit is minimum so it is Ιmax
called 'acceptor circuit' as it most readily accepts that current out of many Ι V
Ιmax =
currents whose frequency is equal to its natural frequency. In radio or TV 2 R
Ι ∆f
tuning we receive the desired station by making the frequency of the circuit
equal to that of the desired station. f1 fr f2 f
Half power frequencies
The frequencies at which, power become half of its maximum value called half power
frequencies.
R
Band width = ∆f = f2 – f1 =
2πL
Quality factor Q : Q-factor of A.C. circuit basically gives an idea about stored energy & lost
energy.
maximum energy stored per cycle
Q = 2π
maximum energy loss per cycle
(i) It represents the sharpness of resonance.
(ii) It is unit less and dimension less quantity.
(X L )r (XC )r 2πfrL 1 L
(iii) Q = = = =
R R R R C
fr fr Re sonance freq.
= = =
∆f band width Band width
Magnification
At resonance VL Ι
R1
or VC = QE (where E = supplied voltage)
R < R 2 < R3
So at resonance, Magnification factor = Q-factor R2 1
Sharpness
R3
Sharpness ∝ Quality factor ∝ Magnification factor fr f
As R decrease
⇒ Q increases
⇒ Sharpness increases

Alternating Current 31
 Key Points

• Series resonance circuit gives voltage amplification while parallel resonance circuit gives current
amplification.
• At resonance, current does not depend on L and C, it depends only on R and V.
• At half power frequencies : net reactance = net resistance. |XL – XC| = R
• As R increases , bandwidth increases
• To obtain resonance in a circuit following parameter can be altered :
(i) L (ii) C (iii) frequency of source
• Two series LCR circuit of same resonance frequency f are joined in series then resonance
frequency of series combination is also f.
• The series LCR resonance circuit called acceptor whereas parallel LCR resonance circuit called
rejector circuit.
• Unit of LC is second.

Example 30:
A sinusoidal voltage V(t) = (200 V) sin ωt is applied to a series LCR circuit with L = 10.0 mH,
C = 100 nF and R = 20.0 Ω. Find the following quantities:
(a) The resonant frequency
(b) The amplitude of current at resonance
(c) The quality factor Q of the circuit
(d) The amplitude of the voltage across the inductor at the resonant frequency.
Solution:
1 1
When the LCR circuit is set to resonance, the resonant frequency is f = .
2π LC
ω0L 1 L
Q
Quality factor is= = .
R R C
(a) Using formula of resonant frequency
The resonant frequency, for the circuit is given by
ω0 1 1
f
= =
2π 2π LC
1 1
= = 5033Hz
2π ( 10 × 10 H)( 100 × 10 F)
−3 −9

(b) At resonance current is Maximum i.e. I0

V0 200
I0
= = = 10.0A
R 20.0Ω
(c) The quality factor Q of the circuit is given by

Q
= =
(
ω0L 2π 5033s
−1
)(
10.0 × 10−3 H
= 15.8
)
R (20.0Ω)
(d) At resonance, the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor is
VL = I0 XL = I0 ω0L
0

( )(
(10.0A)2π 5033s−1 10.0 × 10−3 H
= )
= 3.16 × 103 V

32 Alternating Current
Example 31:
A series LCR circuit containing a resistance of 120 Ω has angular frequency 4 × 105 rads–1.
At resonance, the voltage across resistance and inductance are 60 V and 40 V respectively.
Find the value of L and C. At what frequency does the current lag the voltage by 45°?
Solution:
At resonance, XL = XC. The phase angle by which
 X − XC 
the current lags the voltage is φ =tan−1  L 
 R
 
For resistance VR = IrmsR;

VR 60
or Irms
= = = 0.5A
R 120
For inductor V=
L
Irms ω0L

40 = 0.5 × 4 × 105 × L ⇒ L = 2 × 10−4 H

1
At resonance,=
XL XC i.e. ω
=0
L
ω0C

1 1 1
C
= = = µF
ω20L
( 4 × 10 ) 32
2
5
× 2 × 10−4

When the current lags behind the voltage by 45o,

XL − XC
using tan φ = , gives
R
1
ωL −
ωC ⇒ R =ωL − 1 =ωL −  ω0L 
2

1=
R ωC  ω 
 
∴ ωR = ω2L − ω20L

(
120ω = 2 × 10−4  ω2 − 4 × 105 ) 
2

 
VL
Source Voltage
VL – V C

45°
i
VR

VC

On solving the above equation, we get

ω = 8 × 105 or ω = −2 × 105
 Frequency can’t be negative

∴ Ignoring negative root we have ω = 8 × 105 Hz

Alternating Current 33
Example 32:
For what frequency the voltage across the resistance R will be maximum.
Solution:
1 1
Voltage across resistor will be maximum at resonance µF H
R π π
1 1
f= = = 500 Hz
2π LC 1 1
2π × 10−6 ×
π π

Example 33: R 220Ω

=
A capacitor, a resistor and a 40 mH inductor are connected in series to
an AC source of frequency 60 Hz, calculate the capacitance of the V1 V1 V1
300V 300V XV
capacitor, if the current is in phase with the voltage. Also calculate the
Ι
value of X and I.
110V,60Hz
Solution:
At resonance
1 1 1
ωL = , C = 2 =
ωC ωL 4π f L
2 2

1
= = 176 µF
4π × (60) × 40 × 10−3
2 2

V 110
V = VR ⇒ X = 110 V and Ι= = = 0.5 A
R 220

Example 34:
A 100 V ac source of frequency 500 Hz is connected to a series LCR circuit with L = 8.1 mH, C
= 12.5 µ F and R = 10 Ω. Find the potential different across the resistance.
Solution:
For LRC circuit, total potential difference is

VR2 + ( VC − VL )
2
V=

Inductive reactance,
XL = 2π × 500 × 8.1 × 10−3 = 25.45Ω
Capacitive reactance,
106
=XC = 25.45Ω
2π × 500 × 12.5
⇒ XL =
XC
This is the condition of resonance. This means that total potential drop occurs across the
resistance only.

VR2 + ( VL − VC ) = VR = 100V
2
∴V =

The total potential difference across resistance is the same as the applied voltage across circuit.

34 Alternating Current
18. Power in AC Circuit
The average power dissipation in series LCR ac circuit:
Let V = V0 sinωt and I = I0 sin (ωt – φ)

Instantaneous power
P = (V0sinωt)(Ι0sin(ωt–φ)

= V0Ι0 sinωt (sinωtcosφ – sinφcosωt)

Average power <P>

T
1
T ∫0 0 0
= (V I sin2 ωt cos φ − V0 I0 sin ωt cos ωt sin φ)dt

1 T 1
T

= V0I0  ∫ sin2 ωt cos φdt − ∫ sin ωt cos ωt sin φdt 
 T 0 T0 
1 
= V0 I0  cos φ − 0 × sin φ 
 2 
V0 I0 cos φ
⇒<P>=
2
= Vrms Irms cosφ

Instantaneous Average power /actual Virtual power/ Peak power

power power/ dissipated power apparent Power/rms
/power loss Power
P = VI P=Vrms Irms cosφ P=Vrms Irms P=V0 I0

• Irms cosφ is known as active part of current, watt full current or work full current. It is in phase

with voltage.
• Irms sinφ is known as inactive part of current, watt less current or workless current. It is in

quadrature (90°) with voltage.

Power factor
Average power
<P> = P = Vrms Irms cos φ = rms power × cos φ

Power factor
Average power
(cos φ) =
rms power

R
and cosφ =
Z

Alternating Current 35
 Key Points

• Pav < Prms

• Power factor varies from 0 to 1

Pure/ φ V Power factor = Average
Ideal cos φ Power
R 0 V and I in same phase 1 (maximum) Vrms Irms
L π V leads I 0 0
+
2
C π V lags I 0 0
–
2
Choke π V leads I 0 0
+
coil 2

• At resonance power factor is maximum

(φ = 0 so cosφ = 1) and Pav = Vrms Irms

Example 35:
Show that average heat produced during a cycle of AC is same as produced by DC with I = Irms
Solution:
For AC, Ι = Ι0 sinωt, the instantaneous value of heat produced (per second) in a resistance R is,
2 2 2
H = Ι R = Ι0 sin ωt × R the average value of heat produced during a cycle is:
T T

Hav =
∫ Hdt = ∫
0 0
(Ι20 sin2 ωt × R)dt
=
1 2
Ι R
T T
2 0
∫ dt0 ∫
0
dt

 T 1 


∫
0
Ι20 sin2 ωt dt = Ι20 T 
2 
2
 I0 
⇒ Hav =  R Irms R
2
= .....(i)
 2
However, in case of DC,
2
HDC = I R ...(ii)
 I = Irms so from equation (i) and (ii) HDC = Hav
AC produces same heating effects as DC of value I = Irms.
This is also why AC instruments which are based on heating effect of current give rms value.

Example 36:
π
If V = 100 sin 100 t volt and I = 100 sin (100 t + ) mA for an A.C. circuit then find out
3
(a) phase difference between V and I (b) total impedance, reactance, resistance
(c) power factor and power dissipated (d) components contains by circuits

36 Alternating Current
Solution:
π
(a) Phase difference φ = (I leads V)
3
V 100
(b) Total impedance Z = 0= = 1kΩ
I0 100 × 10−3
Now resistance R
1 60º
R = Z cos 60° = 1000 × = 500Ω
2 X
Z
3
reactance X = Z sin 60° = 1000 × = 500 3 Ω
2
(c) φ = – 60°
Power factor= cosφ = cos (–60°) = 0.5 (leading)
Power dissipated
100 0.1 1
P = Vrms Irms cosφ = × × = 2.5 W
2 2 2
π
(d) Circuit must contains R as φ ≠ and as φ is negative so C must be their, (L may exist but
2
XC > XL) so either RC or LCR.

Example 37:
1 3
A voltage of 10 V and frequency 10 Hz is applied to µF capacitor in series with a resistor of
π
500Ω. Find the power factor of the circuit and the power dissipated.
Solution:
1 1
 XC
= = = 500Ω
2π f C 10−6
2π × 10 × 3

π
∴ Z= R2 + XC2 = (500)2 + (500)2 = 500 2 Ω

R 500 1
Power factor cosφ = = =
Z 500 2 2
V 2
rms
Power dissipated = Vrms Ιrms cosφ = cosφ
Z
(10)2 1 1
= × == 0.1 W
500 2 2 10

Example 38:
The potential difference V and current I flowing through the AC circuit is given by V = 5 cos
(ωt – π/6) volt and I = 10sinωt ampere. The average power dissipated in the circuit is
25 3
(1) W (2) 12.5 W (3) 25 W (4) 50 W
2
Solution:
V = 5 cos (ωt - π/6); I =10 sin ωt = 10 cos (ωt - π/2)
π π π VI 5 × 10 1
φ= − = ;P= cos φ = × = 12.5 W
2 6 3 2 2 2

Alternating Current 37
Example 39:
A circuit draws a power of 550 W from a source of 220 V, 50Hz. The power factor of the circuit
is 0.8 and the current lags in phase behind the potential difference. To make the power factor
of circuit as 1.0, what capacitance will be connected in the circuit?
Solution:
In series LR circuit, the current lags the applied voltage by angle φ and the power factor of circuit is
R
cos φ = . When capacitor is connected in series in the circuit, the impedance of the
R + ω2L2
2

R
R2 + ( XC − XL )
2
circuit is Z = and the power factor of the circuit is cos φ = .
R + ( XL − XC ) 
2 2

 
We want to find the value of the capacitor to make the circuit’s power factor 1.0
(A) Find the value resistance and inductive reactance. For a LR circuit, current lags behind
voltage in phase. The power in AC circuit is given as
Vrms
2
× cos φ
P= ….. (i)
Z
Vrms
2
× cos φ (220)2 × 0.8
⇒Z== = 70.4Ω
P 550
R
Power factor cos φ = , so we get value of resistance as
Z
R = Z × cos φ = 70.4 × 0.8 = 56.32 Ω
Inductive Reactance is
L
ω= (Z 2
− R2= ) (70.4)2 − (56.32)2

ωL =42.2Ω
(B) Capacitance needed to be connected in circuit to make power factor = 1.0
When the capacitor is connected in the circuit.
Impedance
 1  
2

Z
= R2 +  ωL −   ….. (ii)
 ωC  

and power factor is given by
R
cos φ =
 1  
2

R2 +  ωL −  
 ωC  

1
When cos φ = 1, ωL = ….. (iii)
ωC
From (iii) we get
1 1
=C =
ω(ωL) 2πf(ωL)
1
= = 75 × 10−6 F= 75µF.
(2 × 3.14 × 50) × (42.2)
Therefore to make a circuit with power factor = 1, 75 µF capacitor is to be connected in a series
with resistance and inductor.

38 Alternating Current
Example 40:
What is the power factor for the circuit shown?
X
=L 100Ω R XC= 20Ω

L R
= 60Ω C

220V,50Hz

Solution:
R R 60 60 3
Power factor cos φ = = = = =
Z R + (XL − XC )
2 2
60 + (100 − 20)
2 2 100 5

Concept Builder-6

Q.1 Radio receiver receives a message at 300m band, If the available inductance is 1 mH, then
 C
calculate required capacitance. f = 
 λ

Q.2 A coil, a capacitor and an A.C. source of rms voltage 24 V are connected in series, By varying
the frequency of the source, a maximum rms current 6 A is observed, If this coil is connected
to a battery of emf 12 V, and internal resistance 4Ω , then calculate the current through the coil.

Q.3 A circuit consisting of an inductance and a resistance joined to a 200 volt supply (A.C.). It draws
a current of 10 ampere. If the power used in the circuit is 1500 watt. Calculate the watt-less
current.

Q.4 An alternating voltage = 200 sin 100t is applied to a series combination of R = 30 Ω and an
inductor of 400 mH. The power factor of the circuit is
(1) 0.01 (2) 0.6 (3) 0.05 (4) 0.042

Q.5 A circuit has a resistance of 12Ω and an impedance of 15Ω. The power factor of circuit will be :
(1) 0.8 (2) 0.4 (3) 1.25 (4) 0.125

Q.6 In a series RC circuit with an AC source, R = 300Ω, C = 25 µF, V0 = 50 V and f = 50/π Hz. Find
the peak current and the average power dissipated in the circuit.

Q.7 Figure shows LCR series ac circuit. If L is removed from the circuit, current leads voltage by 45°
while if C is removed, current lags the voltage by 45°. Current passing in the original circuit is
L C = R 100Ω

100V,200Hz

(1) 2A (2) 1.5 A (3) 1A (4) 0.5 A

Alternating Current 39
  π
Q.8 A series LCR circuit is connected across an AC source V = 10sin  100πt −  . Current from the
 6
 π
supply is I = 2sin  100πt +  , What is the average power dissipated ?
 6

19. Choke Coil

In a direct current circuit, current is reduced with the help of a tube light rod
2
resistance. Hence there is a loss of electrical energy I R per sec in the
form of heat in the resistance. But in an AC circuit the current can be starter
reduced by choke coil which involves very small amount of loss of
energy. Choke coil is a copper coil wound over a soft iron laminated
choke coil
core. This coil is put in series with the circuit in which current is to be
reduced. It also known as ballast.
Circuit with a choke coil is a series L-R circuit. If resistance of choke coil = r (very small)
E
The current in the circuit I = with
Z
Z = (R + r)2 + (ωL)2 So due to large inductance L of the coil, the current in the circuit is
decreased appreciably. However, due to small resistance of the coil r,
The power loss in the choke
Pav = Vrms Irms cos φ → 0
r r r
 cosφ = = ≈ →0
Z r +ω L
2 2 2 ωL
A capacitor of suitable capacitance replace a choke coil in an AC circuit, the average power
consumed in a capacitor is also zero. Hence, like a choke coil, a capacitor can reduce current
in AC circuit without power dissipation.
Cost of capacitor is much more than the cost of inductance of same reactance that's why choke
coil is used.

Key Points

• Choke coil is a high inductance and negligible resistance coil.

• Choke coil is used to control current in A.C. circuit at negligible power loss.
• Choke coil used only in A.C. and not in D.C. circuit.
• Choke coil is based on the principle of watt-less current.
• Iron cored choke coil is used generally at low frequency and air cored at high frequency.
• Resistance of ideal choke coil is zero.

Example 41:
A choke coil of resistance R and inductance L is connected in series with a L,R C
capacitor C and complete combination is connected to AC voltage, Circuit
resonates when angular frequency of supply is ω = ω0.
(a) Find out relation between ω0, L and C
(b) What is phase difference between V and I at resonance, is it changes
=V V0 sin ωt(volt)
when resistance of choke coil is zero.

40 Alternating Current
Solution:
(a) At resonance condition XL = XC

1 1
⇒ ω0L = ⇒ ω0 =
ω0C LC
R R
(b)  cos φ = = =1
Z R
∴ φ = 0° No, It is always zero.

Example 42:
Calculate the resistance or inductance required to operate a lamp (60V, 10W) from a source of
(100 V, 50 Hz)
Solution:
(a) Maximum voltage across lamp = 60V R
 V Lamp + VR = 100 ∴ VR = 40V

Wattage 10 1
Now current through Lamp is Ι = = = A
voltage 60 6 100V,50Hz

1
But VR= ΙR 40 = (R) R = 240 Ω
6
2 2 2
(b) Now in this case (VLamp) + (VL) = (V)
L
2 2 2
(60) + (VL) = (100) VL = 80 V
1
Also VL = ΙXL = X ⇒ XL = 6VL 100V,50Hz
6 L
so XL = 80 × 6 = 480 Ω = L (2πf) ⇒ L = 1.5 H

Alternating Current 41
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-4

1. f = 0.66, Iav = 5A 1. 50 Ω

2. (a) 100 3 units (b) 5 3 units 2. (i) 10 Ω (ii) 2A

(c) 10 sin 100πt 3. 4.86 µF 4. 1.1 A

3. 2.5ms 5. 50 3 Ω 6. tan−1 4/3

4. (i) ν = 200 Hz (ii) Iav = 31.9 A 7. 13 V 8. 0.755A

9. 100
(iii) Irms = 35.4 A

5. 50 A
CONCEPT BUILDER-5
6. (2) 1. 5Ω
7. (i) 242 Ω (ii) 0.9 A 2. π/4
8. 1.26 A 3. (i) 10 2 Ω (ii) 5 Ω
9. 165 Watt 4. 3V
10. Yes 5. voltage across inductor = 1 V
rms voltage across capacitor,
CONCEPT BUILDER-2 VC = IrmsXC = 0.5 V

1 rms voltage across resistor

1. s
200 VR = Irms R = 0.5 V
2. 2.5ms 6. VR = 50 V, VC = 50 V
3. (a) 5.5 A (b) 7.8 A 7. 0.1 A
(c) 2.5 ms
4. Zero CONCEPT BUILDER-6
1. 25 pF 2. 1.5 A
5. 5 kΩ
6. 20 A 10 7
3. A 4. (2)
4
5. (1)
CONCEPT BUILDER-3
6. (a) 0.1 A (b) 1.5 W
1. (2) im sin(ωt + π / 2) 7. (3) 8. 5 watt
2. (4) Both (1) and (2)
3. (3) 212Ω
4. (3) 1.04 A, 1.47 A

42 Alternating Current
 Exercise - I
Direct Current / Alternating Current / 7. The value of alternating e.m.f. is e = 500
Characteristics of Ac sin 100πt, then the frequency of this
potential in Hz is -
1. An alternating current changes from a (1) 25 (2) 50
complete cycle in 1µs, then the frequency (3) 75 (4) 100
in Hz will be -
–6
(1) 10 (2) 50 8. The frequency of an alternating current is
6
(3) 100 (4) 10 50Hz, then the time to complete one cycle
for current will be-
2. In an ac circuit, the current is given by (1) 20 ms (2) 50 ms
i = 4 sin (100πt + 30°) ampere. The current (3) 100 ms (4) 1 s
becomes maximum first time (after t = 0)
at t equal to - 9. In the above question, time taken by
(1) (1/200) sec (2) (1/300) sec current to rise from zero to maximum is:
(3) (1/50) sec (4) None of these (1) 1/200 sec (2) 1/100 sec
(3) 1/50 sec (4) 1/400 sec
3. The instantaneous value of current in an ac
circuit is Ι = 2 sin (100πt + π/3) A. The 10. In the equation Ι = Ι0 sin ωt, the current
current at the beginning (t = 0) will be - amplitude and frequency will respectively
(1) 2 3 A (2) 3A be:

3 ω I0 ω
(3) A (4) Zero (1) Ι0, (2)
2 2π 2 2π
ω
(3) Ιrms, (4) Ι0, ω
4. The direction of alternating current get 2π
changed in one cycle -
(1) two times (2) one time 11. Sinusoidal peak potential is 200 volt with
(3) 50 times (4) 60 times frequency 50Hz. It is represented by the
equation
5. If the frequency of alternating potential is (1) E = 200 sin 50t (2) E = 200 sin 314t
50Hz then the direction of potential, (3) E = 200 2 sin 50t (4) E =200 2 sin 314t
changes in one second by -
(1) 50 times (2) 100 times 12. In an electric circuit the applied alternating
(3) 200 times (4) 500 times emf is given by E = 100 sin (314 t) volt, and
current flowing Ι = sin (314t + π /3). Then the
6. The time period of alternating current with impedance of the circuit is (in ohm):
frequency of one KHz will be - 100
(1) (2) 100
(1) 0.10 sec (2) 0.01 sec 2
–3
(3) 1 × 10 sec (4) 1 sec (3) 100 2 (4) None of these

Alternating Current 43
13. The voltage of an AC source varies with 18. Ιn a circuit an A.C. current and a D.C.
time according to equation V = 100 sin(πt) current are supplied together. The
cos (πt). where t is in seconds and V is in expression of the instantaneous current is
volts. Then: given as i = 3 + 6 sin ωt Then the rms value
(1) the peak voltage of the source is 100 V
of the current is:
(2) the peak voltage of the source is 50 V
(1) 3 (2) 6
(3) the peak voltage of the source is
(3) 3 2 (4) 3 3
100 / 2V
(4) the frequency of the source is 100 Hz.
19. The average value or alternating current for
Mean Value or Average Value / Root Mean half cycle in terms of I0 is -
Square (RMS) Value / Form Factor 2 I0 I0
(1) (2)
π π
14. In A.C. circuit the average value per cycle I0
(3) (4) 0
of e.m.f. or current is: 2
(1) peak value / 2 (2) 0
(3) peak value (4) None of these 20. RMS value of A.C. i = i1 cos ωt + i2 sin ωt will
be-
15. The r.m.s. value of potential due to
1 1 2
superposition of given two alternating (1) (i1 + i2) (2) (i1 + i2)
2 2
potentials E1 = E0 sin ωt and E2 = E0 cos ωt
1 1
1
will be: (3)
2
(i1 + i2 )
2 1/2
(4) (i21 − i22 )2
(1) E0 (2) 2E0 2 2

(3) E0 2 (4) 0
21. The electric current in a circuit is given by

16. A mixer of 1000Ω resistance is connected i0 t

i = for some time. The rms current for
τ
to an A.C. source of 200V and 50 cycle per
sec. The value of average potential difference the period t = 0 to t = τ will be-
across the mixer per cycle will be: i0 i0
(1) (2)
(1) 308 V (2) 264 V 2 3
(3) 220 V (4) 0 i0 i0
(3) (4)
2 3
17. The r.m.s. value of alternating current is
10 amp having frequency of 50 Hz. The time 22. An AC source is rated 220 V, 50 Hz. The
taken by the current to increase from zero average voltage is calculated in a time
to maximum and the maximum value of interval of 0.01 s, It -
current will be -
(1) must be zero
–2
(1) 2 × 10 sec. and 14.14 amp
(2) may be zero
–2
(2) 1 × 10 sec. and 7.07 amp
(3) is never zero
–3
(3) 5 × 10 sec. and 7.07 amp
20
–3 (4) is volt
(4) 5 × 10 sec. and 14.14 amp 2

44 Alternating Current
 Measurement of Alternating Quantities / 28. The A.C. meters measure its -
Phase, Phase Difference & Phasor Diagrams, (1) root mean square value
Advantage of AC (2) peak value
(3) square mean value
23. An alternating voltage source is connected
(4) None of these
in an A.C. circuit whose maximum value is
170 volt. The value of potential at a phase
angle of 45° will be: 29. The A.C. meters are based on the principle
(1) 120.22 Volt (2) 110.12 Volt of-
(3) 240 Volt (4) Zero (1) Heating effect
(2) Magnetic effect
24. The emf and the current in a circuit are
(3) Chemical effect
E = 12 sin (100πt) ;
(4) Electromagnetic effect
Ι = 4 sin (100πt + π / 3) then -
(1) The current leads the emf by 60°
(2) The current lags the emf by 60° AC Circuit with Pure Inductance
(3) The emf leads the current by 60°
(4) The phase difference between the 30. Which of the following graphs shows, in a
current and the emf is zero
pure resistor, the voltage and current are
in phase?
25. The sinusoidal voltage wave changes from
0 to maximum value of 100 volt. The im i
voltage when the phase angle is 30° will
be: (1) O ωt
π 2π
(1) 70.7 volt (2) 50 volt Vm V
(3) 109 volt (4) –100 volt

Vm V
26. If the frequency of AC is 60 Hz, the time im i
2π
difference corresponding to a phase (2) O π ωt
difference of 60° is -
(1) 60 s (2) 1 s
(3) 1/60 s (4) 1/360 s Vm V i
im
2π
27. Alternating current can not be measured π ωt
(3) O
by direct current meters, because -
(1) alternating current can not pass
through an ammeter
(2) the average value of current for Vm V

complete cycle is zero

(4) O ωt
(3) some amount of alternating current is π 2π
im i
destroyed in the ammeter
(4) None of these

Alternating Current 45
31. If alternating current of 60 Hz frequency is 36. Ιn pure inductive circuit, the curves
flowing through inductance of L = 1 mH and between frequency f and inductive
drop in ∆VL is 0.6 V then alternating 1
reactance is:
current: XL

1 5
(1) A (2) A 1
π π
XL
50 20 (1)
(3) A (4) A
π π
f
32. The inductance of a resistance less coil is
0.5 Henry. In the coil the value of A.C. is 1
XL
0.2 Amp whose frequency is 50Hz. The (2)
reactance of circuit is:
(1) 15.7 Ω (2) 157Ω f

(3) 1.57Ω (4) 0.157 Ω

1
XL
33. The inductive reactance of a coil is 1000Ω. (3)
If its self inductance and frequency both
are increased two times then inductive f

reactance will be:

1
(1) 1000 Ω (2) 2000 Ω (4) XL

(3) 4000 Ω (4) 16000 Ω

f

34. A coil of inductance 0.1 H is connected to

an alternating voltage generator of voltage AC Circuit with Pure Capacitance
E = 100 sin (100t) volt. The current flowing
through the coil will be: 37. An alternating voltage E = 200 2 sin(100t)
(1) Ι = 10 2 sin (100t) A is connected to a 1µF, capacitor through an
(2) Ι = 10 2 cos (100t) A AC ammeter. The reading of the ammeter
(3) Ι = – 10 sin (100t) A shall be
(4) Ι = – 10 cos (100t) A (1) 10 mA (2) 20 mA
(3) 40 mA (4) 80 mA
35. A coil has reactance of 100Ω when
frequency is 50Hz. If the frequency 38. A 60µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V,
becomes 150Hz, then the reactance will 60 Hz AC supply. The rms value of the
be: current in the circuit is
(1) 100Ω (1) 2 A
(2) 300Ω (2) 2.49 A
(3) 450Ω (3) 1.85 A
(4) 600Ω (4) 2.05 A

46 Alternating Current
39. If an alternating current i = im sinωt is 44. Ιn an A.C. circuit, a capacitor of 1µF value
flowing through a capacitor then voltage is connected to a source of frequency
drop ∆VC across capacitor C will be ? 1000 rad/sec. The value of capacitive
im reactance will be -
(1) – sinωt
ωC (1) 10Ω (2) 100Ω
im (3) 1000Ω (4) 10,000Ω
(2) – cosωt
ωC
im  π 45. Ιn ac circuit contains a pure capacitor,
(3) − sin  ωt + 
ωC  4 across which an ac emf e = 100 sin (1000t),
im  π volt is applied. If the peak value of the
(4) sin  ωt − 
ωC  4  current is 200 mA, then the value of the
capacitor is -
40. In an A.C. circuit capacitance of 5µF has a (1) 2 µF (2) 20 µF
reactance as 1000 Ω. The frequency of A.C. (3) 5 µF (4) 500 µF
will be-
1000 100 Series L-R Circuit
(1) cycle/s (2) cycle/s
π π
(3) 200 cycle/s (4) 5000 cycle/s
46. In given figure find VR:
VR = ? VL = 176V
41. If a capacitor is connected to two different
A.C. generators then the value of
capacitive reactance is -
(1) directly proportional to frequency
220V
(2) inversely proportional to frequency
(3) independent of frequency (1) 132 V

(4) inversely proportional to the square of (2) 396 V

frequency (3) 185 V

(4) 220 × 176 V
42. Alternating current lead the applied e.m.f.
by π/2 when the circuit consists of: 47. Figure shows the variation of voltage with
(1) only resistance time for an AC Ι = Ι0 sin ωt flowing through
(2) only capacitor a circuit-
(3) only an inductance coil v
(4) capacitor and resistance both Q

t
43. The reactance of a capacitor is X1 for
P
frequency n1 and X2 for frequency n2 then
X1 : X2 is: (1) Curve P is for R–L and Q for R–C circuit
(1) 1 : 1 (2) n1 : n2 (2) Curve P is for R–C and Q for R–L circuit
2 2
(3) n2 : n1 (4) n1 : n 2 (3) Both are for R–C circuit
(4) Both are for R–L circuit

Alternating Current 47
48. The impedance of the given circuit will be: Series R-C Circuit
150Ω
52. Which of the following figure showing the
phase relationship is correct phase

200Ω
diagram for an R–C circuit-

(1) 50 ohm (2) 150 ohm I

V
(3) 200 ohm (4) 250 ohm (1) (2)
V I
49. A coil of resistance R and inductance L is I
V
connected to a cell of emf E volt. The (3) (4)
V
current flowing through the coil will be - I
(1) E/R
(2) E/L 53. The impedance of the given circuit will be:
E 1µF
(3) 150Ω
2 2
L +R
EL
(4)
L + R2
2

+ –
50. In an AC circuit, the current lags behind the
(1) Zero (2) Infinite
voltage by π/3. The components of the
(3) 55 ohm (4) 2500 ohm
circuit are-
(1) R and L (2) L and C
54. If frequency of alternating source is made
(3) R and C (4) only R
zero then which of the following statement
is true-
51. Ιn a certain circuit E = 200 cos (314t) and
(1) current through capacitor will be zero
Ι = sin (314t + π/4). Their phasor (vector)
representation is- (2) current through resistance will be zero
(3) current through inductance will be zero
π/4 E
(1) (4) all
I
I LCR Series Circuit
(2)
π/4 55. In an L-C-R series AC circuit, the voltage
E
across each of the components. L C, and R
3π / 4 E
is 50 V. The voltage across the C-R
(3)
combination will be
I
(1) 50 V
I
(2) 50 2V
(4) 3π / 4 (3) 100 V
E
(4) zero

48 Alternating Current
56. In a series L-C-R circuit, the frequency of 60. A resistance of 50Ω, an inductance of
10 V AC voltage source is adjusted in such 20/π Henry and a capacitor of 5/π µF are
a fashion that the reactance of the connected in series with an A.C. source of
inductor measures 15 Ω and that of the 230 volt and 50 Hz. The impedance of
capacitor 11Ω. If R = 3 Ω, the potential circuit is-
difference across the series combination (1) 5Ω (2) 50Ω
of L and C will be (3) 5KΩ (4) 500Ω
(1) 8 V (2) 10 V
(3) 22 V (4) 52 V 61. The potential difference between the ends
of a resistance R is VR, between the ends
57. In the given figure, the potential difference of capacitor is VC = 2VR and between the
is shown on R, L and C. The e.m.f. of source ends of inductance is VL = 3VR, then the
in volt is:
alternating potential of the source in terms
30V 100V
60V of VR will be -

(1) 2 VR (2) VR

(3) VR/ 2 (4) 5VR

e
62. In an LCR circuit, the voltages across the
(1) 190 (2) 70 components are VL, VC and VR respectively.
(3) 50 (4) 40
The voltage of source will be:
(1) [VR + VL + VC]
58. In an L.C.R series circuit R = 1Ω, 2 2 2 1/2
(2) [VR + VL + VC ]
XL = 1000Ω and XC = 1000Ω. A source of 100
2 2 1/2
m volt is connected in the circuit the (3) [VR + (VL + VC) ]
2 2 1/2
current in the circuit is: (4) [VR + (VL – VC) ]
(1) 100 mA (2) 1 µA
(3) 0.1 µA (4) 10 µA 63. If E0 = 200 volt, R = 25 ohm, L = 0.1 H and
–5
C = 10 F and the frequency is variable,
59. The vector diagram of the current and
then the current at f = 0 and f = ∞ will be
voltage in a given circuit is shown in the
respectively-
figure. The components of the circuit will
be: R L C
45º E = 200 volts

E
I = 2A (1) 0 A, 8 A
(2) 8 A, 0 A
(1) L–C–R (2) L–R
(3) 8 A, 8 A
(3) L–C–R or L–R (4) C–R
(4) 0 A, 0 A

Alternating Current 49
 Resonance 68. In a series LCR circuit L = 1H, C = 6.25 µF
and R = 1 ohm. Its quality factor is:
64. Ιn a series resonant L–C–R circuit, if L is
(1) 400 (2) 200
increased by 25% and C is decreased by
(3) 125 (4) 25
20%, then the resonant frequency will -
(1) Increase by 10% 69. In LCR circuit, capacitor C is changed to
(2) Decrease by 10% 4C, then what should be the value of L to
(3) Remain unchanged keep resonance frequency same:
(4) Increase by 2.5% (1) 2 L (2) L/2
(3) L/4 (4) 4L
65. Ιn a series LCR circuit C = 25 µF, L = 0.1 H
and R = 25Ω. When an AC source of emf 70. In an LCR. series circuit the resonating
e = 311 sin (314t) is applied. Then the frequency can be decreased by:
impedance is: (1) Decreasing the value of C
(1) 99 ohm (2) 80 ohm (2) Decreasing the value of L

(3) 57 ohm (4) 25 ohm (3) Decreasing both the values of L and C
(4) Increasing the value of C

66. Figure shows a series L-C-R circuit,

71. Which of the following statements is
connected to a variable frequency 200 V
correct for L–C–R series combination in
source. C = 80µF and R = 40 Ω. The source
the condition of resonance:
frequency which drives the circuit at
(1) Resistance is zero
resonance is
(2) Impedance is zero
L = 5H
(3) Reactance is zero
C = 80 µF (4) Resistance, impedance and reactance
R all are zero

∼ 72. In an LCR circuit the resonating frequency is

V = 200V 500 kHz. If the value of L is increased two
times and value of C is decreased 1/8
25
(1) 25 Hz (2) Hz times, then the new resonating frequency
π
in kHz will be:
50
(3) 50 Hz (4) Hz (1) 250 (2) 500
π
(3) 1000 (4) 2000

67. What is the value of inductance L for which

73. Ιn resonating circuit value of inductance
the current is a maximum in a series LCR
and capacitance is 0.1H and 200 µF. For
circuit with C = 10 µF and ω = 1000 rad/s ?
same resonating frequency, if value of
(1) 10 mH
inductance is 100H then necessary value of
(2) 100 mH
capacitance in µF will be -
(3) 1 mH (1) 4 (2) 0.2
(4) cannot be calculated unless R is known (3) 2 (4) 0.3

50 Alternating Current
74. Ιn AC circuit at resonance - 79. The percentage increase in the impedance
(1) Impedance = R of an AC circuit, when its power factor
 1  changes form 0.866 to 0.5 is (Resistance
(2) Impedance =  ωL − 
 ω C constant) -
(3) The voltages across L and C are in the (1) 73.2% (2) 86.6%
same phase (3) 90.8% (4) 66.6%
(4) The phase difference of current in C
relative to source voltage is π
80. Ιn an AC circuit 6 ohm resistor, an inductor
of 4 ohm and a capacitor of 12 ohm are
75. An A.C. circuit resonates at a frequency of
10 kHz. If its frequency is increased to 11 connected in series with an AC source of
kHz, then: 100 volt (rms). The average power
(1) Impedance will increase by 1.1 times dissipated in the circuit will be -
(2) Impedance will remain unchanged (1) 600 W (2) 500 W
(3) Impedance will increase and become (3) 400 W (4) 200 W
inductive
(4) Impedance will increase and become 81. Ιn an AC circuit emf and current are E = 5
capacitive
cos ωt volt and Ι = 2 sin ωt ampere
respectively. The average power dissipated
76. Which of the following statements is
in this circuit will be -
correct, for an LCR series combination
having the resonating condition as- (1) 10 W (2) 2.5 W
(1) the current is minimum (3) 5 W (4) Zero
(2) the phase difference between the
current and e.m.f. is π/2 82. Ιn an L–C–R series circuit the loss of
(3) the Impedance is equal to R power is in-
(4) the value of power factor is minimum (1) Only R (2) Only L
(3) Only C (4) both L and C
Power in AC Circuits
77. The value of current at half power points 83. Ιn an AC circuit the readings of an
is: ammeter and a voltmeter are 10 A and 25
(1) Im 2 (2) Im/ 2 volt respectively, the power consumption
(3) 2Im (4) Im/2 in the circuit will be -
(1) More than 250 W
78. The power factor of the following circuit (2) Always less than 250 W
will be- (3) 250 W
XC = 40Ω
(4) Less than 250 W or 250 W

200V
R = 40Ω 84. The ratio of apparent power and average
50Hz
power in an A.C. circuit is equal to -
(1) Reciprocal of power factor
XL = 100Ω
r = 40Ω (2) Efficiency
(1) 0.2 (2) 0.4 (3) Power factor
(3) 0.6 (4) 0.8 (4) Form factor

Alternating Current 51
 π 89. In a resistance of 25Ω A.C. is passed to
85. In an A.C. circuit, i = 5 sin (100t – )
2 produce heat of the rate of 250 watt. The
ampere and V = 200 sin (100 t) volt. The value of current in the resistance will be-
power loss in the circuit will be - (1) 0.316 A (2) 1 A
(1) 20 volt (2) 40 volt (3) 3.16 A (4) 10 A
(3) 1000 watt (4) 0 watt
Choke Coil
86. An air core coil and an electric bulb are
90. The self inductance of a choke coil is 10
connected in series with an A.C. source. If
mH. When it is connected with a 10V D.C.
an iron rod is put in the coil, then the
source, then the loss of power is 20 watt.
intensity of bulb’s will-
When it is connected with 10 volt A.C.
(1) Be same
source loss of power is 10 watt. The
(2) Increase
frequency of A.C. source will be-
(3) Decrease
(1) 50 Hz (2) 60 Hz
(4) Decrease, increase
(3) 80 Hz (4) 100 Hz

87. 2.5/π µF capacitor and a 3000–ohm

91. A choke coil of 100 ohm and 1 H is
resistance are joined in series to an AC
connected to a generator of E = 200 sin
–1
source of 200 volt and 50 sec frequency. (100t) volt. The average power dissipated
The power factor of the circuit and the
will be -
power dissipated in it will respectively -
(1) Zero (2) 200 W
(1) 0.6, 0.06W
(3) 141 W (4) 100 W
(2) 0.06, 0.6W
(3) 0.6, 4.8W
92. A choke coil of negligible resistance carries
(4) 4.8, 0.6W 5 mA current when it is operated at 220 V.
The loss of power in the choke coil is -
88. In an LR circuit, the inductive reactance is (1) Zero (2) 11 W
equal to resistance R of the circuit. An 3
(3) 44 × 10 W (4) 1.1 W
e.m.f. E = E0 cos ωt is applied to the circuit.
The power consumed in the circuit is-
93. Power factor of a best choke coil is-
2 2
(1) E 0 /R (2) E 0 / 2R (1) Near about zero (2) Zero
2 2
(3) E 0 / 4R (4) E 0 / 8R (3) Near about one (4) One

52 Alternating Current
 Exercise - II
1. A coil when connected to a DC source of 5. An inductor (L) and resistance (R) are
12 V, carries a current of 4 A. If this coil is connected in series with an AC source.
connected to an AC source of 12 V and The phase difference between voltage (V)
50 rad/s, then it carries a current of 2.4 A. and current (i) is 45°. Now a capacitor (C)

The inductance of the coil is - is connected in series with L-R, If the

(1) 48 H (2) 4 H phase difference between V and i remain

–2 same, then capacitive reactance and
(3) 12.5 H (4) 8 × 10 H
impedance of L-C-R circuit will be-
(1) R, 2R (2) 2R, R 2
2. The current through ‘a’ wire changes with
(3) R, R (4) 2R, R
time according to the equation I = t . The
correct value of the rms current with in
6. In a series LCR circuit the voltage across
the time interval t = 2 to t = 4s will be:
the resistance, capacitance and
(1) 3 A (2) 3 A
inductance is 10 V each. If the capacitor is
(3) 3 3 A (4) None of these removed, the voltage across the
inductance will be-
3. A series AC circuit has a resistance of 4Ω 10
(1) 10 V (2) V
and an inductor of reactance 3Ω. The 2
impedance of the circuit is z1. Now a (3) V (4) 20 V

capacitor of reactance 6Ω is connected in

the series of above combination, the 7. In an AC circuit, a resistance of R ohm is

impedance becomes z2, Then ratio z1 : z2 connected in series with an inductance L.

If phase angle between voltage and
will be:
current be 45°, the value of inductive
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 5 : 4
reactance will be-
(3) 4 : 5 (4) 2 : 1
(1) R/4
(2) R/2
4. An AC ammeter is used to measure
(3) R
current in a circuit. When a given direct
(4) Cannot be found with the given data
current passes through the circuit, the AC
ammeter reads 3A. When another
8. A coil has an inductance of 0.7 H and is
alternating current passes through the joined in series with a resistance of 220 Ω.
circuit the AC ammeter reads 4 A, then When an alternating e.m.f. of 220 V at 50
reading of this ammeter if DC and AC flow cps is applied to it, then the wattless
through the circuit simultaneously is: component of the current in the circuit is:
(1) 3 A (2) 4 A (1) 5 ampere (2) 0.5 ampere
(3) 7 A (4) 5 A (3) 0.7 ampere (4) 7 ampere

Alternating Current 53
9. A direct current of 2 A and an alternating 14. The inductance of the oscillatory circuit of
current having a maximum value of 2 A a radio station is 10 milli henry and its
flow through two identical resistances. capacitance is 0.25 µF. Taking the effect
The ratio of heat produced in the two of the resistance negligible, wavelength of
resistances will be- the broadcasted waves will be (velocity of
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 1 : 2 8
light = 3.0 × 10 m/s, π = 3.14)
(3) 2 : 1 (4) 4 : 1 (1) 9.42 × 10 m
4
(2) 18.8 × 10 m
4

4
(3) 4.5 × 10 m (4) none of these
10. The current I = I0sin(ωt – π/2) is flowing in
a variable current circuit. The potential 15. A coil has an inductance of 0.7 henry and
E = E0sinωt is applied to the circuit. The is joined in series with a resistance of 220
loss of power will be- Ω. When the alternating emf of 220 V at
(1) P = E0I0/ 2 (2) P = E0I0/2 50 Hz is applied to it then the phase

(3) P = EI/ 2 (4) P = zero through which current lags behind the
applied emf and the wattless component

11. An alternating voltage E = 200 2 sin (100t) of current in the circuit will be

volt is connected to a 1 µF capacitor respectively-

through an A.C. ammeter. The reading of (1) 30°, 1 A (2) 45°, 0.5 A

ammeter is- (3) 60°, 1.5 A (4) none of these

(1) 10 mA (2) 20 mA
(3) 40 mA (4) 80 mA 16. When 100 V D.C. is applied across a coil,
a current of 1A flows through it. When

12. In an A.C. circuit V and I are given by 100V A.C. of 50 Hz is applied to the same

V = 100 sin(100t) volts coil only 0.5A flows. The inductance of

I = 100 sin(100t + π/3) mA the coil is-

The power dissipated in the circuit is- (1) 0.55 H (2) 55 mH

4 (3) 0.55 mH (4) 5.5 mH
(1) 10 watt (2) 10 watt
(3) 2.5 watt (4) 5.0 watt
17. In the circuit shown in the figure, the A.C.
source gives a voltage V = 20cos(2000t)
13. A bulb and a capacitor are connected in
volt, neglecting source resistance, the
series to a source of alternating current.
voltmeter and ammeter readings will be-
If its frequency is increased, while keeping
6Ω
the voltage of the source constant, then: A

(1) Bulb will give more intense light 5mH,4Ω 50μF

(2) Bulb will give less intense light
(3) Bulb will give light of same intensity as V

before (1) 0 V, 1.4 A (2) 5.6 V, 1.4 A

(4) Bulb will stop radiating light (3) 0 V, .47 A (4) 1.68 V, 0.47 A

54 Alternating Current
18. In a circuit 20Ω resistance and 0.4 H 21. When an AC source of e.m.f.
inductance are connected with a source of e = E0sin(100t) is connected across a
220 volt of frequency 50 Hz, then the circuit, the phase difference between the
value of φ will be-
e.m.f. e and the current I in the circuit is
–1 –1
(1) tan (4π) (2) tan (2π)
observed to be π/4, as shown in the
–1 –1
(3) tan (1π) (4) tan (3π)
diagram. If the circuit consists possibly
only of R-C or R-L or L-C in series, find the
19. The diagram shows a capacitor C and a
relationship between the two elements:
resistor R connected in series to an AC
I or e I
source, V1 and V2 are voltmeters and A is e

an ammeter. Consider now the following

statements-
(I) Readings in A and V2 are always in phase (1) R = 1 kΩ, C = 10µF (2) R = 1 kΩ, C = 1µF
(II) Reading in V1 is ahead with reading in (3) R = 1 kΩ, C = 10H (4) R = 1 kΩ, C = 1H
V2
(III) Readings in A and V1 are always in 22. An inductor of inductance L and resistor
phase of resistance R are joined in series and
Which of these statements are/is correct: connected by a source of frequency ω.
v1
Power dissipated in the circuit is-

C (R2 + ω2L2 ) V2R

(1) (2)
v2
V (R2 + ω2L2 )
R

V R2 + ω2L2
A (3) (4)
(R2 + ω2L2 ) v2
(1) I only (2) II only
(3) I and II only (4) II and III only 23. The power factor of an A.C. circuit having
resistance (R) and inductance (L)
20. In a series LCR circuit voltage across
connected in series having angular
resister, inductor and capacitor are 1 V,
frequency ω is -
3 V and 2 V respectively. At the instant t
when the source voltage is given by
R R
(1) (2)
ωL (R + ω2L2 )1/2
2
V = V0 cos ωt, the current in the circuit will
be- ωL R
(3) (4)
R (R2 − ω2L2 )1/2
 π
(1) I = I0 cos  ωt + 
 4 
 π 24. The self inductance of the motor of an
(2) I = I0cos  ωt − 
 4 electric fan is 10 H. In order to impart
 π maximum power at 50 Hz, it should be
(3) I = I0cos  ωt + 
 3 connected to a capacitance of –
 π (1) 4µF (2) 8µF
(4) I = I0cos  ωt − 
 3  (3) 1µF (4) 2µF

Alternating Current 55
25. The phase difference between the 27. In a series LCR circuit R = 200 Ω and the
alternating current and emf is π/2. Which voltage and the frequency of the main
of the following cannot be the constituent supply is 220 V and 50 Hz respectively. On
of the circuit ? taking out the capacitance from the
(1) C alone (2) R L circuit the current lags behind the voltage
(3) L C (4) L alone by 30°. On taking out the inductor from
the circuit the current leads the voltage by
26. In a series resonant LCR circuit, the 30°. The power dissipated in the LCR
voltage across R is 100 volts and R = 1 kΩ circuit is:
with C = 2 µF. The resonant frequency ω is (1) 242 W
200 rad/s. At resonance the voltage across (2) 305 W
L is - (3) 210 W
(1) 250 V (2) 4 × 10
–3
V (4) Zero W
–2
(3) 2.5 × 10 V (4) 40 V

56 Alternating Current
 Exercise - III
1. Match the Column I with Column II. Read the Questions (4 to 8)
Column I Column II Assertion and Reason carefully and mark
(A) VR (p) π/2 ahead of I the correct options.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
(B) VC (q) Parallel to I
Reason is the correct explanation of
(C) VL (r) π/2 behind I
Assertion.
(1) A → (p); B → (q); C → (r)
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but
(2) A → (q); B → (r); C → (p) Reason is not correct explanation of
(3) A → (r); B → (q); C → (p) Assertion.
(4) A → (p); B → (r); C → (q) (C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion and Reason are false.
2. Match the Column I with Column II.
Column I Column II 4. Assertion: When the capacitor is
(A) VRm (p) imXL connected to an AC source, it limits or
(B) VCm (q) imR regulates the current, but does not
(C) VLm (r) imXC completely prevent the flow of charge.
(1) A → (p); B → (q); C → (r) Reason: The capacitor is alternately
charged and discharged as the current
(2) A → (r); B → (q); C → (p)
reverses each half-cycle.
(3) A → (p); B → (r); C → (q)
(1) A (2) B
(4) A → (q); B → (r); C → (p)
(3) C (4) D

3. Match the Column I with Column II. 5. Assertion: In series LCR circuit resonance
Column I Column II can take place.
(A) Resistive (p) No power is Reason: Resonance takes if inductive and
circuit dissipation capacitive reactance are equal.
(B) Purely (q) Maximum (1) A (2) B
inductive or power (3) C (4) D
capacitive dissipation
circuit because of 6. Assertion: AC source is connected across
a circuit. Power dissipated in circuit is P.
XC = X L
The power is dissipated only across
(C) L-C-r series (r) Power
resistance.
circuit dissipated
Reason: Inductor and capacitor will not
only in the
consume any power in AC circuit.
resistor (1) A (2) B
(D) Power (s) Maximum (3) C (4) D
dissipated at power
Resonance in dissipation 7. Assertion: Average value of a.c. over a
L-C-R circuit complete cycle is always zero.
(1) A → (p); B → (q); C → (r); D → (s) Reason: Average value of a.c. is generally
(2) A → (s); B → (p); C → (r); D → (q) calculated over half cycle.
(3) A → (r); B → (p); C → (s); D → (q) (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
(4) A → (q); B → (p); C → (r); D → (s)

Alternating Current 57
8. Assertion: When frequency is greater than 11. For the circuit shown in Figure, labelled
resonance frequency in a series LCR circuit, with the specific values, select the correct
statements
it will be an inductive circuit.
40 Ω XL = 20 Ω
Reason: Resultant voltage will lead the
100 V
current.
2A
(1) A
(2) B ∼
V = V0 sin ωt
(3) C
(1) The voltage across the resistor is 80 V
(4) D
(2) The capacitive reactance is 50 Ω
(3) The voltage across the inductor is 40 V
9. In an AC circuit, the power factor (4) The peak value of the applied voltage
(1) is unity when the circuit is purely is 100 V

resistive.
12. In an AC series circuit, R = 10 Ω, XL = 20 Ω and
(2) is unity when the circuit is purely
XC = 10 Ω. Then, select the correct
inductive.
option(s).
(3) is zero when the circuit is purely (1) Voltage function will lead the current
capacitive. function.
(4) is 0.5 when the difference of inductive (2) Total impedance of the circuit is 10 2Ω

reactance and capacitive reactance is .

(3) Phase angle between voltage function
1.732 times the resistance.
and current function is 45°.
1
10. A tube light of 60 V, 60 W rating is (4) Power factor of circuit is .
2
connected across an AC source of 100 V
and 50 Hz frequency. Then Paragraph for Questions (13 to 29)

4 A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V

(1) an inductance of H may be and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series
5π
LCR circuit in which R = 3 Ω, L = 25.48
connected in series.
mH , C = 796 μF. Based on the above facts,
250
(2) a capacitor of µF may be answer the following questions.
π
connected in series to it. 13. The rms voltage is
2 (1) 50 V (2) 100 V
(3) an inductor of H may be connected
5π (3) 200 V (4) 250 V
in series
(4) a resistance of 40 Ω may be connected 14. XL is
(1) 2 Ω (2) 4 Ω
in series
(3) 6 Ω (4) 8 Ω

58 Alternating Current
15. XC is 26. The resonance frequency is
(1) 2 Ω (2) 4 Ω (1) 35.4 Hz (2) 45 Hz
(3) 6 Ω (4) 8 Ω (3) 50 Hz (4) 60 Hz

16. Z is 27. Value of Z at resonance is

(1) 2 Ω (2) 3 Ω (1) 1 Ω (2) 2 Ω
(3) 4 Ω (4) 5 Ω (3) 3 Ω (4) 4 Ω

17. The peak current is 28. Current at resonance is

(1) 56.6 A (2) 26.6 A (1) 66.67 A (2) 1 A
(3) 16.2 A (4) 7.2 A (3) 0 A (4) ∞

18. The phase angle is 29. The power consumed at resonance is

(1) 43.13° (2) 53.13°
(1) 13.33 kW (2) 23.33 kW
(3) 60° (4) 90°
(3) 4 kW (4) 7 kW

19. The rms current is

For the questions (30 to 32)
(1) 10 A (2) 20 A
For the circuit shown in figure a voltage of
(3) 30 A (4) 40 A
E = E0 sin (ωt) is applied. The voltmeter
readings are V1 = 100 V, V2 = 125 V, V3 = 150
20. The rms voltage across capacitor is
V and ammeter reading is 5 A.
(1) 120 V (2) 160 V
(3) 320 V (4) 0 V

21. The rms voltage across inductor is

(1) 120 V (2) 160 V
(3) 320 V (4) 0 V

22. The rms voltage across resistor is

(1) 120 V (2) 160 V 30. The net impedance of circuit is
(3) 320 V (4) 0 V (1) 5 37Ω (2) 5 26Ω
(3) 5 17Ω (4) 5 29Ω
23. The power dissipated in the circuit is
(1) 4800 W (2) 240 W
31. The power factor of circuit is
(3) 120 W (4) 12 W
4 4
(1) (2)
17 29
24. The power factor is
(1) 0.1 (2) 0.4 4 4
(3) (4)
(3) 0.5 (4) 0.6 26 37

25. The power input is 32. The value of E0 is

(1) 4800 W (2) 240 W (1) 25 17V (2) 20 17V
(3) 120 W (4) 12 W (3) 20 34V (4) 25 34V

Alternating Current 59
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A coil of self - inductance L is connected 5. A small signal voltage V(t) = V0 sin ωt is
in series with a bulb B and an AC source. applied across an ideal capacitor C
Brightness of the bulb decreases when [NEET-I_2016]
[NEET_2013] (1) Current Ι(t), lags voltage V(t) by 90°
(1) number of turns in the coil is reduced
(2) Over a full cycle, the capacitor C does
(2) a capacitance of reactance XC = XL is
not consume any energy from the
included in the same circuit voltage source.
(3) an iron rod is inserted in the coil
(3) Current Ι (t) is in phase with voltage
(4) frequency of the AC source is
V(t).
decreased
(4) Current Ι(t) leads voltage V(t) by 180°.

2. A resistance 'R' draws power 'P' when

6. Which of the following combinations
connected to an AC source. If an
should be selected for better tuning of an
inductance is now placed in series with
L-C-R circuit used for communication?
the resistance, such that the impedance
[NEET_2016]
of the circuit becomes 'Z', the power draw
will be: [AIPMT_2015] (1) R = 15Ω, L = 3.5H, C = 30µF
(2) R = 25Ω, L = 1.5H, C = 45µF
R R 
(1) P (2) P   (3) R = 20Ω, L = 1.5H, C = 35µF
Z Z
2 (4) R = 25Ω, L = 2.5H, C = 45µF
R 
(3) P (4) P  
Z
7. The potential difference across the
resistance, capacitor and inductance are
3. A series R-C circuit is connected to an
80 V, 40 V and 100 V respectively in an L-
alternating voltage source. Consider two
C-R circuit. The power factor of this
situations - [Re-AIPMT_2015]
circuit is: [NEET_2016]
(a) When capacitor is air filled.
(1) 0.8 (2) 1.0
(b) When capacitor is mica filled.
Current through resistor is i and voltage (3) 0.4 (4) 0.5

across capacitor is V then -

(1) Va = Vb (2) Va < Vb 8. An inductor 20 mH, a capacitor 100 μF and

(3) Va > Vb (4) ia > ib a resistor 50 Ω are connected in series

across a source of emf, V = 10 sin 314 t.
The power loss in the circuit is
4. An inductor 20 mH, a capacitor 50µF and
a resistor 40Ω are connected in series [NEET_2018]

across a source of emf V = 10 sin 340 t. (1) 0.79 W

The power loss in AC circuit is : (2) 0.43 W
[NEET–I_2016] (3) 2.74 W
(1) 0.51 W (2) 0.67 W (4) 1.13 W
(3) 0.76 W (4) 0.89 W

60 Alternating Current
9. The variation of EMF with time for four 13. A light bulb and an inductor coil are
types of generators are shown in the connected to an ac source through a key
figures. Which amongst them can be
as shown in the figure below. The key is
called AC? [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
closed and after sometime an iron rod is
inserted into the interior of the inductor.
(a) (b)
The glow of the light bulb
[NEET_2020(Covid)]

(c) (d)

(1) (a) and (d) ~ •

(2) (a), (b), (c) and (d)
(3) (a) and (b) (1) decrease
(4) only (a) (2) remains unchanged
(3) will fluctuate
10. A circuit when connected to an AC source
of 12 V gives a current of 0.2 A. The same (4) increase
circuit when connected to a DC source of
12 V, gives a current of 0.4 A. The circuit 14. An inductor of inductance L, a capacitor
is: [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
of capacitance C and a resistor of
(1) series LR (2) series RC
(3) series LC (4) series LCR resistance 'R' are connected in series to an
ac source of potential difference 'V' volts
11. A series LCR circuit is connected to an ac as shown in figure. Potential difference
voltage source. When L is removed from
across L, C and R is 40 V, 10 V and 40 V,
the circuit, the phase difference between
respectively. The amplitude of current
π
current and voltage is . If instead C is
3 flowing through LCR series circuit is
removed from the circuit, the phase 10 2A. The impedance of the circuit is:
π
difference is again between current and [NEET_2022]
3
voltage. The power factor of the circuit is:
[NEET_2020]
(1) 1.0 (2) –1.0 40 V 10 V 40 V
(3) zero (4) 0.5
~
V
12. A 40 µF capacitor is connected to a 200 V,
50 Hz ac supply. The rms value of the (1) 4 2Ω
current in the circuit is, nearly – (2) 5 / 2Ω
[NEET_2020]
(3) 4Ω
(1) 2.5 A (2) 25.1 A
(4) 5Ω
(3) 1.7 A (4) 2.05 A

Alternating Current 61
15. A series LCR circuit with inductance 10 H 19. In a series LCR circuit, the inductance L is
capacitance 10µF, resistance 50Ω is 10 mH, capacitance C is 1µF and resistance
connected to an ac source of voltage, R is 100 Ω. the frequency at which
resonance occurs is: [NEET_2023]
V = 200 sin (100t) volt. If the resonant
(1) 15.9 rad/s (2) 15.9 kHz
frequency of the LCR circuit is ν0 and the
(3) 1.59 rad/s (4) 1.59 kHz
frequency of the ac source is v, then:
[NEET_2022] 20. An ac source is connected in the given
(1) ν0 = ν = 50 Hz circuit. The value of φ will be:
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
50
(2) ν0 = ν = Hz
π
50
(3) ν0 = Hz, ν= 50 Hz
π
100
(4) ν = 100 Hz; ν0 = Hz (1) 60° (2) 90°
π
(3) 30° (4) 45°

16. The magnetic energy stored in an inductor 21. If Z1 and Z2 are the impedances of the
of inductance 4 µH carrying a current of 2 given circuits (a) and (b) as shown in
A is: [NEET_2023] figures, then choose the correct option
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) 4 µJ (2) 4 mJ
(3) 8 mJ (4) 8 µJ

17. A 12 V, 60 W lamp is connected to the

secondary of a step down transformer,
whose primary is connected to ac mains (1) Z1 < Z2 (2) Z1 + Z2 = 20Ω
of 220 V. Assuming the transformer to be (3) Z1 = Z2 (4) Z1 > Z2
ideal, what is the current in the primary
winding? [NEET_2023] 22. The maximum power is dissipated for an
(1) 0.27 A (2) 2.7 A ac in a/an: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) resistive circuit (2) LC circuit
(3) 3.7 A (4) 0.37 A
(3) inductive circuit (4) capacitive circuit

18. The net impedance of circuit (as shown in 23. For very high frequencies, the effective
figure) will be: [NEET_2023] impedance of the circuit (shown in the
figure) will be: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
50 103 10 Ω
mH µF
π π

~
220 V, 50 Hz
(1) 4 Ω (2) 6 Ω
(1) 10 2 Ω (2) 15 Ω
(3)1 Ω (4) 3 Ω
(3) 5 5 Ω (4) 25 Ω

62 Alternating Current
 Answer Key

Exercise-I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 2 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 1 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 2 1 1 2 4 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 2 2
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 4 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 2
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 1 4 4 3 1 2 2 1 3 4 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 4 1 1
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Ans. 4 1 4 1 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 1 1

Exercise-II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 1 4 2 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Ans. 1 2 2 3 2 1 1

Exercise-III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 2 1 1 1 2 1 1,3,4 1,4 1,2,3 1,2,3,4 3 4 2 4 1 2 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Ans. 3 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 4

Exercise-IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 4 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 2 4 1 3 4 4
Que. 21 22 23
Ans. 1 1 4

Alternating Current 63
 5 Electromagnetic Waves
1. Introduction
A changing electric field produces a changing magnetic field and vice versa which gives rise to
a transverse wave known as electromagnetic waves. The time varying electric field and magnetic
field mutually perpendicular to each other are also perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Thus the electromagnetic waves consist of sinusoidally time varying electric and
magnetic field acting at right angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of
propagation.
Y Ey
c
X
BZ

2. History of Electromagnetic Waves

• In the year 1865, Maxwell predicted the electromagnetic waves theoretically. According to
him, an accelerated charge sets up a magnetic field in its neighborhood.
• In 1887, Hertz produced and detected electromagnetic waves experimentally at wavelength
of about 6 m.
• Seven year later, J.C. Bose became successful in producing electromagnetic waves of
wavelength in the range 5 mm to 25 mm.
• In 1896, Marconi discovered that if one of the spark gap terminals is connected to an antenna
and the other terminal is earthed, the electromagnetic waves radiated could go upto several
kilometers.
• The antenna and the earth wires are connected to the two plates of a capacitor which
radiates radio frequency waves. These waves could be received at a large distance by making
use of an antenna earth system as detector.
• Using these arrangements; in 1899 Marconi first established wireless communication across
the English Channel i.e., across a distance of about 50 km.

3. Contradiction in Ampere’s Circuital Law

According to Ampere circuital law, “The line integral of magnetic field along a closed loop is
equal to µ0 times the sum of steady currents threading the surface bounded by the closed loop
in free space”.
i1 i2 i3

 
∫ B·d = µ (i 0 1 + i2 + i3)

Electromagnetic Waves 1
 Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor which is being charged as shown in the figure. If at an
instant charge on the capacitor is Q, and the instantaneous value of current in the connecting
wire is Ι, then
x
+ A2
Ι A1 + Ι
+
+ dQ
+ Ι=
Ι y Ι dt
– +
EMF Source
Consider two surface A1 and A2 are bounded by a closed loop xy. The surface A1 lies between
the two plates of capacitor and A2 outside the plates.
The area A2 is pierced by the current Ι but area A1 is not pierced by this current. Therefore, for
surface A2
 
∫  = µ0Ι
B·d
 
For surface A1 ∫ B·d =0
Thus according to Ampere’s law, magnetic field b/w plates must be zero but if we place a
needle b/w the plates, it shows deflection.
Thus there is an apparent contradiction in applying Ampere circuital law in this situation.

4. Displacement Current & Modified Ampere’s Law

When a capacitor is allowed to charge in an electric circuit, the current flows through
connecting wires. As capacitor charges, charge accumulates on the two plates of capacitor and
as a result, a changing electric field is produced between the two plate of the capacitor.
According to Maxwell, changing electric field intensity is equivalent to a current through
capacitor known as displacement current (Ιd). If + q and – q be the charge on the left and right
plates of the capacitor respectively at any instant, if σ be the surface charge density of plate
σ q
of capacitor then electric field between the plates is given by E = = .
ε0 ε0 A
If charge on the plates of the capacitor increases by dq in time dt then dq = Ι dt
dq Ι dt dE Ι
change in electric field is dE = = ⇒ = + E –
ε0 A ε0 A dt ε0 A
+ –
dE dφE + –
d Ι = Ιc Ι = Ιc
Ι = ε0 A = ε0 (EA) = ε0 ( φE = EA) + –
dt dt dt + –
+ –
dφE Ι = Ιd
Ιd =ε0 (φE = electric flux)
dt
The conduction current is the current due to the flow of charges in a conductor and is denoted
as Ιc and displacement current is the current due to changing electric field between the plate
of the capacitor and denoted as Ιd so the total current Ι is sum of Ιc and Ιd i.e. Ι = Ιc + Ιd
Ampere's circuital law can be written as
 
∫  = µ0 (Ιc + Ιd)
B.d

2 Electromagnetic Waves
Example 1:
Show that displacement current is equal to conduction current during charging of a capacitor.
Solution:
–Q
Let at an instant magnitude of charge on the plates of capacitor be Q. A Q
+
Area of each plate is A. Electric field between the plates of capacitor Ι A +
+
Q +
E= ....(i) +
Aε0 y Ι
Flux of this field passing through the surface between the plates is
Q EMF Source
φE = E × A = ×A
Aε0
Q
φE = ...(ii)
ε0
Displacement current Ιd is
dφE d Q
Ιd = ε0 × = ε0  
dt dt  ε0 
1 dQ
= ε0 ×
ε0 dt
dQ
Ιd = ...(iii)
dt
dQ
is the rate at which charge is reaching to positive plate of capacitor through conducting
dt
dQ
wire therefore Ιc = ...(iv)
dt
From equation (iii) and (iv)
Ι d = Ιc

Example 2:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two circular plates of radius r = 0.1 m. They are separated
by a distance d = 0.5 mm. If electric field between the capacitor plates changes as
dE 13 V
= 5 × 10 . Find displacement current between the plates.
dt m× s
Solution:
2 2 2
Area of plates A = πr = 3.14 × (0.1) m
 dE   dφE dE 
Ιd = ε0A   ;  =A 
 dt   dt dt 
–12 2 13
= 8.85 × 10 × 3.14 × (0.1) × 5 × 10
Ιd = 13.9 A

Example 3:
Two circular plates of radius 0.1 m are used to form a parallel plate
4cm
capacitor. If displacement current between the plates is 2π ampere, axis of
then find magnetic field produced by displacement current at 4 cm plates
from the axis of the plates.

Electromagnetic Waves 3
Solution:
Current density of displacement current
2π 2 ampere
Jd = = = 200
π(0.1) 2
0.01 m2
2 –4
id(enclosed) = Jd × π(0.04) = 200 × π × 16 × 10
–2
= 32 × π × 10 A 1A
 
∫  = µ0ienclosed
B·d
–7
B × 2π(0.04) = 4π × 10 ×1
–7
2 × 10 –5
B= –2
= 0.5 × 10
4 × 10
–6
B = 5 × 10 T

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 If conduction current & displacement current are equal in magnitude then the modified form of
Ampere’s law can be written as ∫ B.d = 2µ0 IC , Yes / No. Give reason in support of your answer.

dV 6 volt
Q.2 If potential difference between the plates of capacitor changes with rate of = 10 , and
dt sec
capacitance of capacitor is 1 µF, then find displacement current between the plates.

Q.3 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two circular plates of radius 0.05 m. If electric field between
dE 10 V
the plates is changed as = 10 , then find displacement current between the plates.
dt m× s

5. Consequences of Displacement Current

5.1 Consequences of Displacement Current
The displacement current has far reaching consequences. Some of these are as follows.
(i) With the discovery of displacement current, the laws of electricity and magnetism become
more symmetrical than before (though still not perfectly symmetrical)
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetism
  dφ
∫ E·d = – dtm
This implies that magnetic field changing with time produces electric field.
According to Ampere-Maxwell’s law
   dφE 
∫ B·d  = µ 0
 Ι
 c
+ ε 0
dt 


dφE
This implies that electric field changing with time produces magnetic field. Here term ε0
dt
represents displacement current Ιd which produces magnetic field.
(ii) This displacement current gives rise to magnetic effect equivalent to those produced by an
ordinary conduction current is the basis of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory of light.
(iii) In all respect, displacement current has same physical effects as the conduction current.

4 Electromagnetic Waves
5.2 Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s equations relate electric field E and magnetic field B and their sources which are
electric charges and current. In free space Maxwell’s equations are as follows.
  qenclosed
(i) ∫ E·ds =
ε0
This equation represents Gauss’s law in electrostatics, which states that net

1
electric flux through any closed surface equals to times the total charge enclosed by the
ε0

surface. This law relates electric field with the charge distribution. The Gauss law is equivalent
to the Coulomb’s inverse square law which has experimentally been confirmed.
 
∫
(ii)  B·ds = 0 This equation is considered as Gauss’s law in magnetism. It states that net

magnetic flux passing through a closed surface is zero. It implies that number of magnetic field
lines entering the closed surface is equal to number of magnetic field line leaving the closed
surface, that is magnetic field does not start or end at a point therefore there is no isolated
magnetic monopoles.
dφB
(iii) ∫ E. dl = dt
, this equation is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This law relates

electric field with changing magnetic flux. “Induced current in a conducting loop placed in a
region in which magnetic field is changing with respect to time confirms this equation”.
(iv) ∫ B. dl = µ0 (ic + id), this equation represents Ampere-Maxwell’s law or generalised form of

Ampere’s law. This law states that “line integral of magnetic field along a closed loop is equal
to µ0 times the total current threading the area bounded by the closed loop”. This law describes

how a magnetic field can be produced by both changing electric flux and a conduction current.
Note :
(i) Maxwell’s equation are as fundamental to electromagnetic phenomena as Newton’s laws
are to the study of mechanical phenomena.
(ii) Important consequence of the Maxwell’s equations is that these can be used to derive the
law of conservation of charge.

6. Electromagnetic Waves
6.1 General Equation
• The electric and magnetic fields of a sinusoidal plane electromagnetic wave propagating in the
positive x-direction can also be written as
E = Em sin(kx – ωt) and B = Bm sin(kx – ωt)

where ω is the angular frequency of the wave and k is wave number which are given by
2π
ω = 2πf and k=
λ

Electromagnetic Waves 5
6.2 Nature & Velocity
• Electromagnetic waves travel through vacuum with the speed of light c, where
1
c= = 3 × 108 m / s
µ0 ε0

• Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

Maxwell showed that a changing electric field produces a changing magnetic field and
vice-versa. This alternate production of time varying electric and magnetic fields gives rise to

the propagation of electromagnetic waves. The variation of electric field ( E ) and magnetic field

( B ) are mutually perpendicular to each other as well as to the direction of the propagation of
the wave i.e., the electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.

6.3 Average Energy and Intensity of EM Wave

• Average Energy density
Average energy density of electromagnetic wave is equal to average value of total instantaneous
energy density in one time period.
T T
1 1
T ∫0
Uav = Udt = ∫ ε0E2dt
T0
T
ε0
= E20 ∫ sin2 (kx – ωt)dt
T 0

ε0 T T
T 1 1B
2  E0 1 
= × E20 ×  ∫ sin2 (kx – ωt) = Uav = ε0E02 =0 =
c = 
T 2 2 2 2 µ0  B0 µ0 ε0 
0 
• Intensity of Electromagnetic Wave
It is defined as “the amount of energy crossing per unit time per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave”.
Let us consider a cylindrical region where Electromagnetic wave is passing through.
Volume of cylinder = AL
Total energy in the cylinder A
E = Uav × volume EMW

E = Uav AL L
total energy Uav A × L
Intensity Ι = = = Uav × c
time × area L 
 ×A
c
1 2  1
Ι= ε0 E · c  Uav= ε E2
2  2 0 0
1  E0
Ι= ε0 ( 2 Erms )2 ⋅ c  Erms =
2  2
Ι = ε0 Erms
2
×c

6 Electromagnetic Waves
 • Intensity Due to Point Source
The power of source = P r
Distance of point A where intensity to be calculated = r A Power = P

E P P 2
Ι= = = W/m
A×t A 4πr 2

6.4 Poynting Vector

It is defined as the flow of energy in the direction of the propagation of a wave per unit time
through a unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the propagation direction.
 
 E×B
S= [Poynting vector in vacuum]
µ0

J W
Unit of S is 2
or
sm m2

The vector S is called the Poynting vector because it was introduced by the British physicist
John Poynting (1852 – 1914).

6.5 Momentum & Radiation Pressure

• Electromagnetic waves carry energy as well as momentum.
U
Momentum P = Momentum transferred to the surface P = U/c (if wave is completely
c
absorbed) P = 2U/c (If wave is completely reflected)
U = Energy carried by electromagnetic wave in free space.
c = speed of EMW in free space.
• Radiation pressure is defined as “force exerted by electromagnetic wave on unit surface area”
–6 N
[Nicolaus and Hull measured radiation pressure of visible light and was of the order of 7 × 10 ]
m2
Pr essure

If surface absorbs If surface reflects

the radiation falling completely the radiation
on it then radiation falling on it then radiation
pressure P is given pressure P is given by
by 2Ι
P=
I c
P=
c
Example 4:
The oscillating magnetic field in a plane electromagnetic wave is given as
–6 11
By = 8 × 10 sin (5000 πx – 3 × 10 πt)T Calculate :
(a) Frequency (b) Wavelength
(c) Speed of the wave (d) Electric field amplitude
(e) Write down expression for oscillating electric field.

Electromagnetic Waves 7
Solution:
Comparing given equation with standard equation
By = B0 sin(kx – ωt)
11 11 11
(a) ω = 3 × 10 π ⇒ 2πf = 3 × 10 π ⇒ f = 1.5 × 10 Hz
2π 2π –3
(b) k = ⇒λ= = 0.4 × 10 m = 0.4 mm
λ 5000π
ω 3 × 1011 × π 8 7
(c) v = = = 0.6 × 10 = 6 × 10 m/s
k 5000π
E 7 –6 V
(d) v = 0 , E0 = v × B0 = 6 × 10 × 8 × 10 = 480
B0 m
 
(e) As wave is travelling along the x-axis E × B should be along x-axis –(kˆ × ˆj) =
ˆi

11 V
Ez = 480 sin (5000πx – 3 × 10 πt)
m

Example 5:
An electromagnetic wave is propagating in vacuum along x-axis, which is produced by oscillating
10 –7
charge of frequency 3 × 10 Hz. The amplitude of magnetic field (B0) is 1 × 10 T along z-axis.
Find :
(a) Wavelength of the wave
(b) Propagation constant of the wave
(c) Equation for oscillating electric field and magnetic field.
Solution:
c 3 × 108 –2
(a) λ = = = 1 × 10 m
f 3 × 10 10

2π 2 × 3.14 2 –1
(b) K = = –2
= 6.28 × 10 = 628 m
λ 10
10
(c) E = cB0 sin (2π × 3 × 10 t – 628x)
 N 
E = 30 sin(6π × 10 t – 628 x) ˆj and B = 1 × 10 sin(6π × 10 t – 628 x) k̂ T
10 –7 10

Example 6:
Show that in an electromagnetic wave average energy density of the electric field equals the
average energy density of the magnetic field .
Solution:
1
Average energy density of E UE = ε E2
4 0 0
2
1 B0
Average energy density of B UB =
4 µ0
E0
c=
B0
2
1 1 1 1 1 B0
So, UE = ε0E2 = ε0C2B02 = ε0 × B20 =
4 4 4 (µ0 ε0 ) 4 µ0
UE = UB

8 Electromagnetic Waves
Example 7:
In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of
10
2 × 10 Hz and amplitude 48 V/m. What will be the amplitude of oscillating magnetic field ?
Solution:
Oscillating magnetic field
E 48 2
B= = = 16 × 10−8 Wb/m
c 3 × 108

Example 8:
In an electromagnetic wave, the amplitude of electric field is 1 V/m. The frequency of wave is
14
5 × 10 Hz. The wave is propagating along z-axis. The average energy density of electric field, in
3
J/m , will be :
Solution:
Average energy density is given by
2
1 1 E  1
uE = ε0E2 = ε0  0  = ε0E02
2 2  2 4

1
=× 8.85 × 10−12 × (1)2
4
–12 3
= 2.2 × 10 J/m

Example 9:
A point source of electromagnetic radiation has average power output of 800 watt, then find
(a) Maximum value of electric field at a distance 3.5 m from the source
(b) Maximum value of magnetic field
(c) Average energy density at 3.5 m from the source.
Solution:
P 800
Ι= =
4πr 2
4 × 3.14 × (3.5)2
2
Ι = 5.2 watt/m
1
(a) Ι = ε E2 × c
2 0 0
2× Ι 2 × 5.2 2 N
E0 = = = 0.626 × 10 = 62.6
ε0 × c 8.85 × 10 –12 8
× 3 × 10 C

E0 62.6 –8 –7
(b) B0 = = = 20.87 × 10 = 2.087 × 10 T
c 3 × 108
1 8.85 × 10–12 2 –8 J
(c) U = ε0 E20 = × (62.6) = 1.74 × 10
2 2 m3

Electromagnetic Waves 9
10 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Waves 11
 Concept Builder-2

Q.1 The electric field part of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given by

N
E = 6 cos  1.2y + 3.6 × 108 t  ˆi , then find :
c
(a) Frequency of propagation (f)
(b) Wavelength (λ)
(c) Direction of propagation
(d) Amplitude of magnetic field in electromagnetic wave.
(e) An expression of magnetic field part of the wave.

Q.2 The magnetic field in plane electromagnetic wave is given by

sin (0.2 × 10 x – 0.6 × 10 t) ˆj T, then find:
–6 4 12
By = 4 × 10
(a) Frequency
(b) Wavelength
(c) Speed of the wave
(d) Expression for electric field part of the electromagnetic wave.

–3
Q.3 An EM wave is propagating along z-axis has a wavelength of 10 m. If it is generated by
2
oscillation of charge & vibrational amplitude of Electric field propagation is 4 × 10 N/C along
y-axis then find out
(A) Oscillation frequency
(B) Angular frequency
(C) Propagation constant
(D) Magnetic field amplitude
 
(E) Equation of propagation for both E & B

10
Q.4 If frequency of plane EM wave is 2 × 10 Hz then what will be the wavelength of the wave ?

Q.5 An electromagnetic radiation has an energy 14.4 KeV. To which region of electromagnetic
spectrum does it belong ?

Q.6 Calculate the electric and magnetic fields amplitude in an electromagnetic wave radiated by a
200 W bulb at a distance 2 m from it assuming efficiency of bulb is 5% and it behaves like a
point source.

Q.7 Calculate the root mean square value of electric field produced by the radiation from 100 W
bulb at a distance 1 m. Assume bulb as point source and its efficiency is 2%.

12 Electromagnetic Waves
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 3. (A) f= 3 × 1011Hz

11
(B) ω = 6π × 10 rad/sec
1. No, conduction current & displacement
3 –1
current are not present simultaneously at (C) k = 2π × 10 m

a point. 4 –6
(D) B0 = × 10 T
3
2. 1.0 A
 
Direction of propagation always along E × B .
3. ≈ 0.7 mA

So B will be along (–x)-axis

(E) E = 4 × 10 sin{2π × 10 z – 6π × 10 t} ˆj
2 3 11

CONCEPT BUILDER-2
4 –6 3 11
B= ×10 sin{2π × 10 z – 6π×10 t}( − î )
3
7
1. (a) f = 5.7 × 10 Hz (b) λ = 5.23 m 4. λ = 1.5 cm
–8
(c) Negative y-axis (d) 2 × 10 T 5. 0.8Å
  (T)
(e) B = 2 × 10
–8 8
cos (1.2 y + 3.6 × 10 t) k This wavelength belongs to X–ray region

2.
10
(a) f = 9.55 × 10 Hz (b) λ = 3.14 × 10
–3
m –8 N
6. B0 = 4.09 × 10 T E0 = 12.2
C
8 m
(c) c = 3 × 10 7. Erms = 7.76 N/C
s
 2 4 12
(d) Ez = –12 × 10 × sin(0.2 × 10 x – 0.6 × 10
N
t) k̂
C

Electromagnetic Waves 13
 Exercise - I
1. During the charging of a capacitor. 7. An electromagnetic wave travels in a
(Ic = conduction current, medium with speed 2×10 m/s. If relative
8

Id = displacement current) permeability of medium is 1.0, then relative

(1) Ic= 0, Id ≠ 0 permittivity is
(1) 2.25 (2) 4.5
(2) IC ≠ 0, Id = 0
(3) 0.5 (4) 4
(3) IC=Id but is same direction
(4) Ic= Id but in opposite direction
8. If electric field is changing at rate of
6
6 × 10 V/ms between the plates of a
dφ 2
2. The dimensions of ε0 capacitor, having plate area 2.0 cm , then
dt
the displacement current is
(1) [AT] (2) [A] -8
2 -2 -1 -2
(1) 1.06 × 10 A
(3) [ML T ] (4) [ML T ] -9
(2) 2.7×10 A
-7
(3) 5.4 × 10 A
3. Displacement current flows in
-6
(1) Resistance only (2) Capacitor only (4) 2 × 10 A

(3) Inductor only (4) All of these

9. An electromagnetic radiation has energy of
13.2 KeV, then radiation belongs to the
4. The average value of electric energy
region of
density in an electromagnetic wave
(1) Microwave (2) X-ray
is(where E0 is maximum value) :
(3) Infrared (4) Visible
1 E20
(1) ε0E20 (2)
2 2ε0
10. Electromagnetic waves are produced by
1 (1) Steady electric field
(3) ε E 2
0 0
(4) ε0E20
4
(2) Steady magnetic field
(3) Time varying magnetic field
5. Electromagnetic wave is produced by
(4) Both (2) & (3)
(1) Charge at rest
(2) Accelerating charge
11. If in a region there is a time varying electric
(3) Oscillating charge
field then which of the following Maxwell’s
(4) Both (2) & (3)
Equation will be most suitable?
  dφ
(1) ∫ B. dl = I + ε0 E
6. Which of the following electromagnetic dt
radiations is used for viewing through haze  
(2) ∫ B. dl = µ0I
and fog
   dφE 
(1) Radio wave (3) ∫ B. dl = µ 0 I + ε0
dt 


(2) Infrared wave
   dφB 
(3) Microwave (4) ∫ B. dl = µ 0 I + ε0
dt 


(4) Matter wave

14 Electromagnetic Waves
12. Displacement current is present between 18. Which Physical quantity is same for x-rays
the plates of a capacitor when the charge and γ - rays in vacuum ?
on the capacitor is (1) Frequency
(1) Constant (2) Maximum (2) Wavelength
(3) Changing (4) Both (1) & (3) (3) Energy of one photon
(4) Speed
13. An electromagnetic wave propagating
along x-axis then oscillating electric and
19. In a plane electromagnetic wave the
magnetic field vectors are along
electric field oscillates sinusoidally with
respectively
5
(1) Y & Z axis (2) X & Y axis frequency 3 × 10 Hz, then wavelength of

(3) X & X axis (4) Z & X axis the wave in vacuum is

2
(1) 10 m (2) 10 m
14. The dimensional formula of radiation (3) 10 m
4
(4) 10 m
3

pressure is
–2 -1 -2
(1) [MLT ] (2) [ML T ] 20. The dimensional formula of µ0ε0 is
-2 -2 2 -2
(3) [ML T ] (4) [ML T ] 0 -1
(1) [M L T ]
-1 0 -2 -2
(2) [M L T ]
0 -2 2 0 -1
(3) [M L T ] (4) [M L T]
15. An electromagnetic wave is propagating in
vacuum along z-axis, the electric field
21. An electromagnetic wave consists of
component is given by Ex = E0 sin (kz - ωt),
oscillating electric and magnetic field
then magnetic component is
vector. The phase difference between the
E0
(1) Bx
= sin (kz − ωt) two oscillating field is
C
B0 π
(2) By
= sin (kz − ωt) (1) π (2)
C 2

E0 π
(3) (4) Zero
(3) By
= sin (kz − ωt) 4
C
(4) By = B0C sin (kz – ωt)
22. The speed of electromagnetic wave in a
medium (whose dielectric constant is 2.25
16. The part of electromagnetic Spectrum
referred as heat wave is and relative permeability is 4) is equal to
8 8
(1) Microwaves (2) Radio waves (1) 0.5 × 10 m/s (2) 0.25 × 10 m/s
(3) X-rays (4) Infrared (3) 0.75 × 10 m/s
8
(4) 1 × 10 m/s
8

17. The momentum carried by E-M waves in 23. Which component of electromagnetic
vacuum is P, then energy associated with wave primarily interacts with medium ?
the wave is equal to (c is speed of light)
(1) Magnetic vector
Pc
(1) P × c (2) (2) Electric vector
2
(3) Both (1) & (2)
P2 P
(3) (4) (4) None of these
2c c

Electromagnetic Waves 15
24. The ratio of contributions made by the 29. Which of the following is / are correct ?
electric field and magnetic field (1) Electric and magnetic fields, oscillating
components to the intensity of an in space and time can sustain each
electromagnetic wave is - other in vacuum
(1) C : 1 (2) 1 : 1 (2) Electromagnetic waves can carry
2
(3) C : 1 (4) C :1 energy as well as momentum
(3) Electromagnetic waves can exert
25. Which of the following is correct? mechanical pressure
(Symbols have their usual meaning) (4) All of these
(1) U = PC
Power 30. Electromagnetic wave is deflected by
(2) Intensity =
area (1) Electric field
E (2) Magnetic field
(3) B =
C (3) Both (1) & (2)
(4) All of these (4) Neither electric field nor magnetic field

26. The magnetic field in a plane 31. The speed of electromagnetic waves
-7
electromagnetic wave is given by = 2 ×10 depend upon
3 11
sin (0.5×10 X + 1.5×10 t) (1) Wavelength
(1) Visible light (2) Infrared (2) Frequency
(3) Microwave (4) Radio wave (3) Intensity
(4) Medium, in which it travels
27. Different types of electromagnetic waves
are defined on the basis of 32. Refractive index of a medium is given by
(1) The source from which they are (1) µr εr (2) µ0 ε0
produced
1 1
(3) (4)
(2) Frequency µr εr µ0 ε0
(3) Wavelength
(4) Colour → →
33. If E and B represent the electric and
28. Pointing vector (which gives the direction magnetic field vectors of the
of electromagnetic waves) is defined as : electromagnetic waves, then the direction
 
 E×B of propagation of the electromagnetic
(1) J =
µ0 waves is that of -
  →
 E ⋅B
(2) J = (1) E
µ0 →
  (2) B
 E×B
(3) J = → →
2µ0 (3) E × B
 
 E×B   → →
(4) =
J + E ⋅B (4) B × E
µ0

16 Electromagnetic Waves
34. If an electromagnetic wave propagating 39. Maxwell’s equation :
 
through vacuum is described by
∫ ds = 0
B.
Ey = E0 sin (kx - ωt); Bz = B0 sin (kx - ωt), then
is a statement of :
(1) E0 k = B0 ω (2) E0 B0 = ω k
(1) Faraday’s law of induction
ω (2) modified Ampere’s law
(3) E0 ω = B0 K (4) E0B0 =
k
(3) Gauss’s law of electricity
(4) Gauss’s law of magnetism
35. In a plane electromagnetic wave, which of
the following have zero average value?
40. The Maxwell’s equation,
(a) Magnetic field (b) Magnetic energy
   dφ 
(c) Electric field (d) Electric energy
∫ B. dl = µ0 I + ε0 dtE 
(1) (a), (c) (2) (b), (c)  
(3) (a), (d) (4) All of these is a statement of :
(1) Faraday’s law of induction
36. The figure gives the magnetic field of an (2) modified Ampere’s law
electromagnetic wave at a certain point (3) Gauss’s law of electricity
and a certain instant. The wave transports (4) Gauss’s law of magnetism
energy in negative y-direction. Then the
direction of electric field at this point and 41. Total energy of electromagnetic waves in
instant is vacuum is given by the relation :
z
1 E2 B2 1 1
(1) ⋅ + (2) ε E2 + µ0B2
2 ε0 2µ0 2 0 2
y E2 + B2 1 B2
 (3) (4) ε0E2 +
B c 2 2µ0
x
(1) z-axis (2) –z-axis
(3) x-axis (4) –x-axis 42. Select wrong statement from the following
for EMW-
37. The amplitude of electric field at a (1) are transverse
distance r from a point source of power P (2) travel with same speed in all medium
is (taking 100% efficiency) (3) travel with the speed of light
P P (4) are produced by accelerating charge
(1) (2)
2πr2cε0 4πr2cε0
43. The charge of a parallel plate capacitor is
P P
(3) (4) varying as q = q0 sin 2π f t. The plates are
8πr2cε0 2πr2cε0
very large and close together (area = A,

38. The wave function (in S.I. units) for an separation = d). Neglecting edge effects,

electromagnetic wave is given as- the displacement current through the

3 6 14 capacitor is:
Ψ(x,t) = 10 sinπ(3 × 10 x –9 × 10 t). The
speed of the wave is- q q
(1) (2) sin 2π ft
14 8 Aε0 ε0
(1) 9 × 10 m/s (2) 3 × 10 m/s
6 7 2πfq0
(3) 3 × 10 m/s (4) 3 × 10 m/s (3) 2π f q0 cos 2π f t (4) cos 2π ft.
ε0

Electromagnetic Waves 17
44. The nature of electromagnetic wave is- 49. The ratio of amplitude of magnetic field to
(1) longitudinal the amplitude of electric field for an
(2) longitudinal stationary electromagnetic wave propagating in
(3) transverse vacuum is equal to -
(4) transverse stationary (1) reciprocal of speed of light in vacuum
(2) the ratio of magnetic permeability to
45. The sun delivers 10
3
W/m
2
of the electric susceptibility of vacuum
electromagnetic flux to the earth’s (3) unity
surface. The total power that is incident (4) the speed of light in vacuum
on a roof of dimensions 8m × 20m, will be-
3
(1) 6.4 × 10 W (2) 3.4 × 10 W
4 50. A parallel plate capacitor consists of two
5 circular plates each of radius 2 cm,
(3) 1.6 × 10 W (4) none of these
separated by a distance of 0.1 mm. If
voltage across the plates is varying at the
46. In the above problem, the radiation force
13
on the roof will be- rate of 5 × 10 V/s, then the value of
–5 –4 displacement current is :
(1) 3.33 × 10 N (2) 5.33 × 10 N
–3 –2
(1) 5.50 A
(3) 7.33 × 10 N (4) 9.33 × 10 N 2
(2) 5.56 ×10 A
3
47. In Previous question, the solar energy (3) 5.56 ×10 A
4
incident on the roof in 1 hour will be- (4) 2.28×10 A
8 7
(1) 5.76 × 10 J (2) 5.76 × 10 J
6 5 51. In an electromagnetic wave in free space,
(3) 5.76 × 10 J (4) 5.76 × 10 J
the root mean square value of the electric
field is Erms = 6V/m. The peak value of the
48. X-rays are produced by jumping of:
(1) electrons from lower to higher energy magnetic field is :
–8
orbit of atom (1) 1.41 × 10 T
–8
(2) electrons from higher to lower energy (2) 2.83× 10 T
orbit of atom (3) 0.70 × 10
–8
T
(3) proton from lower to higher energy (4) 4.23 × 10
–8
T
orbit of nucleus
(4) proton from higher to lower energy
orbit of nucleus.

18 Electromagnetic Waves
 Exercise - II
1. The relation between electric field E and 4. The sun radiates electromagnetic energy at
magnetic field intensity H in an the rate of 3.9 × 10
26
W. It’s radius is 6.96
electromagnetic wave is: 8
× 10 m. The intensity of sun light at the
H 2
(1) E = (2) E = H µ0 ε0 solar surface will be – (in W/m )
µ 0 ε0 4 5
(1) 1.4 × 10 (2) 2.8 × 10
6 7
µ0 ε0 (3) 4.2 × 10 (4) 6.4 × 10
(3) E = H (4) E = H
ε0 µ0
5. Arrange the following electromagnetic
radiations per quantum in the order of
2. A cube of edge a has its edges parallel to
increasing energy.
x, y and z-axis of rectangular coordinate
 A. Blue light B. Yellow light
system. A uniform electric field E is
C. X-ray D. Radio wave
parallel to y-axis and a uniform magnetic
 (1) D, B, A, C (2) A, B, D, C
field B is parallel to x-axis. The rate at (3) C, A, B, D (4) B, A, D, C
which energy flows through each face of
the cube is: 6. The amplitude of the electric field in a
y
E plane electromagnetic wave is vacuum is 9
× 10–3 V/m. The amplitude of the magnetic
field will be:
(1) 3 × 10–11 T (2) 3 × 105 T
x
1 1
B (3) × 10−11 T (4) × 105 T
z 3 2.7
a2EB
(1) parallel to x-y plane and zero in 7. The magnetic field in a travelling
2µ0
electromagnetic wave has a peak value of
others
20 nT. The peak value of electric field
a2EB
(2) parallel to x-y plane and zero in strength is
µ0
(1) 3 V/m (2) 6 V/m
other (3) 9 V/m (4) 12 V/m
a2EB
(3) from all faces 8. The rms value of the electric field of the
2µ0
light coming from the sun is 720 N/C. The
a2EB
(4) parallel to y-z faces and zero in average total energy density of the
2µ0
electromagnetic wave is
others. –6 3 –9 3
(1) 4.58 × 10 J/m (2) 6.37 × 10 J/m
–12 3 –3 3
3. The electric field intensity produced by the (3) 81.35 × 10 J/m (4) 3.3 × 10 J/m
radiations coming from a 100 W bulb at a 3
m distance is E. The electric field intensity 9. The displacement y of a particle in a
produced by the radiations coming from 50 medium can be expressed as
W bulb at the same distance is –6 π
y = 10 sin  100t + 20x +  m,
E  4
(1) (2) 2E
2 where t is in second and x in metre. The
E speed of the wave is-
(3) (4) 2E
2 (1) 2000 m/s (2) 5 m/s
(3) 20 m/s (4) 5π m/s

Electromagnetic Waves 19
10. The displacement y of a wave travelling in 14. If γv, γx and γm represent the wavelengths of
the x-direction is given by visible light, X-rays and microwaves
–4  π respectively, then
y = 10 sin  600t − 2x +  metre
 3 (1) γm > γx > γv (2) γv > γm > γx
where, x is expressed in metres and t in (3) γv > γx > γm (4) γm > γv > γx
seconds. The speed of the wave motion, in
–1
ms is 15. Find the energy stored in a 90 cm length of
laser beam operating at 5mW:
(1) 300 (2) 600
(1) 15 × 10–12 J (2) 1.5 × 10–12 J
(3) 1200 (4) 200
(3) 12 ×10 J
–12
(4) 1.2 × 10–12J

11. Which of the following statement is false 16. Find the Amplitude of electric field in a
for the properties of electromagnetic parallel beam of light of intensity 8.85 w/m2
waves? 200 100
(1) (2)
(1) Both electric and magnetic field vectors 1.5 3
attain the maxima and minima at the 100 50
same place and same time. (3) (4)
1.5 1.5
(2) The energy in electromagnetic wave is
divided equally between electric and 17. Electric field in an electromagnetic wave
magnetic vectors. is given by E = 100 sin ω(t–x/c). Find energy
(3) Both electric and magnetic field vectors contained in a cylinder of cross section
are parallel to each other and 20cm2 & length 1 m along the x axis:
perpendicular to the direction of (1) 8.85 × 10–11 J (2) 7.85 × 10–11 J
propagation of wave. (3) 8.85 × 10 J
–9
(4) 8.9 × 10–11 J
(4) These waves do not require any
material medium for propagation. 18. A plane electromagnetic wave propagating
in X-direction has a wavelength of 10 mm.
12. Which of the following rays are not The electric field is in y-direction & it’s
electromagnetic waves? maximum magnitude is 50 V/m. The
(1) β-rays (2) Heat rays equation of magnetic field as a function x
(3) X-rays (4) γ-rays & t is:
(1) 60 sin (0.5×103x+1.5×1011t)
(2) 30 sin (0.5×103x+1.5×1011t)
13. We consider the radiation emitted by the
5  x
human body. Which one of the following (3) ×10–7 sin6π×1010  t − 
3  C 
statements is true?
(1) The radiation emitted is in the infra-red 10  x 
(4) ×10–6 sin6π×1010  t − 
region 3  C
(2) The radiation is emitted only during the
day 19. A parallel plate capacitor with plate area A
(3) The radiation is emitted during the & separation between the plates d.
summers and absorbed during the Consider A plane surface of area A/4
winters parallel to the plates & drawn
symmetrically between the plates. Find
(4) The radiation emitted lies in the
displacement current through this area:
ultraviolet region and hence is not
(1) i (2) i/2
visible
(3) i/4 (4) i/3cmk

20 Electromagnetic Waves
 Exercise - III

1. Statement I : Different electromagnetic 4. Statement I : The poynting vector given as

 
waves differ considerably in their mode of  E ×B
S= represent the instantaneous
interaction with matter µ0
Statement II : Different electromagnetic intensity at a point
waves have different wavelengths or Statement II : The velocity of an
frequency electromagnetic wave is in the direction of
 
(1) Statement I is correct the vector E × B
(2) Statement II is correct (1) Statement I is correct
(3) Both are correct (2) Statement II is correct
(4) None are correct (3) Both are correct
(4) None are correct
2. Statement I : Infrared waves are often
called heat waves 5. Statement I : Displacement current occur
Statement II : Infrared waves vibrates not when capacitor is fully charged
only the electrons, but entire atoms or Statement II : The magnitude of
molecules of a substance which increases displacement current is equal to that of
the internal energy and temperature of the conduction current
substance (1) Statement I is correct
(1) Statement I is correct (2) Statement II is correct
(2) Statement II is correct (3) Both are correct
(3) Both are correct (4) None are correct
(4) None are correct
6. Statement I : Electric field & the magnetic
3. Statement I : If The earth did not have an field have equal average values
atmosphere, its average surface Statement II : The electric energy &
temperature would have been lower magnetic energy have equal average values
Statement II : In the absence of (1) Both Statements are true
atmosphere, the green house effect will be (2) Statement I is false but Statement II is
absent true
(1) Statement I is correct (3) Statement II is false but Statement I is
(2) Statement II is correct true
(3) Both are correct (4) Both Statements are false
(4) None are correct

Electromagnetic Waves 21
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. The condition under which a microwave 4. The energy of the EM waves is of the order
oven heats up a food item containing of 15 KeV. To which part of the spectrum
water molecules most efficiently is does it belong? [NEET_2015]
[NEET_2013] (1) γ-rays (2) X-rays
(1) The frequency of the microwaves has (3) Infra -red rays (4) Ultraviolet rays
no relation with natural frequency of
water molecules. 5. Out of the following options which one
(2) Microwaves are heat waves, so always can be used to produce a propagating
produce heating electromagnetic wave? [NEET_2016]
(3) Infra-red waves produce heating in a (1) A charge less particle
microwave oven. (2) An accelerating charge
(4) The frequency of the microwaves must (3) A charge moving at constant velocity
match the resonant frequency of the (4) A stationary charge
water molecules.
6. A 100Ω resistance and a capacitor of
2. An electromagnetic wave of frequency 100Ω reactance are connected in series
ν = 3.0 MHz passes from vacuum into a across a 220 V source. When the capacitor
dielectric medium with relative is 50% charged, the peak value of the
permittivity ∈ = 4.0. Then [NEET_2013] displacement current is [NEET_2017]
(1) Wavelength is doubled and frequency (1) 2.2 A (2) 11 A
becomes half. (3) 4.4 A (4) 11 2A
(2) Wavelength at halved and frequency
remains unchanged. 7. In an electromagnetic wave in free space
(3) Wavelength and frequency both remain the root mean square value of the electric
unchanged –1
field is Erms = 6 V m . The peak value of
(4) Wavelength is doubled and frequency
the magnetic field is- [NEET_2017]
unchanged. –8 –8
(1) 2.83 × 10 T (2) 0.70 × 10 T
–8 –8
4 –2 (3) 4.23 × 10 T (4) 1.41 × 10 T
3. Light with an energy flux of 25 × 10 W m
falls on a perfectly reflecting surface at
8. An EM wave is propagating in a medium
normal incidence. If the surface area is 15 
2 with a velocity v = viˆ . The instantaneous
cm , the average force exerted on the
oscillating electric field of this EM wave is
surface is [NEET_2014]
–6 along +Y axis. Then the direction of
(1) 1.25 × 10 N
oscillating magnetic field of the EM wave
–6
(2) 2.50 × 10 N
will be along [NEET_2018]
–6
(3) 1.20 × 10 N (1) − Z direction (2) + Z direction
–6
(4) 3.0 × 10 N (3) − Y direction (4) − X direction

22 Electromagnetic Waves
9. For a transparent medium relative 14. A capacitor of capacitance 'C', is
permeability and permittivity, μr and ∈r are connected across an ac source of voltage
V, given by V = V0 sin ωt. The displacement
1.0 and 1.44 respectively. The velocity of
current between the plates of the
light in this medium would be:
capacitor, would then be given by:
[NEET_2019(Odisha)]
[NEET_2021]
8 8
(1) 2.5 × 10 m/s (2) 3 × 10 m/s V0
(1) Id = V0 ωC cos ωt (2) Id = cos ωt
(3) 2.08 × 10 m/s
8
(4) 4.32 × 10 m/s
8
ωC
V0
(3) Id = sin ωt (4) Id = V0 ωC sin ωt
2 ωC
10. Light with an average flux of 20 W/cm
falls on a non-reflecting surface at normal
15. For a plane electromagnetic wave
2
incidence having surface area 20 cm . The propagating in x-direction, which one of
energy received by the surface during time the following combination gives the
span of 1 minute is: [NEET_2020] correct possible directions for electric
3 3 field (E) and magnetic field (B)
(1) 48 × 10 J (2) 10 × 10 J
respectively? [NEET_2021]
3 3
(3) 12 × 10 J (4) 24 × 10 J       −j − k
(1) j + k, j + k (2) − j + k,
 −j − k
(3) j + k,  −j + k
(4) −j + k,
11. The ratio of contributions made by the
electric field and magnetic field 16. Match List -I with List -II:
components to the intensity of an List -I List -II
electromagnetic wave is: (Electromagnetic waves) (Wavelength)
–10
(c = speed of electromagnetic waves) (a) AM radio waves (i) 10 m
2
[NEET_2020] (b) Microwaves (ii) 10 m
–2
2
(1) 1 : c (2) c : 1 (c) Infrared radiations (iii) 10 m
–4
(3) 1 : 1 (4) 1 : c (d) X-rays (iv) 10 m
Choose the correct answer from the
options [NEET_2022]
12. The E.M. wave with shortest wavelength
(1) (a) - (iv), (b) – (iii), (c) – (ii), (d) – (i)
among the following is
(2) (a) - (iii), (b) – (ii), (c) – (i), (d) – (iv)
[NEET_2020(Covid)] (3) (a) - (iii), (b) – (iv), (c) – (ii), (d) – (i)
(1) Ultraviolet rays (2) X-rays (4) (a) - (ii), (b) – (iii), (c) – (iv), (d) – (i)
(3) Gamma-rays (4) Microwaves
17. In a plane electromagnetic wave travelling
in free space, the electric field component
13. The magnetic field in a plane
oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of
electromagnetic wave is given by: 10 –1
2.0 × 10 Hz and amplitude 48 V m . Then
[NEET_2020(Covid)]
the amplitude of oscillating magnetic field is:
–7 3 11
By = 2 × 10 sin (π × 10 x + 3π × 10 t)T (Speed of light in free space = 3 × 10 ms )
8 –1

Calculate the wavelength. [NEET_2023]

3 –3 –9 –8
(1) π × 10 m (2) 2 × 10 m (1) 1.6 × 10 T (2) 1.6 × 10 T
–7 –6
(3) 2 × 10 m
3
(4) π × 10
–3
m (3) 1.6 × 10 T (4) 1.6 × 10 T

Electromagnetic Waves 23
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise-I
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
3 2 2 4 4 2 1 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 3 4 1 4 4 3
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
4 4 2 2 4 3 2 1 4 4 4 1 3 1 1 2 1 2 4 2
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
2 2 3 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2

Exercise-II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. 3 2 3 4 1 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 4 1 3 1 3 3

Exercise-III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ans. 3 3 3 3 2 2

Exercise-IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Ans. 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 4 3 3 2 1 2 4 3

24 Electromagnetic Waves
 1 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Reflection at Plane Surface

• Light : It is the form of energy which makes objects visible to our eye.
• Optics : The branch of physics which deals with the nature of light, its sources, properties,
effects and vision is called optics.

Geometrical Optics
It treats propagation of light in terms of rays and is valid only if wavelength of light is much
lesser than the size of obstacles.
It concerns with the image formation and deals with the study of simple facts such as rectilinear
propagation, laws of reflection and refraction by geometrical methods

Reflection of Light
When light rays strike the boundary of two media, a part of light is turned back into the same
medium. This phenomenon is called Reflection of Light.
or
It is the phenomenon of change in the path of light without change in medium.

Laws of Reflection
(1) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same
plane.
This plane is called the plane of incidence (or plane of reflection).
ΙR RR

i r

(2) The angle of incidence (the angle between normal and the incident ray) and the angle of
reflection (the angle between the reflected ray and the normal) are equal,
i.e. ∠ i = ∠ r
• As a result of reflection, the speed, wavelength, frequency and colour of light remain the
same but its intensity, in general, decreases.
• There is a phase change of φ rad if reflection takes place from an optically denser medium.

Regular and diffused Reflection

• Reflection from a smooth plane surface is called regular reflection.
In this type of reflection, a beam of parallel rays is reflected as a beam of parallel rays.
• Reflection from a rough plane surface is called irregular reflection.
In this type of reflection, a beam of parallel rays gets diffused on reflection.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 1

Angle of Deviation
It is the angle by which the light ray rotates after reflection from
any surface

• On reflection from a plane mirror, a rays is deviated through an

angle
δ = 1800 – 2i

• Normal Incidence : The light is incident normally,

i = r = 0° & δ = 180°

• Grazing Incidence : The light strikes tangentially.

i = r = 90° & δ = 0°

Example 1:
Show that for a light ray incident at an angle ‘i’ on getting reflected, the angle of deviation is
δ = π − 2i or π + 2i.
Solution:
From figure (b) it is clear that light ray bends
either by δ1 anticlockwise or by δ2 (= 2π – δ1)
clockwise.
From figure (a) δ1 = π – 2i.
∴ δ2 = π + 2i.

Ray, Object and Image

Ray
The straight line path followed by light in a homogeneous medium is called ray.
A bundle of rays is called a beam.
A narrow beam is called a pencil of light.

2 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Object (O)
• An object is a source of light rays.
• An object may be a point or an extended.
• It is the point of intersection of incident rays.
• Objects are of two types - Real & Virtual

Real Object
• An object is real if two or more incident rays actually emit or appear to emit.
• It is the point of divergence.
• It lies on incident side.
• The real object actually present.

Virtual Object
• It is the apparent point of convergence.
• It lies on opposite to incident side.
• If not intercepted by an optical element will meet at a point.

Image (I)
• The Image is a point of intersection of reflected rays or refracted rays.
• Objects are of two types - Real & Virtual

Real Image
• Real images are formed when the reflected or refracted rays actually meet or converge at a
point.
• A real image can be obtained on screen.
• Both real and virtual objects can form real images.
• It lies on reflected or refracted side.

Virtual Image
• Virtual images are formed when the reflected or refracted rays do not meet at a point but
appear to meet or diverge at a point.
• Both real and virtual objects can form Virtual images.
• It lies opposite on reflected or refracted side.
• A virtual image cannot be obtained on screen but they can be seen by our eye.
reflected side

O I
real virtual
object image

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 3

Some Facts Regarding Plane Mirror
• The focal length and radius of curvature of a plane mirror are infinite. i.e., f = ∞, R = ∞ and its
power is zero.
• Distance of image = distance of object

• Size of image = size of object

Magnification = unity

• Image is erect and virtual.

• There is a lateral inversion in the image. The left-side of the object appears as the right-side of
the image.

• A plane mirror may form a virtual as well as real image.

• A man of height h requires a mirror of minimum length h/2 to see complete image of his own.
• If a person standing at the centre of a room wants to see complete wall behind himself, he
requires a mirror of at least one-third the dimension of wall fitted symmetrically on the wall in
front of him.
• If a person is standing in a hall whose celling and two adjacent walls are plane mirrors, in all 7
images of the person will be formed.

Length of Mirror Required to View Complete Object

The minimum size of a plane mirror, required to see the full image of an observer is half the
size of that observer.

4 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Alternate
∆ E M1 M2 and ∆ E H´F´ are similar
M1M2 z
∴ =
H´F´ 2z
AF FB AF 2d
= or = M1 M2 = H’ F’/ 2 = HF/2
HI BI x d

Example 2:
A person of height 160 cm wants to see his compete image what is the minimum length of plane
mirror is required.
Solution:
H
To see his own image min length of mirror required = = 80 cm
2

Example 3:
Find the angle ‘θ’ made by plane mirror with horizontal if the reflected ray is vertical in the
following cases.

(a) (b)

Solution:
(a) As ∠i = ∠r so 90 – θ = θ ⇒ θ = 45° (b) As ∠i = ∠r ⇒ 90 – θ + 20° = θ ⇒ θ = 55°

Reflected
ray

θ
90–θ
θ
Incident Normal
ray
θ

Example 4:
What are the co-ordinate of Image ?

Solution:
For the image formed by a plane mirror Image formed will be virtual & erect i.e. the image will
st
lie in 1 quadrant dobject = dimage (i.e. x co-ordinate of image = +10) Height of object = Height of
image (i.e. Y co-ordinate of image= 5) So co-ordinate of image = (10, 5)

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 5

Example 5:
What are the co-ordinate of Image?

Solution:
OC =IC = 10 So co-ordinate of image are (0, –10)

Rotation of Plane Mirror

(1) (2)

• If Mirror is rotated by an angle ‘θ’ the reflected ray rotates by an angle 2θ in same direction.
• At any instant, if the angular velocity of mirror will be ωM. Then angular velocity of reflected
ray will be 2ωM.

Some Facts Regarding Two Inclined Plane Mirror

When two plane mirrors are kept facing each other at angle θ and an object is placed between
them, multiple images of the object are formed in a circular path as a result of multiple
successive reflections.
360° 360°
(iii) If = even number; number of image = –1
θ θ
360° 360°
(ii) If = odd number; number of image = – 1,
θ θ
if the object is placed on the angle bisector.
360° 360°
(iii) If = odd number; number of image = ,
θ θ
if the object is not placed on the angle bisector.

6 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Deviation Produced
If a ray gets reflected once from each of two mirrors inclined at an
angle θ, the deviation produced is independent of angle of incidence
and is given as
δ = 360° – 2θ
If two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at 90°, the emergent
ray is always antiparallel to incident ray if it suffers one reflection
from each whatever be the angle of incidence.

Example 6:
Figure shows a point object placed between two parallel mirrors. Its distance from M1 is 2 cm
and that from M2 is 8 cm. Find the distance of images from the two mirrors considering
reflection on mirror M1 first.

Solution:
To understand how images are formed see the following figure and table. You will require to
know what symbols like Ι121 stands for. See the following diagram.

Similarly, images will be formed by the rays striking mirror M2 first. Total number of images = ∞.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 7

Example 7:
An object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at 90° angle. How many images will be
formed?
Solution:
The number of images formed by two mutually perpendicular mirrors (θ = 90°) will be 3.
All these three images will lie on a circle with centre at C at the point of intersection of mirror
M1 and M2 and whose radius is equal to the distance between C and object O.

Example 8:
Two plane mirrors A and B are aligned parallel to each other as
shown in figure. A light ray is incident at an angle of 30° at a point
just inside one end of A. The plane of incidence coincides with the
plane of the figure. The maximum numbers of times the ray
undergoes reflections (including the first one) before it emerges out
is
(1) 28 (2)30 (3)32 (4) 34
Solution:
Let number of reflections be n then
n (0.2 tan 30°) = 2 3 ⇒ n = 30

Relation Between Velocity of Object, Image and Mirror

Taking Mirror in YZ Plane & Normal to Polished Surface as x-axis.

From mirror property:

xIM = – xOM, yIM = yOM and zIM = zOM

8 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Here xIM means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror. Similarly, others have meaning.
Differentiating w.r.t time, we get
v(IM)x = − v(OM)x ; v(IM)y = v(OM)y ; v(IM)z = v(OM)z ,
⇒ for x axis vIG = – (vOM + vMG) but
for y axis and z axis viG = voG
Here : vIG = velocity of image w.r.t ground.
Also, we can say that

( v ⊥ )I x
( )O
= − v⊥
x



(v )
|| I
x
( )
= v||
Ox



Example 9:
An object moves with 5 m/s towards right while the mirror moves with 1m/s towards the left
as shown. Find the velocity of image.

Solution:
Take → as + direction. vi – vm = vm – v0
vi – (–1) = (–1) – 5
vi= – 7m/s.
⇒ 7 m/s and direction towards left.

Field of View
• A mirror whatever may be the size of it forms the images of all objects lying in front of it.
• But every object has its own field of view for the given mirror.
• The field of view is the region between the extreme reflected rays and
• It depends on the location of the object in front of the mirror.
• If our eye lies in the field of view then only we can see the image of the object.
• The field of view of an object placed at different locations in front of a plane mirror are
shown in figure below.

(a) (b) (c)

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 9

 Concept Builder-1

Q.1 Find the angle ‘θ’ made by plane mirror with horizontal if the reflected ray is vertical in the
following case

Q.2 What are the coordinate of object when the image is in third quadrant.

Q.3 Find out total no. of images formed

(A) (B) (C)

Q.4 Two plane mirrors are kept at right angles to each other. A ray of light is incident on any of the
two mirrors at an angles of incidence i such that the finally reflected ray, after reflection from
the other mirror, is parallel to the incoming ray, then i is

(1) 10° (2) 82° (3) 45° (4) All

Q.5 A plane mirror is approaching you at 10 cm/s. You can see your image in it. At what speed will
your image approach you?
(1) 10 cm/s (2) 5 cm/s (3) 20 cm/s (4) 15 cm/s

Q.6 A boy is 1.8 m tall and can see his image in a plane mirror fixed on a wall. His eyes are 1.6
m from the floor level. The minimum length of the mirror to see his full image is :-
(1) 0.9 m (2) 0.85 m (3) 0.8 m (4) can't be determined

10 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Q.7 An object shaped as ‘L’ is placed between two parallel plane mirrors as shown. In the first
seven closest images, how many laterally inverted images are formed?

(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4

Q.8 A plane mirror makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal. If a vertical ray strikes the mirror,
find the angle between the mirror and the reflected ray?

Q.9 Two vertical plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 60 with each other. A ray of light travelling
horizontally is reflected first from one mirror and then from the other. The resultant deviation is
(1) 60° (2) 90° (3) 180° (4) 240°

Q.10 When a plane mirror is rotated through an angle θ then the reflected ray turns through the
angle 2θ then the size of the image
(1) Is doubled (2) Is halved
(3) Remains the same (4) Becomes infinite

Reflection at Spherical Surface

Thin Spherical Mirrors
• It is a segment of a spherical shell whose one surface
is polished.
• There are two types of spherical mirror.
PS : Polished surface & RS : Reflecting surface

(1) Concave Mirror

• In this mirror reflection takes place from the inner surface and outer surface is polished or
silvered.
• It converges the light rays.
• It is used as a shaving mirror, in search light, in cinema projector, in telescope by ENT
specialists etc.

(2) Convex Mirror

• In this mirror reflection takes place from the outer surface and the inner surface is polished
or silvered.
• It diverges the light rays.
• It is used in road lamps, side mirror in vehicles etc.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 11

Terms and Definitions
• Center of Curvature (C) : It is the centre of the spherical surface of which the mirror is a part.
• Radius of Curvature (R) : It is the radius of spherical surface of which of the mirror is a part
(distance CP) .
• Pole (P) : It is the center of the mirror surface.
• Principal Axis (CP) : It is the line joining the Pole to the Center of Curvature of the mirror.
• Aperture (A) : It is the diameter of the mirror (AB) .
For spherical mirror aperture is circular area.
• Principal Focus (F) : It is the point on the principal axis, through which a ray of light parallel to
the principal axis, after reflection, passes (concave mirror) or appears to pass (convex mirror).
• Focal Length (f) : It is the distance between the pole P and the principal focus F.
• Focal plane : A plane passing through focus and perpendicular to principal axis is called focal
plane

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

Types of Rays
(1) Paraxial Rays
• Rays very close to optical axis.
• They are nearly parallel to principal axis.
• They make very small angles of incidence.
sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1 & tan θ = θ
• For this, consider only mirror of small aperture.
• All formulae are applicable only for paraxial rays.

(2) Marginal Rays

• The rays far away from optical axis are marginal rays.
• All lens & mirror formulae are not applicable for it.

Ray Tracing
Four types of rays are used for Image formation.
• Ray-1 : A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either actually passes through the
principal focus F (concave) or appears to diverge from it (convex).

• Ray-2 : A ray passing through the principal focus F or appears to converge at F is reflected
parallel to the principal axis.

• Ray-3 : A ray through the centre of curvature strikes the mirror normally and is reflected
back along the same path.

12 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 • Ray-4 : A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in the opposite side of
principal axis.

Symbols
u = object distance, v = image distance, f = focal length, R = radius of curvature,
vO = velocity of object, vI = velocity of image, P = power, m = magnification

Sign- Convention
• All measurements taken from the pole.
• Measurement along the direction of ray is taken as +ve
and opposite the ray is taken as −ve.
• Measurement above the principal axis is taken as +ve
and below the principal axis is −ve.

Important Relations
• For a spherical mirror of small aperture, the focal length is half of the radius of curvature
⇒ f =R/2
• Mirror formula : For all spherical mirrors,
1 1 2 1
+ = =
u v R f
• Power (P) : It is the ability to deviate the path of the rays striking it.
1 100
P =− =−
f f(cm)
• Magnification : It is defined as the ratio of size of image to the size of object.
It is of three types –

(1) Linear (Lateral, Transverse) Magnification (m)

When an object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis and is given as
Height of image v f f−v
m= =− = =
Height of object u f −u f
(a) If m > 1 , the image is enlarged, (b) If m = 1 , the image is of same size,
(c) If m < 1 , the image is reduced, (d) If m > 0 , the image is erect,
(e) If m < 0 , the image is inverted.

(2) Longitudinal (Axial) Magnification (mL)

When an object is placed along the principal axis and is given as

mL =
IL
= −
( v2 − v 1 ) =
−
∆v
OL (u2 − u1 ) ∆u
If length of the object is small,
2 2 2
dv v 2 − f  − f −v
mL = − −   = –m =
=   =  
du u
   f − u  f 

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 13

 (3) Areal Magnification (mA)
When a two dimensional object is placed with its plane
perpendicular to the principal axis and is given as
2 2 2
IA v 2  f  f −v
mA = =  =m =   = 
OA  u   f − u   f 

Image formation by spherical Mirrors

Concave mirror
Image formed by concave mirror
• may be real or virtual
• may be inverted or erect,
• may be smaller, larger or equal in size of object depending upon the distance of the object
from the mirror

14 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Convex mirror
Image formed convex mirror of a real object is
• always virtual erect and smaller in size
• depending upon the location of the object and mirror, never forms enlarged image of a real object.

Convex mirror never forms enlarged image of a real object

Example 10:
Where should an object be placed in front of a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm to have a
magnification of 3 in case of
(a) real image (b) virtual image
Solution:
1 1 1
The mirror equation is given by + =
v u f
(a) In case of real image
−v
m= = −3
u
−v
So, v = 3u ⇒ = −3
u
4 1
⇒ = ⇒ u = –20cm
3u −15
(b) In case of virtual image
−v
m= = +3; v = –3u
u
1 1 1 2 1
– + = ⇒ = ⇒ u = –10cm
3u u −15 3u −15

Example 11:
Converging rays are incident on a convex spherical mirror so that their extensions intersect 30 cm
behind the mirror on the optical axis. The reflected rays form a diverging beam so that their
.
extensions intersect the optical axis 1.2 m from the mirror Determine the focal length of the
mirror.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 15

Solution:
In this case
u = + 30
⇒ v = + 120
1 1 1 1 1
∴ = + = +
f v u 120 30
f = 24 cm

Example 12:
Find the position of final image after three successive reflections taking first reflection on m1.

Solution:
I reflection
Focus of mirror = – 10 cm ⇒ u = – 15 cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v = – 30 cm.
v u f
For II reflection on plane mirror
u = – 10 cm ∴ v = 10 cm
For III reflection on curved mirror again
u = – 50 cm ; f = – 10 cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ =; v = – 12.5 cm.
v u f

Example 13:
Focal length of a concave mirror is f. If the sun subtends on angle θ at pole of mirror, find the
diameter of the image

Solution:
Let x be the diameter of the image & the rays are coming from a very large distance they can
be considered as paraxial rays
x
So, tan θ ≈ θ = ⇒x=fθ
f

16 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Example 14:
Where an object has to be placed in front of a convex mirror (focal length f) such that the image
of the object is n times the size of object
Solution:
f
Magnification ‘m’ = =n
f −u
(f − nf)
⇒ f = nf – nu ⇒ u = −
n
Note here –ve sign denotes real object.

Example 15:
A thin rod of length f/3 is placed along the principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length f
such that its image which is real and elongated, just touches the rod. What is magnification ?
Solution:
 image is real and enlarged, the object must be
between C and F. One end A' of the image coincides
with the end A of rod itself,
1 1 1
so vA = uA , + =
vA vA −f
i.e., vA = uA = – 2f
So, it clear that the end A is at C.
f
 the length of rod is
3
∴ distance of the other end B from P is uB
f 5
= 2f − =f
3 3
1 1 1 5
if the distance of image of end B from P is vB then + = i.e., vB = − f
vB 5 −f 2
− f
3
1
vB − v A f
5 1 2 3
∴ the size of the image | vB | − | v A |= f − 2f = magnification m =
f and = = −
2 2 uB − uA 1 2
− f
3
Negative sign implies that image is inverted with respect to object and so it is real.

Example 16:
2
An object of area 25 cm is kept perpendicular to the principal axis of a convex mirror (f = 20 cm)
at a distance of 30 cm from the pole. Find the area of image.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 17

Solution:
f
For convex mirror m =
f −u
2
Here f = +20 cm, u = –30 cm, so m =
5
2 2
Area of image = m (Area of object) = 4 cm

Velocity of Image
Principal axis has been taken to be along x–axis and Aperture plane along y-axis.
M

/ // //
j

///////
/////////
O

///////// // /// //// ///////

i

//////
M'

// / //
(Longitudinal velocity) : Velocity along axis /

When an object is coming from infinite towards the focus of concave mirror
1 1 1 1 dv 1 du
 + = ⇒ − − =0
2 dt
v u f v u2 dt
  v2  2 
⇒ vIx = −   vOx = – m vOx
 u2 
 
Here ,
dv
vIx = = velocity of image along principal axis
dt
du
vOx = = velocity of object along principal-axis
dt

Newton’s Formula
• Consider an object placed in front of a concave mirror of focal
length f at a distance x1 from the focus. If a real image is
formed at a distance x2 from the focus, then
f2
x 1 ⋅ x2 =
This is known as Newton’s formula.
• It implies that the position of an object and its real image are
interchangeable.
• This formula does not apply to convex mirror.

Field of View

Field
Field of
O F view
of
view C

Concave Convex

18 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Concept Builder-2

Q.1 Column-I contains a list of mirrors along with the position of object. Match this with
Column-II describing the nature of the image.
Column-I Column-II

(A) (P) real, inverted, enlarged

(B) (Q) virtual, erect, enlarged

(C) (R) virtual, erect, diminished

(D) (S) virtual, erect

Q.2 A man has a shaving mirror of focal length 0.2 m. How far should the mirror be held from
his face in order to give an image of two fold magnification ?

Q.3 A convex mirror has a focal length f. A real object is placed at a distance of f/2 from the
pole. Find out the position, magnification and nature of the image.

Q.4 A motor car is fitted with a rear view mirror of focal length 20 cm. A second motor car 2 m
broad and 21.6 m high is 6 m away from first car. Find the position of second car as seen in
the mirror of the first car.

Q.5 A virtual image three times the size of the object is obtained with a concave mirror of radius
of curvature 36 cm. Find the distance of the object from the mirror.

Q.6 The focal length of a concave mirror is 30 cm. Where should an object be placed so that its
image is three times magnified, real and inverted ?

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 19

Q.7 A small candle 2.5 cm in size is placed 27 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 36 cm. At what distance from the mirror should a screen be placed in order to
receive a sharp image ? Describe the nature and size of the image. If the candle is moved
closer to the mirror, how should the screen have to be moved?

Q.8 A concave mirror is held in water. What should be the change in the focal length of the mirror?
(1) Halved (2) Doubled
(3) Remains the same (4) Increases exponentially

Q.9 A man stands in front of a mirror of special shape. He finds that his image has a very small
head, a fat body, and legs of normal size. What can we say about the shapes of the three parts
of the mirror?
(1) Convex, Concave, Plane (2) The plane, Concave, Convex
(3) Concave, Convex, Plane (4) Convex, Plane, Concave

Q.10 The magnification of 'X' is more than unity for real object Identify X.
(1) Convex mirror (2) Concave mirror
(3) Plane mirror (4) All of the above

Refraction of Light
• When a ray of light is incident on the boundary between two transparent media (interface), a
part of it passes into the second medium with a change in direction. This phenomenon is called
refraction.
• When light passes from one medium to another, a part of ray is reflected back into the first
medium and the rest passes into the second medium.
• When it passes into the second medium, its direction of travel is changed.
• It either bends towards the normal or away from the normal.
• The cause of refraction is the difference in the speeds of light for two media.
• Greater the difference in the speeds of light in the two media, greater will be the amount of
bending.
• A medium in which speed of light is more is called an optically rarer medium.
• The medium in which speed of light is less is called the optically denser medium.
• In free space, speed of light is c= 3 × 108 ms−1 .
• In any material medium, speed of light v < c

Laws of Refraction
There are two laws of refraction:

i1
µ1 Rare
µ2 Denser
i2

20 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 1. For two particular media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is constant, i.e.,
sini1
= constant
sini2
This is known as Snell's law.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

Refractive index
• It is the optical property of a medium.
• It is the medium characteristic which decides speed of light in it.
• It is of two types -
(1) Absolute Refractive Index (µ) or (n)
It is defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in that medium.
c
µ= ⇒ c = µv = constant ⇒ µ ∝ 1 v
v
µ = 1 (min value) for vacuum, µ ≈ 1 (≡ 1.003) for air
µ = 1.33 (=4/3) for water, µ = 1.50 (=3/2) for glass.
(2) Relative Refractive Index (µ21)
• It is defined as the ratio of two refractive index
• When light travels from medium one to medium two then refractive index of medium two
w.r.t. medium one is written as
µ2
µ21 =1 µ2 =
µ1

sini1
• In Snell’s Law, the constant ratio is called the relative refractive index of med-2 with
sini2
respect to med-1. Thus,
µ sini1
1 µ2 =µ21 = 2 =
µ1 sini2
• Now, we can write Snell’s law as,
µ . sin i = constant
For two media µ1 . sin i1 = µ2 . sin i2
• The general form of Snell’s law can be written as.
µ2 sini1 v1 λ1
µ21 = 1µ2 = = = =
µ1 sini2 v2 λ2
Here, v1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 is the speed in medium 2.
Similarly, λ1 and λ2 are the corresponding wavelengths.
• Deviation of ray : δ = |i – r|
• When light travels from one medium to another, then speed of light (v), wavelength (λ),
amplitude and Intensity changes. But frequency (v) and colour of light do not change.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 21

 • A light ray passes from an optically rarer to an optically denser medium, it bends towards
the normal.
• Here, µ2 > µ1 So, i1 > i2 (i > r) & v1 > v2 & λ1 > λ2.

• A light ray bends away from the normal while passing from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.
• Here, µ2 < µ 1
So, i1 < i2 (i < r) & v1 < v2 & λ1 < λ2.

Cauchy’s Equation
• The absolute refractive index depends upon wavelength of light according to the relation
B C
µ= A + ++ .....
2
λ λ4
Where, A, B, C are constants known as Cauchy’s constants, depends on medium.
• As λ increases, µ decreases.
• For white light - VIBGYOR (seven colour)
λ V < λI < λB < λG < λ Y < λO < λR
• Thus, µV > µI > µB > µG > µ Y > µO > µR
• λRed > λviolet’ & µRed < µviolet

Principle of Reversibility
• When a light ray, after suffering ‘N’ number of reflections and refractions, will has its final
path reversed, i.e., it travels back along its entire initial path.
• This relates the refractive index of medium in which light travels.
µ2 µ1
• For two medium : 1 µ2= & 2µ=
1 ⇒ 1µ2 ⋅2 µ=
1 1
µ1 µ2

Example 17:
Refractive index of glass with respect to water is 1.125. Find the absolute refractive index of
water, if the absolute refractive index of glass is 1.5.
Solution:
The refractive index of glass with respect to water
µg µg 1.5
is wµg = or µw = = = 1.33
µw w µg 1.125

22 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Example 18:
8
The velocity of light in air is 3 × 10 m/s. Find the velocity of light in glass of refractive index 1.5.
If the wavelength of yellow light in air is 6000Å, find its wavelength in the glass.
Solution:
Let c1 and c2 be the velocities of light in air and glass respectively.
Using the definition of refractive index
c1 c1
µ= or c2 =
c2 µ
3 × 108 8
c2 = = 2 × 10 m/s
1.5
Since frequency remains same when light passes from one medium to another.
Therefore c1 = λ1f c2 = λ2f
c1 λ1
Now µ= =
c2 λ2
λ1 6000
or λ2 = = = 4000 Å
µ 1.5

Example 19:
Find the angle θa made by the light ray when it gets refracted from water to air, as shown in figure.

Solution:
Apply, Snell’s Law
4 3 4 –1 4
µWsin θW = µa sin θa ; × =1 sin θa ; sin θa = ; θa = sin
3 5 5 5

Single Refraction by a plane interface: (Real Depth, Apparent Depth and Normal Shift)
Case-1 : Object in denser and observer in rarer
• If an object is placed below the surface of water or under a glass slab, it appears to be raised.
i.e., the apparent depth is less than the real depth. C
This is due to refraction. i
Air
• Refractive index can also be given as Medium A B
HA i r
Real Depth HR
=R.I. = ⇒µ HR
Apparent Depth HA
i
HR
⇒ HA = O
µ (a)
• Speed : vR = µ.vA
 1
• The normal shift of image is y = HR – HA = HR  1 − 
 µ

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 23

Case-2 : Object in rarer and observer in denser
• If an object is placed above the surface of water and observer is under the water, it appears
to be farther. i.e., the apparent height is more than the real height.
This is due to refraction.
Refractive index can also be given as
Apparent Depth HA
=R.I. = ⇒µ
Real Depth HR
HA
⇒ HR = or HA = µ.HR
µ
• Speed : vA = µ.vR
• The normal shift of image is
y = HA – HR = HR(µ – 1)
If a beaker is filled with immiscible transparent liquids of
refractive indices µ1, µ2, µ3 and individual depth d1, d2, d3 respectively, then
• the apparent depth of the beaker is found to be :
d1 d2 d3
Dapparent = + +
µ1 µ2 µ3
• the effective R.I. of Liquid is found to be

µeffective
= =
dRe al (
d1 + d2 + d3 ) µ1 d1
µ2 d2
dAppa  d1 d2 d3 
 + +  µ3 d3
 µ1 µ2 µ3 
• In case of two liquids if d1 = d2 , then effective R.I.
2 µ 1 µ2
µ=
µ 1 + µ2

Example 20:
An object lies 100 cm inside water. It is viewed from air nearly normally. Find the apparent
depth of the object.
Solution:
d 100
d′ = = =75 cm
nrelative 4/3
1
Example 21:
See the figure
(i) Find apparent height of the bird for fish
(ii) Find apparent depth of fish for bird
(iii) At what distance will the bird appear to the fish.
(iv) At what distance will the fish appear to the bird
(v) If the velocity of bird is 12 cm/sec downward and the fish
is 12 cm/sec in upward direction, then find out their relative
velocities with respect to each other.

24 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Solution:
36 36
(i) d´B = = = 48 cm
1 3/4
4
 
3
36
(ii) d´F = = 27 cm
4/3
(iii) For fish : dB = 36 + 48 = 84 cm
(iv) For bird : dF = 27 + 36 = 63 cm.
 
12
(v) Velocity of fish with respect to bird = 12 +   = 21 cm/sec.

 4 / 3 
 1 
 
12
Velocity of bird with respect to fish = 12 +   = 28 cm/sec.

3/4 
 1 

Refraction Through a Slab

It is the Double refraction from Plane Interface.
When light passes through a parallel slab, having same medium on both sides, then Emergent
ray is parallel to the incident ray.

Normal Shift
• Here two cases are possible. C E M C E
(i) For Divergent Ray in figure-a. N
M N
The object shifted towards slab with a normal shift
I1 O I A B A B OI
 1
OI = 1 −  ⋅ t µ µ
 µ D F D F
t t
(ii) For Convergent Ray in figure-b. (a) (b)
The object shifted away from slab with a normal shift
 1
OI = 1 −  ⋅ t
 µ

Lateral shift
When a light ray passes through parallel slab, the emergent ray(CD) is parallel to incident
ray(AB).
• But the emergent ray is displaced laterally by a distance d, which depends on µ, t (thickness
of slab) and i. A
• Its value is given by the relation, B
 
sin(i − r) cosi
d= ⋅ t;d = 1 −  t ⋅ sini
cosr  µ 2
− sin2 
i
  C
 1
• For small angles of incidence, d =⋅
i 1− t .
 µ D

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 25

Example 22:
Find the lateral shift of light ray while it passes through a parallel glass slab of thickness 10 cm
placed in air. The angle of incidence in air is 60° and the angle of refraction in glass is 45°.
Solution:
t sin (i − r) 10 sin (60° − 45°)
d= =
cosr cos 45°
10 sin 15°
= = 10 2 sin 15°.
cos 45°

Example 23:
An object is placed 21 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 10 cm. A glass slab
of thickness 3 cm and refractive index 1.5 is then placed close to the mirror in the space
between the object and the mirror. Find the position of the final image. Assume the slab is 1
cm away from mirror.
Solution:
As the glass slab will produce a shift
 1  2
x = t  1 −  = 3  1 −  = 1cm
 µ  3
So, the image I1 of O formed by the glass slab will be at a distance
(21 – 1) = 20 cm from the mirror as shown in figure. This image
will act as an object for the concave mirror of focal length
(10/2) = 5 cm.
1 1 1
So, + =
v −20 −5
20
i.e. v= − cm
3
i.e. the concave mirror will form an image I2 of virtual object I1 at a distance (20/3) cm in front
of it. This image will form an image I3 of object I2 producing a shift x away from the plate. So
the distance of final image from the point P of mirror MM’ will be
 20 
PI3 = PI2 + I2I3 =   + 1 = 7.67 cm in front of the mirror
 3 

Application of Refraction
(i) Bending of an Object

(ii) Visibility of two images of an object

(iii) Twinkling of stars
(iv) Oval shape of sun in the morning and evening

26 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Concept Builder-3

Q.1 A light ray is moving from denser (refractive index=µ) to air. If the angle of incidence is half
the angle of refraction, find out the angle of refraction.

4
Q.2 Light of wavelength 8000 Å enters from air into water (µwater = ). What is the change in
3
the frequency of light in water ?

Q.3 Refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of glass is 3/2. Find refractive index of glass with
respect to water.

Q.4 Find the time taken by light to cover 6m distance in air and in glass (µ = 3/2):

Q.5 Find relation between θ1, θ2 and θ3 if all the medium are parallel

Q.6 Find the height of water for which container is seen half filled when seen from above.

Q.7 A 2 cm thick layer of water covers a 3 cm thick glass slab. A coin is placed at the bottom of
the slab and is being observed from the air side along the normal to the surface. Find the
apparent position of the coin from the surface.

3
Q.8 Width of a slab is 6 cm whose µ = . If its rear surface is silvered and object is placed at a
2
distance 28 cm from the front face. Calculate the final position of the image from the
silvered surface.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 27

Q.9 A medium shows relation between i and r for light incident form air, as shown. If the speed of
light in the medium is nc then the value of n is:

sin r

30°
sin i

(1) 1.5 (2) 2 (3) 2 (4) 1 / 3

Q.10 In the figure shown the angle made by the light ray with the normal in the medium of refractive
index 2 is:
45°
n1 = 1

n4 = 2
n5 = 1.6

(1) 30 (2) 60 (3) 90 (4) None of these

Total Internal Reflection [TIR]

• When a ray of light goes from denser to rarer medium it bends away from the normal.
• As the angle of incidence in denser medium increases, the angle of refraction in rarer
medium also increases.
• At a certain angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90°, this angle of incidence
is called critical angle (C).

sini 1
Taking Snell’s Law =
sinr µ
(when i = C, r = 90°)
1 1  1
µ= ; sin C = ; C = sin−1  
sinC µ µ
• Greater the refractive index lesser will be the critical angle.
• When angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle then light ray comes back in to the same
medium after reflection from interface.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection (TIR)

Condition for TIR

(i) The ray incidence at the interface from denser medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than critical angle.

28 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Dependence of critical angle
(i) Critical angle depends upon wavelength as
 1
λ = f   ∝ sin C
µ
λR > λv ⇒ µR < µV and so CR > CV
(ii) With temperature rise, µ decreases therefore, critical angle C increases
(iii) For ‘glass-air’ pair critical angle is 42°,
for ‘water-air’ pair critical angle is 49° and
for ‘diamond-air’ pair critical angle is 24°.

Example 24:
Find the max. angle that can be made in glass medium (µ = 1.5) if a light ray is refracted from
glass to vacuum.
Solution:
–1
1.5 sin C = 1 sin 90°, sin C = 2/3, C = sin 2/3

Example 25:
Find the angle of refraction in a medium (µ = 2) if light is incident in vacuum, making angle
equal to twice the critical angle.
Solution:
Since the incident light is in rarer medium. Total Internal Reflection cannot take place.
–1 1
C = sin = 30°
µ
∴ i = 2C = 60°
Applying Snell’s Law. 1 sin 60° = 2 sin r

3 –1
 3
sin r = ⇒ r = sin  .
4  4 
 

Application of TIR
(A) Field of vision of fish
A fish inside the water can see the whole world through a cone with an apex angle twice the
critical angle for air water interface.
The radius of the base of the cone,
h
R = h tan C = ;
2
µ −1
The area of the base of the cone,
π h2
A = ;
(µ − 1)
2

Where µ is the refractive index of the denser with respect to rarer mirror.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 29

 (B) Optical Fiber
Optical fiber consists of many long high quality composite glass / quartz fibers. Each fiber
consists of a core and cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core (µ1=1.7) is higher then that of the cladding
(µ2=1.5).
When the light is incident on one end of the fiber at a small angle, the light passes inside
undergoes repeated TIRs along the fiber and finally comes out.
The angle of incidence is always larger than the critical angle of core material with respect to
its cladding
Light can pass through along the fiber even if it is bent.

Expression of Incidence angle

1 × sin θ = µ1 sin r ...(1)
µ1 sin θc = µ2 sin 90°
 r + θc = 900
µ1 sin (900 – r) = µ2 ...(2)
µ1 cos r = µ2
From eq. (1)
µ21 sin2 r =sin2 θ ...(3)

µ21 cos2 r =
µ22 ...(4)
Squaring and adding eq. (3) & (4)
µ21 =µ22 + sin2 θ

sin−1 µ21 − µ22 = θ

(C) Optical Looming

It is an optical illusion in cold countries where an object lying
on the ground appears to be hanging in the air.
This happens because a ray from the object going upward
suffers TIR and returns back towards the ground as shown,
since the refractive index of air falls off with height due to
temperature difference.

(D) Mirage
It is an optical illusion in deserts in which the image gives
the impression of reflection from a pond of water.

(E) Brilliance of diamond

Due to repeated TIRs diamond sparkles.
Diamonds are skillfully cut with many faces in such a way that much of the incident light
undergoes multiple TIR within the diamond before passing out again in the air.

30 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Concept Builder-4

Q.1 If light travels a distance x in time t1 sec in air and 10x distance in time t2 in a certain medium,
then find the critical angle of the medium.

Q.2 Calculate the critical angle for glass-air interface if a ray of light incident on a glass surface is
deviated through 15° when angle of incidence is 45°.

Q.3 A ray of light travels from denser medium having refractive index 2 to air, What should be the
angle of incidence for the ray to emerge out ?

Q.4 The speed of light in media M1 and M2 is 1.5 × 108 m / s and 2.0 × 108 m / s respectively. A ray
of light enters from medium M1 to M2 at an incidence angle i . If the ray suffers total internal
reflection, the value of i is:
2 3
(1) equal to or less than sin−1   (2) equal to or greater than sin−1  
3 5
3 2
(3) equal to or greater than sin−1   (4) less than sin−1  
4 3

Q.5 If C1, C2 and C3 are the critical angle of glass air interface for red, violet and yellow color, then:
(1) C3 > C2 > C1 (2) C1 > C2 > C3 (3) C
= 1 C=
2 C3 (4) C1 > C3 > C2

Q.6 Which set of colors will come out in air for a situation shown in figure
Air Green

White

Glass
(1) Yellow, Orange and Red (2) All
(3) Orange, Red and Violet (4) Blue, Green and Yellow

Q.7 Two transparent media A and B are separated by a plane boundary. The speed of light in those
media are 1.5 × 108 m / s and 2.0 × 108 m / s , respectively. The critical angle for a ray of light for
these two media is:
(
(1) tan−1 0.750 ) (
(2) sin−1 0.500 ) (
(3) sin−1 0.750 ) (
(4) tan−1 0.500 )

Q.8 In total internal reflection when the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle for the pair
of media in contact, what will be the angle of refraction?
(1) 90° (2) 180°
(3) 0° (4) equal to the angle of incidence

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 31

Prism
Prism is a transparent medium bounded by refracting surfaces, such that the incident surface
and emergent surface are plane and non-parallel.
Ray Diagram through a prism

Here : ‘i’ is angle of incidence, ‘e’ is angle of emergence, ‘A’ is angle of prism or refracting angle
of prism, ‘r1’ and ‘r2’ are angles of refraction, ‘δ’ is angle of deviation

General Formula
(i) Angle of prism : A = r 1 + r2
(ii) Total deviation : δ = δ1 + δ2 ⇒ δ = (i – r1) + (e – r2) ∴ δ=i+e–A

Deviation through a thin prism

Total deviation : δ=i+e–A
For thin prism, i = µ r1 & e = µ r2
So, δ = (µ – 1) A
Deviation by thin prism depends upon angle of prism (A) and refractive index of prism (µ)
Deviation is different for different colour of light
since µ R < µ O < µY < µG < µB < µI < µ V
So, δ R < δO < δY < δ G < δB < δI < δV

Minimum Deviation
• It is found that the angle of deviation (δ) varies with angle of incidence (i).
• There are two angle of incidence for which δ is same.
• For one angle of incidence it has a minimum value (δm).
• The variation of (δ) versus (i) is shown in diagram.

δmin

32 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 At minimum deviation (δm),
The ray passes symmetrically through the prism.
Important results
A A + δm
(i) i = e (ii) r1 = r2 (iii) r = (iv) i =
2 2
A + δm
sini sin
(v) µ = = 2
sinr A
sin
2
(vi) Ray inside the prism is parallel to the base of prism for equilateral and isosceles prism

Example 26:
Refracting angle of a prism A = 60° and its refractive index is, n = 3/2, what is the angle of
incidence i to get minimum deviation. Also find the minimum deviation. Assume the surrounding
medium to be air (n = 1).
Solution:
For minimum deviation,
A
r1 = r 2 = = 30°.
2
st
applying Snell's law at 1 surface
3 3
1 × sin i = sin 30° ⇒ i = sin−1  
2 4
–1 3 π
⇒ δmin = 2sin  –
4 3

Example 27:
A
For a prism if µ = cosec   then find δm
2
Solution:
 A + δm   A + δm 
sin   sin  
µ=  2  ; 1
=  2 
A A A
sin   sin   sin  
2 2 2
A + δm
90° = ⇒ 180 – A = δm.
2

Example 28:
3
Find the deviation caused by a prism having refracting angle 4° and refractive index . if angle
2
of incidence is very small
Solution:
3
δ=( – 1) × 4° = 2°
2

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 33

Example 29:
Find refractive index of the prism if light retraces its path.

Solution:
For retrace, the path angle of incidence at reflecting surface is 0. So r2 = 0
A = r 1 + r2 ⇒ A = r1 = 30°

3  1
sin 60 = n sin 30 ⇒ =n   ⇒n= 3
2 2

Example 30:
If incident ray is horizontal & plane mirror is vertical, find angle by which plane mirror should
be rotated so that reflected ray should be horizontal

6º

Solution:
Deviation of ray by prism
3 
δ = (µ – 1) A =  − 1  6° = 3°
2 
so to keep the ray horizontal
the deviation produced by the mirror should be 3° but in opposite direction
so as to keep
dnet = 0
As we know if ray is deviated by 3°, then we apply, if mirror is rotated by ‘θ’ then the ray will
rotate by 2θ
so 2θ = 3° (to bring the reflected ray horizontal) ⇒ θ = 1.5

Condition for no Emergence

For this, TIR must take place at the second surface
For any angle of incidence, A
A ≥ 2C & µ > cosec (A/2) i
Here, A is called Limiting Angle of prism. r1 r2
For normal incidence (i=0),
A ≥ C & µ > cosec (A)

34 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Dispersion Through Prism
• The splitting & spreading of white light into its
constituent colours is called dispersion of light.
• Dispersion takes place because the refractive index of
medium for different wavelengths is different.
• The pattern of colour components of light is called the
spectrum of light.

Angular Dispersion (θ)

• It is the angular separation between extreme colours
θ = δv – δR = (µv – µR)A
• It depends upon µ and A.

Average (mean) Deviation

• Yellow colour is called as mean colour.
µY
= (µV + µR ) 2

• Deviation of yellow colour light is known as mean deviation

δy = (µy – 1) A OR S = (µ - 1)A

Dispersive Power (ω)

• It is the characteristic of the prism.
• Dispersive power of a prism is defined as ratio of angular dispersion to the average deviation.
θ δ − δR µV − µR dµ
ω
= = V = =
δY δy µy − 1 µ− 1

• It depends µ only and not on A .

Combination of Prisms
• A single prism produces both deviation and dispersion.
• Consider two prisms (made of crown and flint glass) of refracting angles A & A’ and
dispersive powers ω & ω’ respectively.
• They are placed in contact by two refracting angles are reversed with respect to each other.
• The mean deviation produced
δ1 = (µY – 1) A & δ2 = (µ’Y – 1) A’
δnet = δ1 – δ2 = (µY – 1) A – (µ’Y – 1) A’
• The net angular dispersion produced
θ = δV – δR = (µV – µR) A – (µ’V – µ’R) A’
= (µY – 1) ωA – (µ’Y – 1) ω’A’
Two important combinations

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 35

 Dispersion without deviation
• It is called chromatic or direct vision prism.
• Here, δ = 0, θ ≠ 0
A' (µ − 1)
• condition = − Y
A (µ'Y − 1)
• Net dispersion θ = δ1 (ω − ω’)

Deviation without dispersion

• It is called achromatic prism.
• Here, θ = 0, δ ≠ 0
A' (µ − µR ) (µY − 1) ω
• condition − V
= =
A (µ'V − µ'R ) (µ'Y − 1) ω '
• Net dispersion δ = δ1 {1 − (ω/ω’)}

Example 31:
The refractive indices of flint glass for red and violet light are 1.613 and 1.632 respectively. Find
0
the angular dispersion produced by a thin prism of flint glass having refracting angle 5 .
Solution:
Deviation of the red light is δr = (µr – 1)A and deviation of the violet light is δv = (µv – 1)A.
The dispersion = δv – δr = (µv – µr)A = (1.632 – 1.613) × 5° = 0.095°.

Example 32:
Refractive index of glass for red and violet colours are 1.50 and 1.60 respectively. Find
(a) the ref. index for yellow colour, (approx)
(b) Dispersive power of the medium.
Solution:
µ v + µR1.50 + 1.60
(a) µr = = = 1.55
2 2
µ v − µR 1.60 − 1.50
(b) ω = = = 0.18.
µr − 1 1.55 − 1

Concept Builder-5

Q.1 Angle of incidence is 45° in the condition of minimum deviation for a prism of refracting angle
60°. Find the angle of deviation.

Q.2 A light ray is incident normally on the surface AB of a prism of refracting angle 60°. If the light
ray does not emerge from AC, then find the refractive index of the prism.
A

60°

B C

36 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Q.3 Calculate the refractive index of the material of an equilateral prism for which the angle of
π
minimum deviation is radian.
3

Q.4 A ray of light passing through a prism having µ = 2 suffers minimum deviation. It is found that
angle of incidence is double the angle of refraction within the prism. Find angle of the prism.

Q.5 The angle of minimum deviation measured with a prism is 30° and the angle of prism is 60°.
Find the refractive index of the material of the prism.

Q.6 A ray incident at 15° on a refracting surface of a prism of angle 30° suffers a deviation of 55°.
Find the angle of emergence.

Q.7 White light is passed through a prism of angle 5°. If the refractive index for red and blue colours
are 1⋅641 and 1⋅659 respectively, then find the angle of dispersion between them.

Q.8 White light is passed through a prism of angle 10°. If the refractive index for red and violet
colours are 1.641 and 1.659 respectively, then find the-
(a) angles of deviation for violet and red colours.
(b) angular dispersion
(c) dispersive power

Q.9 For a certain material the refractive indices for red, violet and yellow colour lights are 1.52, 1.64
and 1.60 respectively. Find the dispersive power of the material.

Q.10 Angle of minimum deviation of a prism of 600 angle for yellow light is 300. In this condition, what
is the angle of incidence?

Refraction at Spherical Surface

u
µ1 µ2

• Relation among µ1, µ2, u, v and R

When object placed in medium µ1
µ2 µ1 (µ − µ1 )
− =2
v u R
where, R = Radius of curvature of surface, µ1 = R.I. of incidence medium, µ2 = R.I. of refracted
medium

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 37

 • Magnification
hI R − v  µ1   v 
m
= = =   
h0 R − u  µ2   u 

• Focus
(a) First Focus : When object is placed at first focus, image is formed at infinity
Taking, u = f1, v = ∞

µ2 µ1 (µ − µ1 )
Apply − =2
∞ f1 R

 µ1R 
We get f1 = − 
 µ − µ 
 2 1 

(b) Second Focus : When the rays are coming from a very distant point, they get converged /
diverged at second focus
Taking, u = ∞, v = f2

µ2 µ1 (µ − µ1 )
Apply − =2 ,
∞ f1 R

 µ1R 
We get f2 = 
 (µ − µ ) 
 2 1 

Example 33:
Light from a point source in air falls on a spherical glass surface (µ = 1.5 and radius of curvature
= 30 cm). The distance of the light source from the glass surface is 90 cm. At what position the
image is formed?
Solution:
Here u = –90 cm, v = ?, R = +30 cm, µ1 = 1, and µ2 = 1.5. We then have

1.5 1 1.5 − 1
+ = or v = +270 cm
v 90 30
The image is formed at a distance of 270 cm from the glass surface in the direction of incident light.

Concept Builder-6

Q.1 An object O in glass (µ = 1.5) is situated at a distance of 5 cm from a spherical surface of

diameter 40 cm as shown in the figure. Find the distance of the image from the surface.

38 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Q.2 There is a small air bubble inside a glass sphere (µ = 1.5) of radius 10 cm. The bubble is 4 cm
below the surface and is viewed normally from the outside as shown in figure. Find the apparent
depth of the bubble.

Q.3 What is focal length of this curve surface:

µ=1 µ = 1.5

R = 10 cm
(1) 10 cm (2) 5 cm (3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm

Q.4 The image of the converging beam after refraction through the curve surface (in the given
figure) is formed at:
n=1
n = 3/2

O P x
30
R = 20 cm

40 40 180
(1) x = 40 cm (2) x = cm (3) x = - cm (4) x = cm
3 3 7

Lens
A lens is a piece of transparent material with two refracting surfaces such that at least one is
curved and refractive index of its material is different from that of the surroundings.

Types of Lenses
(i) Convex or Converging Lens
• A thin spherical lens with refractive index greater than that of surroundings behaves as a
convergent or convex lens.
• Geometrically its central portion is thicker than marginal one.

(ii) Concave or Diverging Lens

• Geometrically the central portion of a lens is thinner than marginal.
• It diverges parallel rays behaves as divergent or concave lens.
• Concave or convex lens : Geometrical concept
• Converging or diverging lens : Optical concept

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 39

 Figure shows 4 convex and 4 concave lenses.

• Optical Centre : O is a point for a given lens through which any ray passes undeviated
di
to recti OA di OA
o o to recti
ce ptic n o o
ntr al ce ptica n
e O ntr l O PA
PA e
C2 C1 C1 C2

Convex lens Concave lens

• Principal Axis : C1 C2 is a line passing through optical centre and perpendicular to the lens.
• Optical Axis : It is a line passing through optic centre and perpendicular to the principal
axis.
• Principal Focus : A lens has two surfaces and hence two focal points. First focal point is an
object point on the principal axis for which image is formed at infinity.

While second focal point is an image point on the principal axis for which object lies at
infinity. Second point is known as Principal focus.
Focal length of convex lens is (+ve)
Focal length of concave lens is (–ve)

• Focal Length f is defined as the distance between optical centre of a lens and the point
where the parallel beam of light converges or appears to converge.
• Aperture : In reference to a lens, aperture means the effective diameter (light gathering).
Intensity of image formed by a lens which depends on the light passing through the lens
will depend on the square of aperture, i.e.,
2
I ∝ (Aperture)

40 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Rules for Image Formation
• A ray passing through optical centre proceeds undeviated through the lens.
• A ray passing through first focus F1 or directed towards it, after refraction from the lens,
becomes parallel to the principal axis.
• A ray passing parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through or appears to pass
through second focus F2.

Image formation for convex lens

(Convergent lens)

Image formation for concave lens

Image is virtual, diminished, erect, towards the object, m = +ve

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 41

Lens Formula and Lens Maker’s formula
In case of image formation by a lens
Image formed by first surface acts as object for the second
surface.
So, from the formula of refraction at curved surface
µ2 µ1 µ2 − µ 1
− =
v u R
µL µM µL − µM
For first surface A, − = ..... (i)  µ2 =µL , µ 1 =µM 
v1 u R1
µM µL µM − µL µ − µM
For second surface B, − = − L
= ..... (ii)  µ2 =µM , µ 1 =µ 1 , µ 1 =µ2 ,u → v 1 
v v1 R2 R2
Adding (i) and (ii)
 1 1  1 
µM  −  = ( µL − µM )  R1 − 
 v u  1 R2 

1 1 µL − µM  1 1   1 1   µL 
⇒ − =  −  = (µ − 1)  −  ..... (iii)  µ = 
v u µM  R1 R2   R1 R2   µM 
Now if object is at infinity, Image will be formed at the focus, i.e, u = −∞, v = f ,
1  1 1 
So = (µ − 1)  −  ..... (iv)
f  R1 R2 
1 1 1
This is known as lens makers formula. By equating (iii) and (iv), − = this is known as lens
v u f
formula or Gaussian form of lens equation.

Magnification
It is the ratio of the size of image to the size of object.

(i) Transverse (Lateral or Linear) Magnification (m)

The object is placed perpendicular to principal axis. It is defined by,
Image Height hI v
m
= = =
Object Height hO u
v f f−v
m
= = =
u f +u f

(ii) Longitudinal (axial) Magnification (mL)

The object is placed along the principal axis.
It is defined by,
Image Length LI v2 − v 1
m
=L = =
Object Length LO u2 − u1
For very small object
2 2 2
dv  v   f  f −v
m
=L =  =   =  =
 m2
du  u   f + u   f 

42 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 (iii) Areal (area) Magnification (mA)
It is defined by ,
AI ma ⋅ mb
m
=A = = m2
A0 a ⋅b

Example 34:
Find the focal length of the lens shown in the figure.

Solution:
1  1 1 
 = (nrel – 1)  − 
f 
 R1 R2 
1  1 1 
⇒ = (3/2 – 1)  − 
f  10 ( −10) 
1 1 2
⇒ = × ⇒ f = + 10 cm.
f 2 10

Example 35:
Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure

Solution:
1  1 1  3   1 1 
= (nrel – 1) 

−  = − 1   −  ⇒ f = – 10 cm
f  R1 R2   2   −10 10 

Example 36:
Find the focal length of the lens shown in figure
(a) If the light is incident from left side.
(b) If the light is incident from right side.
Solution:
1  1 1  3  1 1 
(a) = (nrel – 1)  − = − 1  −  ⇒ f = 60 cm
   2
f  R1 R2     −60 −20 

1  1 1  3  1 1 
(b) = (nrel – 1)  −  = − 1   −  ⇒ f = 60 cm

f  R1 R2   2   20 60 

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 43

Example 37:
Focal length of convex lens is 10 cm, its refractive index is 3/2 find its focal length when it is
kept in a medium of refractive index 1.4
Solution:
1  µL − µM   1 1 
=    − 
fL  µM   R1 R2 
If a lens is placed into two different mediums then
( fL )1  µL − µM   µM  10 0.1  1 
=  1  ⇒ =  ⇒ f = 70 cm
2

( fL )2  µL − µM
 1
  µM
 2


f 0.5  1.4 

Example 38:
Find the position, nature and magnification of image if object is placed in front of converging
lens (f = 10 cm). The distance of object from the pole is
(a) 30 cm (b) 5 cm
Solution:
(a) u = –30 cm, f = +10 cm,
uf
by lens formula v = = 15 cm
f +u
v = positive, so image is real,
v 15 1
m= = = −
u −30 2
So, image is small and inverted (m = negative)
(b) u = –5 cm, f = +10 cm,
uf
by lens formula v = = –10 cm
f +u
v = negative, so image is virtual,
v −10
m == = 2
u −5
So, image is magnified and erect (m = positive)

Example 39:
In the following figure, find the position of final image formed.

Solution:
For converging lens u = –15cm, f = 10 cm
fu
∴ v= = 30 cm
f +u
For diverging lens u = 5 cm; f = –10 cm
fu
∴ v= = 10 cm
f +u

44 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Example 40:
What should be the value of ‘d’ so that its image is formed on the object itself ?
f = 10 cm f = 10 cm

15 cm d
Solution:
Using lens formula we can obtain position of the image formed by lens as
1 1 1
− =
v −15 10
∴ v = +30 cm
For a point object and the above arrangement it is necessary that the rays must retrace its path
for image to be formed at the object itself. There are two possible cases for retracing. Either
the rays fall normally on the convex mirror or fall at the pole of the mirror.
Case -I : Let the rays strike the mirror normally.
The rays will retrace the point object itself.

∴ d = 30 – 20 = 10 cm
Case -II : Let the rays strike the pole of the mirror.
The rays will retrace its path back to the object
as shown below and the image will be formed
on the point object itself.
∴ d = v = 30 cm

Displacement Method
(to determine the focal length of a convex lens)
• If the distance D between an object and screen is greater than 4 times the focal length of
a convex lens, then there are two positions of the lens between the object and screen at
which a sharp image of the object is formed on the screen.
• This method is called displacement method
• It is used in laboratory to determine the focal length of convex lens.
x
Object

O Ι2
Ι1

D > 4f Screen

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 45

 There are following results :
(i) If D < 4f , then no position of the lens is possible.
(ii) If D = 4f then only one position is possible.
(iii) If D > 4f , there are two positions of lens
for which real image is formed on the screen.
D2 − x2 x
(iv) Focal length of the lens,
= f =
4D m1 − m2
(v) Magnifications,
I1 I2
m1 = & m2 = & m1 ⋅ m2 =
1
O O
(vi) Size of object, O= I1 I2

Concept Builder-7

Q.1 If the radius of curvature of the convex surface of a plano-convex lens is 18 cm and the
refractive index of material of the lens is 1.6, the focal length of the lens is?
(1) 18 cm (2) 24 cm (3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm

Q.2 Double-convex lenses are to be manufactured from a glass of refractive index 1.55, with both
faces of the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of curvature required if the focal
length is to be 20 cm?
(1) ∞ (2) 5 cm (3) 20 cm (4) 22 cm

Q.3 What is the refractive index of material of a plano-convex lens, if the radius of curvature of the
convex surface is 10 cm and focal length of the lens is 30 cm?
(1) 1.33 (2) 1.5 (3) 1.1 (4) None

Q.4 A concave lens of glass, refractive index 1.5, has both surfaces of same radius of curvature R.
On immersion in a medium of refractive index 1.75, it will behave as a :-
(1) Convergent lens of focal length 3.5 R (2) Convergent lens of focal length 3.0 R
(3) Divergent lens of focal length 3.5 R (4) Divergent lens of focal length 3.0 R

Q.5 Find out position and nature of image.

f = 20cm

30cm

(1) 60 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted

(2) 60 cm in front of the lens, Real and inverted
(3) 40 cm behind the lens, virtual and erect
(4) None of these

46 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Q.6 An object is located at 10 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 12 cm. Find the position
and nature of image?
(1) 30 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted
(2) 60 cm in front of the lens, virtual and erect
(3) 40 cm behind the lens, virtual and erect
(4) 60 cm behind the lens, Real and Inverted

Q.7 A beam of light converge at a point P. Now a lens is placed in the path of the convergent beam
24 cm from P. If the lens is a convex lens of focal length 40 cm the beam converge at a point:-
(1) 8.5 cm (2) 15 cm (3) 30 cm (4) None of these

Q.8 An object is placed 15 cm in front of a lens, such that is real image forms 30 cm away from
lens. Find the focal length of the lens?
(1) 10 cm (2) 30 cm (3) 25 cm (4) 20 cm

Q.9 A lamp is placed 6.0 m from a wall. On putting a lens between the lamp and the wall, at a
distance of 1.2 m from the lamp, a real image of the lamp is formed on the wall. The
magnification of the image is:
(1) 3 (2) 4 (3) 5 (4) 6

Q.10 An object is placed in front of convex lens of focal length 10 cm if two times magnified image
is formed on screen then calculate the distance of object from lens.
(1) 15 cm (2) 20 cm (3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm

Q.11 An object is at a distance 60 m from convex lens of focal length 20 cm. The lens forms an image
of the object. If the object moves away from the lens at a speed 4 cm/s. the speed and direction
of the image will be.
(1) 1 cm/s toward the lens (2) 2 cm/s toward the lens
(3) 1 cm/s away from the lens (4) None of these

Q.12 A convex lens makes a real image 4 cm long on a screen. When the lens is shifted to a new
position without disturbing the object, we again get a real image on the screen which is 16 cm
tall. The length of the object must be
(1) 1/4 cm (2) 8 cm (3) 12 cm (4) 20 cm

Q.13 If a convex lens forms real image of an object, such that distance between object and image is
20 cm. Than what should be the maximum focal length of lens required.
(1) 10 cm (2) 20 cm (3) 5 cm (4) 15 cm

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 47

Q.14 What should be the distance between lens and mirror so that image formed on the object itself?
f = 20cm
R = 20cm

A
40cm

d
between
(1) 40 cm (2) 10 cm (3) 60 cm (4) both (1) and (3)

Q.15 Find out the value of d such that light rays retrace its path after reflection from mirror?
f = 20cm R = 6cm

d
(1) 26 cm (2) 14 cm (3) 32 cm (4) 34 cm

Optical Power
It is the ability of the instrument to deviate the path of rays passing through it.
For converging system power is positive (+ve)
For diverging system power is negative (-ve)
The shorter the focal length of a lens (or a mirror) the more it converges or diverges light.

f1
f2

As shown in the figure. f1 < f2

and hence the power P1 > P2,
as bending of light in case 1 is more than that of case 2.
1
For a lens, P (in dioptre) =
f (metre)
−1
and for a mirror, P (in dioptre) =
f (metre)
The power is expressed in diopters (D).
Thus,
convex lens and concave mirror have positive power or they are converging in nature.
Concave lens and convex mirror have negative power or they are diverging in nature.

48 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Behaviour of a transparent sphere
• A water drop or glass sphere in air, due to refraction, behaves as a convergent lens.
• While an air bubble in water or spherical cavity in glass behaves as a divergent lens.
• This is illustrated by self explanatory figure (A) and (B) respectively.

Cutting the Lens : A symmetric lens is cut in the following ways

• A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts.
• but the focal length is double the original for each part.

• A symmetrical lens is cut along principal axis in two equal parts.

• Intensity of image by each part will be half compared to that of complete lens,
• but the focal length remains same for each part.

• Combined focal length of parts of a lens.

⇒ ⇒

f F=f
F=f

⇒ ⇒

f F = f/2 F=∞

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 49

Silvering of Lens
Calculate the focal length of the equivalent mirror of the equiconvex lens silvered at one side.

P = PL + PM + PL = 2PL + PM

Example 41:
Let the plane surface of a plano-convex lens be silvered as shown. Find its equivalent power
and focal length.

Solution:
Let the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens be R and refractive index be µ.
Focal length of the lens is
1  1 1  µ− 1
= (µ – 1)  −  =
fL R ∞  R
Focal length of the plane mirror formed is ∞
Hence power of the combination is
µ− 1 µ− 1 µ− 1
P = P L + PM + PL = +O+ = 2
R R R
and equivalent focal length
−1 R
f= =–
P 2(µ − 1)

Lens of Different Materials

A lens have number of layers of different R.I.
(i) If the layers are parallel to principal axis then it will have as many focal lengths and will
form as many images as there are number of layers .
(ii) If the layers are parallel to optical axis then it will have only one focal length and will form
only one image.

(iii) If some portion of a lens is covered with black paper full image will be formed by brightness
will be reduced.

50 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Example 42:
Image of a donkey is obtained using a convex lens with black stripes painted on it at regular
intervals will the image of donkey be like a zebra? Explain.
Solution:
As every part of a lens forms complete image if any portion is obstructed, full image will be
formed but brightness (intensity) will be reduced. Therefore, if a lens is painted with black
stripes at regular intervals and a donkey is seen through it, the donkey will not appear as a
zebra but will remain a donkey with reduced intensity.

Concept Builder-8

Q.1 Two thin converging lenses of focal lengths 20 cm and 40 cm are placed in contact. Find the
effective power of the combination.

Q.2 An object placed 20 cm in front of a convex lens has its image 40 cm behind the lens. Find the
power of the lens.

Q.3 A biconvex lens (𝛍𝛍=𝟏𝟏.𝟓𝟓) of focal length 0.2 m acts as a divergent lens of power 1D when
immersed in a liquid. Find the refractive index of the liquid?
(1) 1.6 (2) 1.46 (3) 1.33 (4) 1.5

Q.4 The radius of curvature of convex surface of a thin plano-convex lens is 15 cm and refractive
index of its material is 1.6. The power of the lens will be: -
(1) +1 D (2) –2 D (3) +3 D (4) +4 D

Q.5 An equiconvex lens having radius of curvature 20 cm. If one of its surface is silvered then find
out the equivalent focal length?

µ = 1.5

R = 20cm

(1) –5 cm (2) 6 cm (3) 5 cm (4) –6 cm

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 51

Defects in Images
• Actual image formed by an optical system is usually imperfect.
• This defect of images is called aberrations.
• The defect may be due to light or optical system.
(i) If the defect is due to light it is called chromatic aberration, and
(ii) If due to optical system monochromatic aberration.

(a) Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration

The image of an object formed by a lens is usually coloured and blurred. This defect of
image is called chromatic aberration. This defect arises due to the fact the focal length of
a lens is different for different colours. For a lens.
1  1 1 
= (µ –1)  − 
f  R1 R2 

As µ is maximum for violet while minimum for red, violet is focused nearest to the lens
while red farthest from it.
The difference between fR and fv is a measured of longitudinal chromatic aberration (LCA).
thus,
LCA = fR – fv = – df = f.ω
dµ
where ω = = dispersive power
µ−1
For a single lens neither f nor ω can be zero. Thus, we cannot have a single lens free from
chromatic aberration.

(b) Achromatism : If two or more lens combined together in such a way that this combination
produce image at a same point then this combination is known as achromatic combination
of lenses.
ω ω' ω ω ω1 f1
+ =0 ⇒ 1 + 2 =0 ⇒ = −
fy f'y f1 f2 ω2 f2

1 1 1
For combination of lens. = + (Apply sign convention in numerical)
F f1 f2

52 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 (c) Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration arises due to spherical nature of lens (or mirror).
The paraxial rays (close to principal axis) get focused at IP and marginal rays (away from the

principal axis) are focused at IM. Thus, image of a point object O is not a point.

The inability of the lens to form a point image of an axial point object is called spherical
aberration.

Concept Builder-9

Q.1 An achromatic doublet of focal length 90 cm is to be made of two lenses. The material of one
of the lenses has 1.5 times the dispersive power of the other. The doublet is converging type.
find the focal length of each lens.
(1) 30 cm, –45 cm (2) –30 cm, 40 cm
(3) 20 cm, 35 cm (4) 20 cm, –40 cm

Q.2 The dispersive power of material of a lens of focal length 20 cm is 0.08. Find the longitudinal
chromatic aberration of the lens?
(1) 1.2 cm (2) 1.4 cm
(3) 1.3 cm (4) 1.6 cm

Q.3 The power of an achromatic convergent lens of two lenses is +2D. The power of convex lens is
+5D. The ratio of dispersive power of convex and concave lens will be: -
(1) 5 : 3 (2) 3 : 5 (3) 2 : 5 (4) 5 : 2

Q.4 When light rays from the sun fall on a convex lens along a direction parallel to its axis: -
(1) Focal length for all colours is the same
(2) Focal length for violet colour is the shortest
(3) Focal length for yellow colour is the longest
(4) Focal length for red colour is the shortest

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 53

Optical Instrument
1. Human Eye
• Light enters the eye through a curved front surface, the cornea, passes through the pupil
which is the central hole in the iris. The size of the pupil can be changed through muscle
control.
• The light is further focused by the eye lens on the retina. The retina is a film of nerve fibers
covering the curved back surface of the eye.
• The shape (curvature) and therefore the focal length of the lens can be modified somewhat
by the ciliary muscles. This property of the eye is called accommodation.
• If the object is too close to the eye, the lens cannot curve enough to focus the image on to
the retina, and the image is blurred.
• The closest distance for which the lens can focus light on the retina is called the least
distance of distinct vision 'D' (25 cm for normal eye).

Some important points

• Eye-lens forms real, inverted and diminished image at the retina by changing its convexity
(the distance between eye lens and retina is fixed)
• The human eye is most sensitive to yellow green light having wavelength 5550 Å and least
to violet (4000 Å) and red (7000 Å)
• The size of an object as perceived by eye depends on its visual-angle. When object is distant
its visual angle is θ and hence image Ι1 at retina is small and it will appear small and as it is
brought near to the eye its visual angle is θ0 and hence size of image Ι2 will increase.

θ θ θ0 θ0
O x I1 O D I2

• The far and near point for normal eye are usually taken to be infinity and 25 cm respectively
i.e., normal eye can see very distant object clearly but near objects only if they are a distance
greater than 25 cm from the eye. The ability of eye to see objects for infinite distance to 25
cm from it is called Power of accommodation.
• If object is at infinity, the eye is least strained and said to be relaxed.

However, if the object is at least distance of distinct vision, eye is under maximum strain
and visual angle is maximum.

• The limit of resolution of eye is minute = (1/60)°

ie., two objects will not be visible distinctly to the eye if the angle subtended by them on
the eye is lesser than one minute.

54 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

2. Microscope
It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects.
It is of two types:
(1) Simple Microscope
A magnifying glass is a simple microscope.
Principle
A simple microscope is based upon the fact that if an object is
placed between the optical centre and the focus of convex lens,
it produces a virtual, erect and magnified image of the object on
the same side of the lens.

Magnifying power (or angular magnification)

Magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye when both are placed at the
least distance of distinct vision independently.
β
Magnifying power : M =
α
When final image is formed at D
The magnifying power becomes
 D
MD=  1 + 
 f
When final image is formed at infinity
The microscope is said to be in normal adjustment
D
M∞ =
f

Example 43:
A man with normal near point 25 cm reads a book with small print using a magnifying glass, a
thin convex lens of focal length 5 cm. (a) What is the closest and farthest distance at which he
can read the book when viewing through the magnifying glass? (b) What is the maximum and
minimum MP possible using the above simple microscope?
Solution:
(a) As for normal eye far and near point are ∞ and 25 cm respectively, so for magnifier
vmax = –∞ and vmin = –25 cm.
1 1 1 f
However, for a lens as – = i.e., u =
v u f (ƒ / v) − 1
So, u will be minimum when, v min = –25 cm
5 25
i.e., (u)min = – = – 4.17 cm
− ( 5 / 25 ) − 1 6
u will be maximum when v = maximum = ∞
5
i.e. umax = = – 5 cm
5 
 − 1 
∞ 
So the closest and farthest distance of the book from the magnifier (or eye) for clear viewing
are 4.17 cm and 5 cm respectively.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 55

 (b) As in case of simple magnifier MP = (D/u). So, MP will be minimum when
u = maximum = 5 cm
 D −25
i.e., (MP)min = 5  =  =
 f  −5
And MP will be maximum when u = minimum = (25/6) cm
 D −25
i.e., (MP)max = 6 = 1 +  =
 f  (
− 25 / 6 )
(2) Compound Microscope
A compound microscope is used to see the minute particles or small objects which are not
even seen by the simple microscope.
Principle
• Compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective (O) and the eye piece (E).
• Objective lens is of small aperture and small focal length and faces the object to be seen.
• Eye piece is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal length as compared to objective.
• Both the lenses are placed co-axially at a certain distance apart with a common principal axis.
• The distance between the objective and eyepiece can be adjusted with the help of rack and
pinion arrangement.

Theory

• The object is placed beyond first focus of objective, so that an inverted and real image
(intermediate image) is formed by the objective.
• This intermediate image acts as an object for the eye piece and lies between first focus and
pole of eye piece. The final magnified virtual image is formed by the eye-piece.
Magnifying Power (or Angular Magnification)
The magnifying power of a compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended
by the final image at the eye (β) to the angle subtended by the object at the eye (α) when both
are at a distance of least distance of distinct vision. Thus,
β
• Magnification : M
= = m0 × mE
α
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L = vO + uE
where mO is magnification produced by objective lens and mE is magnification produced by
the eyepiece
vO D
m0 = & mE =
uO uE

56 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 • When the final image is formed at infinity
vO  D 
Magnifying power : M∞ =  
uO  fE 
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L=
∞ vO + fE
• When the final image is formed at D
vO  D
MD
Magnifying power :=  1 + 
uO  fE 

DfE
Distance between objective and eye-piece : L=
D vO +
D + fE
• In case of compound microscope, tube length is defined as distance between f0 and fE, final
image is formed at ∞ then
DL0
M= −
fOfE
Where, L0 → Tube length.

Example 44:
A compound microscope consists of an objective lens of focal length 2.0 cm and an eye piece
of focal length 6.25 cm, separated by a distance of 15 cm. How far from the objective should
an object be placed in order to obtain the final image at
(a) the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm)
(b) infinity ?
Solution:
Here, f0 = 2.0 cm; fe = 6.25 cm, u0 = ?
1 1 1
(a) ve = – 25 cm  − =
v e ue fe
1 1 1 1 1 −1 − 4 −5
∴ = − = − = =
ue ve fe −25 6.25 25 25
⇒ ue = – 5 cm
As distance between objective and eye piece
= 15 cm.
v0 = 15 – 5 = 10 cm
1 1 1
 − =
v0 u0 f0
1 1 1 1 1 1−5
∴ = − = − =
u0 v 0 f0 10 2 10
−10
⇒ u0 = = – 2.5 cm
4
Magnifying power
v0  D 10  25 
=  1 + = 1 + = 20
| u0 |  fe  2.5  6.25 

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 57

 (b)  ve = ∞, ue = fe = 6.25 cm
∴ v0 = 15 – 6.25 = 8.75 cm.
1 1 1
 − =
v0 u0 f0
1 1 1 1 1 2 − 8.75
∴ = − = − =
u0 v 0 f0 8.75 20 17.5
−17.5
⇒ u0 = = – 2.59 cm
6.75
v0  D v0 D 8.75 25
Magnifying power = × 1 +  = × = × 13.51
=
| u0 |  fe  u0 ue 2.59 6.25

Telescope
To look at distant objects, we use telescopes.

(1) Astronomical Telescope

It is used to see the heavenly bodies.
Construction
It consists of two convex lenses mounted coaxially in two metallic tubes.
The lens facing the object is called objective lens O. It has large aperture and large focal length f0.
The other lens through which the image is observed is called eyepiece E. It is of small aperture
and has small focal length fE.
The tube having eyepiece can be moved in and out of the tube holding objective lens with the
help of rack and pinion arrangement.

Ray Diagram
(a) When the final image is at D

(b) When the final image is at ∞

58 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Theory
• The intermediate image formed by objective is real, inverted and small.
• The final image formed by eye-piece inverted and small.
Magnifying power (angular magnification)
Magnifying power of an astronomical telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended
by the final image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object at the eye.
If α and β be the angle subtended by the object and image at the eye respectively, then
β fO
M
= =
α uE
• When the final image is at infinity
f 
Magnifying power : M∞ =  O 
f
 E 
Length of the telescope : L∞= fO + fE
• When the final image is at D
f  f 
: MD  O
Magnifying power=   1 + E 
f D
 E 
DfE
Length of the telescope : LD= fO +
D + fE

(2) Galilean Telescope

• It is used as a terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field of view.
• In such telescope, a convex lens is used as the objective and a concave lens as an eye piece.
• The objective lens forms a real and inverted image but the divergent lens comes in between.
• This intermediate image acts as virtual object for eye-piece.
• The intermediate image is formed at second focus of objective.
• Final image is erect and magnified as shown in figure.
• This telescope suffers from loss of brightness.
f0
E
O
fe

• It has same expressions for magnifying power as in the case of astronomical telescope.
f  f  f 
M∞ =  O  &
= MD  O   1 + E 
f f D
 E   E 
• But length of telescope is
DfE
L∞= fO − fE & LD= fO −
D − fE

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 59

 (3) Reflecting Type Telescope
To overcome the spherical and chromatic aberration and light gathering capacity, the objective
lens of the telescope is replaced by paraboloidal mirror of large aperture. Such a telescope is
known as reflecting type telescope.
Cassegrain Telescope
It consists of a concave mirror O of large aperture with a circular hole is its centre and a small
convex mirror A placed in front of the objective O of the telescope.
Final image is observed through an eye piece placed in front of the hole of objective.

Advantages of reflecting type telescope

• Reflecting type telescopes are free from chromatic and spherical aberrations. Hence sharp
image of the object is formed.
• Since the mirrors used in reflecting type telescopes reflect the whole light falling on them,
so the image formed by these telescope is quite bright.
• The paraboloidal mirrors of large aperture can be easily manufactured.
Disadvantages of reflecting type telescope
• These type of telescopes need frequent adjustments and hence inconvenient to use.
• They cannot be used for general purpose.

Example 45:
Focal length of objective is 50 cm and that of eye piece is 2 cm. in astronomical telescope. Find
MP and its length
(i) When final image is at ∞
(ii) When final image is at D
Solution:
fO 50
(i) M.P. = – = − = –25X
fe 2
L = fO + fe = 52 cm

fO  fe 
(ii) M.P. =  1 +  = 27X
fe  D

fe D
L = fO + = 51.8 cm
fe + D

60 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Example 46:
The magnifying power of the telescope is found to be 9 and the separation between the lenses
is 20 cm for relaxed eye. What are the focal lengths of component lenses ?
Solution:
F
Magnification M =
f
Separation between lenses
d=F+f
F
Given = 9 i.e., F = 9f ......(1)
f
and F + f = 20 ......(2)
Putting value of F from (1) in (2), we get
9f + f = 20 ⇒ 10 f = 20
20
⇒ = 2cm
10
∴ F = 9f = 9 × 2 = 18 cm ∴ F = 18 cm, f = 2 cm

Example 47:
A telescope consists of two convex lens of focal length 16 cm and 2 cm. What is angular
magnification of telescope for relaxed eye? What is the separation between the lenses ?
If object subtends an angle of 0.5° on the eye, what will be angle subtended by its image ?
Solution:
Angular magnification
β F 16
M= = = = 8 cm
α f 2
Separation between lenses
= F + f = 16 + 2 = 18 cm
Here α = 0.5°
∴ Angular magnification subtended by image
β = M α = 8 × 0.5° = 4°

Concept Builder-10

Q.1 Magnification of a compound microscope is 30. Focal length of eye piece is 5 cm and the image
is formed at least distance of distinct vision. Find the magnification of objective.

Q.2 The powers of the lenses of a telescope are 0.5 and 20 diopters. If the final image is formed at
the minimum distance of distinct vision (25 cm) then what will be length of the tube ?

Q.3 A telescope consisting of an objective of focal length 60 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 5
cm is focused to a distant object in such a way that parallel rays emerge from the eye piece. If
the object subtends an angle of 2° at the objective, then find the angular width of the image.

Q.4 The focal lengths of the objective and the eye piece of an astronomical telescope are 60 cm
and 5 cm respectively. Calculate the magnifying power and the length of the telescope when
the final image is formed at (i) infinity, (ii) least distance of distinct vision (25 cm).

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 61

Experimental
1. The focal length of mirror and lens using parallax method;
When an object is placed at a distance u in front of a convex lens/concave mirror, it forms an
image at a distance v from the lens/mirror. The two values u and v are related to each other.
1 1 1
For a lens, the relationship is − =.
v u f
1 1 1
For a mirror, the relationship is + =.
v u f
Arrangement: The lens/mirror is fixed on an optical bench with a scale marked on it to measure
the distance of object and image. The lens or mirror is fixed. There are two other stands in
which two pin shaped objects are fixed. One of these is the object pin. This acts as an object.
The other one is called image pin. It is used to locate the image position. When there is no
parallax between the image pin and image seen in the lens/mirror, the image pin represents the
position of the image.

Procedure : Following steps are to be followed.

1. Fix the lens on the lens stand.
2. Place object pin in front of the lens. Measure the distance between the two. The value of u
will be negative of the above distance.
3. Place the image pin on the other side of the lens at such a distance from the lens, so that
there is no parallax between image pin and image seen in the lens. The value of v will be
the distance between the lens and image pin.
1 1 1
4. Compute the focal length of the lens using lens formula − =.
v u f
1 1
5. Plot a graph between u and v and and .
u v
For a convex lens, the shape of graphs obtained are shown.

62 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 For a concave mirror, the shape of graphs obtained are shown.

6. In the u-v curve, we draw a line at 45°C as shown in figure.

This line intersect the curve at point P. PB and PA are parallel to axes. Here OA = OB = 2f. So,
OA
focal length f =
2
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
An object AB is placed at point P' in front of a thin convex lens such that its real, inverted and
magnified image A'B' is formed at position C on the other side of the lens (Fig. (b)). Now a
convex mirror is introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that the real
and inverted image A'B' coincides with the object AB at point P' (Fig. (a)). This is possible if the
light rays starting from the tip of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the
reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. The distance PC is the radius of
curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex mirror. That is,
PC R
f
= =
2 2

Figure: Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A'B' coincides with the object AB at P'
(b) convex lens- image is inverted and magnified

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 63

 Procedure:
1. Estimate the approximate value of focal length of convex lens if it is unknown.
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the spirit level, make it
horizontal with the help of leveling screws provided at the base of the bench.
3. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens LL', and convex mirror MM'
on the horizontal optical bench.
4. Verify that the lens, mirror, and pin P1 are vertically placed on the optical bench. Also verify
that the tip of the pin, optical centre O of the convex lens LL', and pole P' of the convex
mirror MM' lie on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench.
5. Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL' at a distance 'slightly greater than the focal
length of the lens.
6. Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM' till a real and inverted image coincides with
the object pin P1. This takes place when the rays starting from the tip of pin P1, after passing
through the lens strike the mirror normally and are reflected back along their original paths.
Remove the parallax between the image and object pins.
7. Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P1, convex lens LL', and convex mirror
MM' and record the observations in the observation table.
8. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin P2 on it. Adjust the height of
pin such that the tip of it also lies on the principal axis of the lens. That is, the tips of the
pins P1 and P2 and the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a straight horizontal line
parallel to the length of the optical bench.
9. Using the method of parallax and without changing the position of lens LL' and object pin
P1, adjust the position of image pin P2 on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with
the real and inverted image of the object pin P1 formed by the convex lens. Note the position
of the image pin.
10. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the pin P1 and lens LL' and the
mirror MM'. In this manner, take five sets of observations.

2. The plot of the angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism.
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
Refraction occurs when a light ray travels from one medium to another resulting in deviation of
the emergent ray from that of the incident ray. Following is the refractive index of the material
used in the prism:
 A + δm 
sin  
 2 
µ=
A
sin  
2

64 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation and A is the prism angle.

Procedure :
1. Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of drawing pins.
2. XX′ is the straight line drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in the middle
of the paper.
3. Mark points Q1 ,Q2 ,Q3 … On the straight line XX' at a distance of 5 cm each.
4. N1Q1 ,N2Q2 ,… are the normal that are drawn on the points Q1 ,Q2 ,… as shown in the ray
diagram.
5. Make angles of 35° , 40° , … 60° by drawing straight line R1Q1 ,R2Q2 ,… . with respect to the
normal.
6. To take one edge of the prism for all the observations, mark any corner of the prism as A.
7. Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XX′ and on the point Q1 and also in
the middle of AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. On the line, R1Q1 , fix office pins vertically and mark them as P1 and P2 the distance between
these pins shouid not be less than 10 cm
10. Through the prism face, AC, look for the images of the points P1 and P2
11. Close your left eye and with the right eye open, bring it in line with the two images.
12. Fix the other two office pins vertically and name them as P3 and P4 . These pins should be
10 cm apart from each other. P3 and P4 should be in one straight with respect to the images
of P1 and P2 .
13. Encircle the pricks of pins P3 and P4 .

14. For points, Q2 ,Q3 ,… for angle 40° , 45° ,60° , repeat the steps 7 to 13.
To measure D in a different case
1. To get emergent rays S1T1 , S2 T2 … draw straight lines through P3 and P4 .
2. Inward the boundary of the prism to produce T1S1 , T2S2 … so that they meet incident rays
R1Q1 ,R2Q2 ,… at points F1 ,F2 ,…

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 65

 3. To obtain the angle of deviation δ 1 , δ2 , …
measure the angles K 1F1S1 ,KFS,…

The graph above indicates as the angle of

incidence increases; the angle of deviation first
decreases to attain the minimum value of δm

and then again increase with the angle of

incidence.
Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, δm

 A + δm 
sin  
 2 
µ=
A
sin  
2

3. Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
The principle behind glass slab
When a glass slab is placed in air on a horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from
the top, it appears to be elevated due to refraction. The apparent thickness of the slab is
determined by the distance between the apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The
refractive index of glass with respect to the medium, air is given as:
real thickness of the slab
nga =
apparent thickness of the slab
Diagram

Real and apparent thickness

66 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Procedure
Adjustment of a travelling microscope
1. To get sufficient light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
5. Mark point P on the microscope's base using black ink.
6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical
and focus on P.
7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
8. Place the glass slab with the least thickness over the mark P.
9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P1.
10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7 .
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the slab's surface.
12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
13. For reading, R3 on the vertical scale repeat step 7 .
14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.

Result :
R − R1
The ratio=
: 3 constant
= nga (Refractive index of glass slab with respect to air)
R3 − R2

Concept Builder-11

Q.1 An object is placed in front of a convex mirror at a distance 60 cm. A plane mirror is introduce
covering the lower half of the convex mirror. If the distance between the object and plane
mirror is 40 cm. it is found that there is no parallax between the images formed by the two
mirrors. The radius of curvature of convex mirror is
(1) 25 cm (2) 60 cm (3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm

Q.2 In the arrangement of convex lens and convex mirror, shown below. If there is no parallax
between object and image, then the value of focal length of convex mirror is
f = 20cm

30 cm

20 cm
(1) 40 cm (2) 30 cm (3) 20 cm (4) 25 cm

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 67

Q.3 If the angle of prism is 60° and angle of minimum deviation is 30° then the value of angle of
incidence and emergence will be respectively
(1) 45°, 50° (2) 30°, 45° (3) 45°, 45° (4) 30°, 30°

Q.4 For an experiment to calculate minimum deviation angle for a triangular glass prism following
setup was made and rays were traced as shown in the diagram below

Choose the correct observation

(1) QR is horizontal (2) ∠r1 =∠r2 =60°
(3) ∠i =∠e = 60° (4) All of these

Q.5 A small pin fixed on a table top is viewed from above from a distance of 50cm. The distance
the pin appear to be raised if it is viewed from the same point through a 15 cm thick glass
slab held parallel to the table is [Refractive index of glass = 1.5]
(1) 5 cm (2) 10 cm (3) 2.5 cm (4) 7.5 cm

68 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-5

1. 60° 2. (7, –3) 2
1. 30° 2. µ=
3. (A) 8 (B) 5 (C) 11 3
4. (4) 5. (3) 3. 3 4. 90°
6. (1) 7. (4)
5. 2 6. 70°
8. 60° 9. (4)
7. 0.090°
10. (3)
8. (a) 6.59°, 6.41° (b) 0.18° (c) 0.0276
9. 0.2 10. (I = 450)
CONCEPT BUILDER-2
1. (A) P; (B) R, S; (C) S; (D) Q, S
CONCEPT BUILDER-6
2. u = –0.1 m
1. 3.63 cm 2. –3 cm
f 2
3. ,m = so image will be virtual, erect and 3. (2) 4. (1)
3 3
smaller than the object
CONCEPT BUILDER-7
4. 19.35 cm behind the mirror.
1. (3) 2. (4)
5. u = –12 cm
3. (1) 4. (3)
6. –40 cm
5. (1) 6. (2)
7. –54 cm, h1 = 5 cm, m = 2 real, inverted,
7. (2) 8. (2)
magnified
9. (2) 10. (1)
8. (3) 9. (1)
11. (1) 12. (2)
10. (2)
13. (3) 14. (4)
15. (2)
CONCEPT BUILDER-3
µ
1. r = 2cos−1   CONCEPT BUILDER-8
2 1. 7.5 D 2. 7.5 D
2. Frequency is a characteristic of source, so 3. (1) 4. (4)
it will not change with change in medium. 5. (1)
3. 9/8
–8
4. (i) tair = 2 × 10 sec CONCEPT BUILDER-9
(ii) tg = 3 × 10
–8
sec 1. (1) 2. (4)
5. n1sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 = n3 sinθ3 3. (2) 4. (2)

6. x = 12 cm 7. h = 3.5 cm
CONCEPT BUILDER-10
8. 30 cm 9. (4)
1. 5
10. (1)
2. 204.17 cm 3. 24°

CONCEPT BUILDER-4 4. (i) 12, 65 cm (ii) 14.4, 64.17 cm

 10t 1 
1. sin−1  2. 45°
 t  CONCEPT BUILDER-11
 2 
1. (2) 2. (3)
3. i < 45° 4. (3)
3. (3) 4. (1)
5. (4) 6. (1)
7. (3) 8. (1) 5. (1)

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 69

 Exercise - I
Reflection of Light at Plane Surface 5. A ray of light incident on a plane mirror
at an angle of incidence of 30°. The
1. When a plane mirror is placed horizontally deviation produced by the mirror is:
on a level ground at a distance of 60m (1) 30° (2) 60°
from the foot of a tower, the top of the (3) 90° (4) 120°
tower and its image in the mirror
subtend an angle of 90° at the mirror. 6. The image of a real object formed by a
The height of the tower will be: plane mirror is:
(1) 30 m (2) 60 m (1) Erect, real and of equal size
(3) 90 m (4) 120 m (2) Erect, virtual and of equal size
(3) Inverted, real and of equal size
2. A clock hung on a wall has marks (4) Inverted, virtual and of equal size
instead of numbers on its dial. On the
opposite wall there is a mirror, and the 7. Figure shows the plane (top view) of a
image of the clock in the mirror if read, cubical room, with the wall CD as a
indicates the time as 8 : 20. What is the plane mirror; each side of the room is
time in the clock: 3 metres in length. A camera P is
placed at the mid point of the wall AB.
(1) 3 : 40 (2) 4 : 40
At what distance should the camera be
(3) 5 : 20 (4) 4 : 20
focused to photograph the image of an
object placed at A:
3. Figure shows two plane mirrors parallel
to each other and an object O placed
between them. Then the distance of the
first three images from the mirror M2 will
be: (in cm)

(1) 3.14 m (2) 6.18 m

(3) 9.42 m (4) 9.18 m

8. Choose the correct mirror-image of

figure given below:

(1) 5, 10, 15 (2) 5, 15, 30

(3) 5, 25, 35 (4) 5, 15, 25

4. A man 180 cm high stands in front of a

plane mirror. His eyes are at a height of (1) (2)
170 cm from the floor. Then the
minimum length of plane mirror for him
to see his full length image is:
(3) (4)
(1) 90 cm (2) 180 cm
(3) 45 cm (4) 360 cm

70 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

9. Two vertical plane mirrors are inclined 14. An object of height 1.5 cm is situated at
at an angle of 60° with each other. A ray a distance of 15 cm from a concave
of light travelling horizontally is mirror. The concave mirror forms its real
reflected first from one mirror and then image of height 3.0 cm. The focal length
of concave mirror will be:
from the other. The resultant deviation is:
(1) – 10 cm (2) – 20 cm
(1) 60° (2) 100°
(3) 20 cm (4) 30 cm
(3) 180° (4) 240°

15. The focal length of a concave mirror is

10. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each 50 cm. where an object be placed so
other at 90°. A ray of light is incident on that its image is two times magnified,
one mirror and the reflected light goes real and inverted:
to the other mirror. The ray will undergo (1) 75 cm (2) 72 cm
a total deviation of: (3) 63 cm (4) 50 cm
(1) 180°
(2) 90° 16. A convex mirror has a focal length f.
A real object is placed at a distance f in
(3) 45°
front of it from the pole, then it
(4) cannot be found because angle of
produces an image at:
incidence is not given.
(1) Infinity (2) f
(3) f/2 (4) 2f
11. If an object is placed symmetrically
between two plane mirrors, inclined at 17. In case of concave mirror, the minimum
an angle of 72°, then the total number distance between a real object and its
of images formed is: real image is:
(1) 5 (2) 4 (1) f (2) 2f
(3) 2 (4) Infinite (3) 4f (4) Zero

18. A convex mirror of focal length f forms

Reflection at Spherical Surface
an image which is 1/n times the object.
The distance of the object from the
12. Which of the following could not
mirror is:
produce a virtual image: n − 1
(1) Plane mirror (1) (n – 1)f (2)  f
 n 
(2) Convex mirror
n + 1
(3) Concave mirror (3)  f (4) (n + 1)f
 n 
(4) All the above can produce a virtual
image 19. A point object is moving on the principal
axis of a concave mirror of focal length
13. An object of height 7.5 cm is placed in
24 cm towards the mirror. When it is at
front of a convex mirror of radius of
a distance of 60 cm from the mirror, its
curvature 25 cm at a distance of 40 cm.
velocity is 9 cm/sec. What is the velocity
The height of the image should be: of the image at that instant:
(1) 2.3 cm (2) 1.78 cm (1) 5 cm/sec. (2) 12 cm/sec
(3) 1 cm (4) 0.8 cm (3) 4 cm/sec (4) 9 cm/sec

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 71

20. A square ABCD of side 1 mm is kept at Refraction at Plane Surface, Snell’s Law
distance 15 cm infront of the concave and TIR
mirror as shown in the figure. The focal
25. A ray of light is incident upon an
length of the mirror is 10 cm. The length air/water interface (it passes from air
of the perimeter of its image will into water) at an angle of 45°. Which of
be(nearly): the following quantities change as the
light enters the water:
(I) wavelength
(II) frequency
(III) speed of propagation
(IV) direction of propagation
(1) 12 mm (2) 2 mm
(1) I, III only (2) III, IV only
(3) 4 mm (4) 6 mm
(3) I, II, IV only (4) I, III, IV only

21. A boy stands straight in front of a mirror 26. The colour are characterised by which of
at a distance of 30 cm away from it. following character of light:
He sees his erect image whose height is (1) Frequency (2) Amplitude
1/5
th
of his real height. The mirror he is (3) Wavelength (4) Velocity
using is:
(1) Plane mirror (2) Convex mirror 27. Time taken to cross a 4 mm window
glass of refractive index 1.5 will be:
(3) Concave mirror (4) None -8 8
(1) 2 × 10 sec (2) 2 × 10 sec
-11 11
(3) 2 × 10 sec (4) 2 × 10 sec
22. The image formed by convex mirror of
focal length 30 cm is a quarter of the
28. The wavelength of light in vacuum is
size of the object. Then the distance of 6000 Å and in a medium it is 4000 Å. The
the object from the mirror, is: refractive index of the medium is:
(1) 30 cm (2) 90 cm (1) 2.4 (2) 1.5
(3) 120 cm (4) 60 cm (3) 1.2 (4) 0.67

23. The focal length of a concave mirror is 29. The wavelength of light diminishes µ
20 cm. Determine where an object must times (µ = 1.33 for water) in a medium. A
driver from inside water looks at an
be placed to form an image magnified
object whose natural colour is green. He
two times when the image is real:
sees the object as:
(1) 30 cm from the mirror
(1) Green (2) Blue
(2) 10 cm from the mirror (3) Yellow (4) Red
(3) 20 cm from the mirror
(4) 15 cm from the mirror 30. The frequency of a light wave in a material
14
is 2 × 10 Hz and wavelength is 5000 Å.
24. The field of view is maximum for: The refractive index of material will be:
(1) Plane mirror (2) Concave mirror (1) 1.40 (2) 1.50
(3) Convex mirror (4) Cylindrical mirror (3) 3.00 (4) 1.33

72 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

31. A ray of light travelling in a medium of 34. A bubble in glass slab [µ = 1.5] when
refractive index µ is incident at an angle viewed from one side appears at 5 cm
θ on a composite transparent plate
and 2 cm from other side then thickness
consisting of 50 plates of R.I. 1.01 µ, 1.02
of slab is:
µ, 1.03 µ, ........ , 1.50 µ. The ray emerges
from the composite plate into a medium (1) 3.75 cm
of refractive index 1.6 µ at angle 'x'. Then: (2) 23 cm
50
 1.01  (3) 10.5 cm
(1) sin x 
=  sin θ
 1.5  (4) 1.5 cm
5
(2) sin
= x sin θ
8 35. Given that velocity of light in quartz
8 8
= 1.5 × 10 m/s and velocity of light in
(3) sin x = sin θ
5 8
50
glycerine = (9/4) × 10 m/s. Now a slab
 1.5 
(4) sin x =   sin θ made of quartz is placed in glycerine as
 1.01 
shown. The shift of the object produced
32. A microscope is focused on a mark on a by slab is:
piece of paper and then a slab of glass
of thickness 3 cm and refractive index
1.5 is placed over the mark. How should
the microscope be moved to get the
mark in focus again:
(1) 1 cm upward
(2) 4.5 cm downward
(3) 1 cm downward
(4) 2 cm upward (1) 6 cm
(2) 3.55 cm
33. A beam of light is converging towards a
(3) 9 cm
point. A plane parallel plate of glass of
, (4) 2 cm
thickness t refractive index µ is
introduced in the path of the beam. The
convergent point is shifted by (assume 36. An object is placed at 24 cm distance
near normal incidence): above the surface of a lake. If water has
refractive index of 4/3, then at what
distance from lake surface, a fish will
see the object:
(1) 32 cm above the surface of water
 1  1 (2) 18 cm over the surface of water
(1) t  1 −  away (2) t  1 +  away
 µ  µ
(3) 6 cm over the surface of water
 1  1
(3) t  1 −  nearer (4) t  1 +  nearer (4) 6 cm below the surface of water
 µ  µ

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 73

37. A diverging beam of light from a point 40. With respect to air critical angle in a
source S having divergence angle α, falls medium for light of red colour [λ1] is θ.
symmetrically on a glass slab as shown. Other facts remaining same, critical
The angles of incidence of the two angle for light of yellow colour [λ2] will
S be:
α (1) θ (2) More than θ

i i θλ 1
(3) Less than θ (4)
λ2
µ t

extreme rays are equal. If the thickness 41. 'Mirage' is a phenomenon due to:

of the glass slab is t and the refraclive (1) Reflection of light

index µ, then the divergence angle of the (2) Refraction of light

emergent beam is (3) Total internal reflection of light

(1) zero (2) α (4) Diffraction of light

(3) sin−1 (t / µ) (4) 2 sin−1 (t / µ)

42. White light is incident on the interface
of glass and air as shown in the figure. If
Total Internal Reflection
green light is just totally internally
38. A point source of light is place 4 m reflected then the emerging ray in air
below the surface of water of refractive contains:-
index 5/3. The minimum diameter of a
disc which should be placed over the
source on the surface of water to cut-
off all light coming out of water is (µ = 5/3):
(1) 2 m (2) 6 m
(3) 4 m (4) 3 m (1) Yellow, orange, red
(2) Violet, indigo, blue
39. A light wave travels from glass to water. (3) All colours
The refractive index for glass and water (4) All colours except green
3 4
are and respectively. The value of
2 3 43. A ray of light travelling in a transparent
the critical angle will be: medium of refractive index µ, falls on a
 1 surface separating the medium from air
(1) sin−1  
2 at an angle of incidence of 45°. For
9 which of the following value of µ the ray
(2) sin−1  
8 can undergo total internal reflection:

8 (1) µ = 1.33

(3) sin−1  
9 (2) µ = 1.40
(3) µ = 1.50
5
(4) sin−1   (4) µ = 1.25
7

74 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

44. The speed of light in media M1 and M2 are 47. A ray of light passes through equilateral
1.5 × 108 m/s and 2.0 × 108 m/s Prism such that angle of incidence is
respectively. A ray of light enters from equal to angle of emergence and the
medium M1 to M2 at an incidence angle i. later is equal to 3/4th of Prism angle.
If the ray suffers total internal The angle of deviation is:
reflection, the value of i is: (1) 60° (2) 30°
2 (3) 45° (4) 120°
(1) equal to sin–1  
3
48. The refractive index of the material of
3
(2) equal to or less than sin–1  
prism of 60° angle is 2 . At what angle
5
the ray of light be incident on it so that
3
(3) equal to or greater than sin   –1
minimum deviation takes place:
4
(1) 30° (2) 60°
2
(4) less than sin  
–1
(3) 45° (4) 75°
3
o
49. A ray of light is incident at angle of 60
45. A small coin is resting on the bottom of on one face of a prism which has an
a beaker filled with a liquid. A ray of light o
apex angle of 30 . The ray emerging out
from the coin travels up to the surface o
of the prism makes an angle of 30 with
of the liquid and moves along its surface the incident ray. The refractive index of
(see figure). How fast is the light the material of the prism is:
travelling in the liquid:
(1) 2 (2) 3
(3) 1.5 (4) 1.6

50. A ray of monochromatic light is incident

on one refracting face of a prism of
0
angle 75 . It passes through the prism
and is incident on the other face at the
8
(1) 1.8 × 10 m/s critical angle. If the refractive index of
8
(2) 2.4 × 10 m/s the material of the prism is 2 , the
8 angle of incidence on the first face of
(3) 3.0 × 10 m/s
8
the prism is:
(4) 1.2 × 10 m/s
(1) 30° (2) 45°
(3) 60° (4) 0°
Prism and Dispersion
51. Prism angle of glass prism is 10°. It's
46. The angle of a glass prism is 4.5° and its refractive index of red and violet colour
refractive index is 1.52. The angle of is 1.51 and 1.52 respectively. Then its
minimum deviation will be: dispersive power will be:
(1) 1.5° (2) 2.3° (1) 0.015 (2) 0.020
(3) 4.5° (4) 2° (3) 0.011 (4) 0.019

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 75

52. A thin Prism P1 with angle 4° and made 56. An object is placed at a distance of 20
from glass of refractive index 1.54 is cm, in rarer medium, from the pole of a
combined with another thin Prism P2 convex spherical refracting surface of
radius of curvature 10 cm. If the
made from glass of refractive index 1.72
refractive index of the rarer medium is 1
to produce dispersion without deviation.
and of the refracting medium is 2, then
The angle of Prism P2 is: the position of the image is at:
(1) 5.33° (2) 4° (1) (40/3) cm from the pole & inside the
(3) 3° (4) 2.6° denser medium.
(2) 40 cm from the pole & inside the
53. When white light passes through a glass denser medium.
(3) (40/3) cm from the pole & outside
prism, one gets spectrum on the other
the denser medium.
side of the prism. In the emergent beam,
(4) 40 cm from the pole & outside the
the ray which is deviating least is:
denser medium.
(1) Violet ray (2) Green ray
(3) Red ray (4) Yellow ray 57. An object O in glass (µ = 1.5) is situated
at a distance of 5 cm from a spherical
54. Angle of prism is A and its one surface surface of diameter 40 cm as shown in
is silvered. Light rays falling at an angle the figure. Find the distance of the
of incidence 2A on first surface return image from the surface:

back through the same path after

suffering reflection at second silvered
surface. Refractive index of the material
of prism is:-
(1) 3.63 (2) 2.50
(1) 2 sin A (2) 2 cos A
(3) 2.00 (4) 1.63
1
(3) cos A (4) tan A
2
Lenses

Refraction at Spherical Surface 58. An object placed at a distance of 9 cm

from first principal focus of convex lens,
produces a real image at a distance of
55. The image for the converging beam after
25 cm from its second principal focus.
refraction through the curved surface is Then focal length of lens is:
formed at: (1) 9 cm (2) 25 cm
(3) 15 cm (4) 17 cm

59. A convex lens is dipped in a liquid whose

refractive index is equal to the refractive
index of the lens. Then its focal length
will:
40 (1) Become zero
(1) x = 40 cm (2) x = cm
3 (2) Become infinite
40 180 (3) Become small, but non-zero
(3) x = − cm (4) x = cm
3 7 (4) Remain unchanged

76 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

60. A biconvex lens with equal radii of 64. An object is put at a distance of 5 cm
curvature has refractive index 1.6 and from the first focus of a convex lens of
focal length 10 cm. Its radius of focal length 10cm. If a real image is
curvature will be: formed, then it’s distance from the lens
(1) 20 cm (2) 16 cm
will be:-
(3) 10 cm (4) 12 cm
(1) 15 cm (2) 20 cm
(3) 25 cm (4) 30 cm
61. If the radius of curvature of the convex
surface of a plano-convex lens is 18 cm
and the refractive index of material of 65. Figure shows two convex lenses A and
the lens is 1.6, the focal length of the B, each made up of three different
lens is: transparent materials. The number of
(1) 18 cm (2) 24 cm images formed, of an object kept on
(3) 30 cm (4) 40 cm the principal axis of each lens will be:

62. An object is placed at a distance of 5 cm

from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm,
then the image is:
(1) Real, diminished and at a distance of
10 cm from the lens.
(2) Real, enlarged and at a distance of (1) 3 and 3 (2) 3 and 1
10 cm from the lens. (3) 1 and 1 (4) 3 and 2
(3) Virtual, enlarged and at a distance of
10 cm from the lens. 66. A water drop in air refracts the light
(4) Virtual, diminished and at a distance
ray as:
of 10/3 cm from the lens.

63. If the central portion of a convex lens is (1)

wrapped in black paper as shown in the
figure:
(2)

(1) No image will be formed by the

remaining portion of the lens. (3)
(2) The full image will be formed but it
will be less bright.
(3) The central portion of the image will
be missing.
(4)
(4) There will be two images each
produced by one of the exposed
portions of the lens.

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 77

67. A double convex lens, made of a 71. A lens is placed between a source of light
material of refractive index µ1, is placed and a wall. It forms images of area
inside two liquids of refractive indices µ2 A1 and A2 on the wall for its two different
and µ3, as shown. µ2 > µ1 > µ3. A wide, positions. The area of the source of light is:
−1
parallel beam of light is incident on the A 1 + A2  1 1 
(1) (2)  + 
lens from the left. The lens will give rise 2  A 1 A2 
to:  A + A 
2

1 2
(3) A 1A 2 (4)  
 2 
 

72. In the displacement method, a convex

lens is placed in between an object and
(1) a single convergent beam
a screen. If one of the magnifications is
(2) two different convergent beams
3 and the displacement of the lens
(3) two different divergent beams between the two positions is 24 cm,
(4) a convergent and a divergent beam then the focal length of the lens is:
(1) 10 cm (2) 9 cm
68. An object is immersed in a fluid. In order (3) 6 cm (4) 16/3 cm
that the object becomes invisible, it
should: 73. In the figure given below, there are two
(1) behave as a perfect reflection convex lens L1 and L2 having focal length
(2) absorb all light falling on it of f1 and f2 respectively. The distance
(3) have refractive index one between L1 and L2 will be:
(4) have refractive index exactly matching
with that of the surrounding fluid

69. A thin linear object of size 1 mm is kept

along the principal axis of a convex lens (1) f1 (2) f2
of focal length 10 cm. The object is at 15 (3) f1 + f2 (4) f1 – f2
cm from the lens. The length of the
image is: 74. Two convex lenses of focal length 20 cm
(1) 1 mm (2) 4 mm and 25 cm are placed in contact with
(3) 2 mm (4) 8 mm each other, then power of this
combination is:
(1) + 1 D (2) + 9 D
70. A convex lens forms a real image 9 cm
(3) – 1 D (4) – 9 D
long on a screen. Without altering the
position of the object and the screen,
75. A convex lens of Focal length of 40cm is
the lens is displaced and we get again a
in contact with a concave lens of focal
real image 4 cm long on the screen. Then length 25cm. The power of the
the length of the object is: combination is:
(1) 9 cm (2) 4 cm (1) –1.5 D (2) –6.5 D
(3) 6 cm (4) 36 cm (3) +6.5 D (4) +6.67 D

78 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

76. Two lenses of power +2.50 D and –3.75 82. Two thin lenses of focal length f1 and f2
D are combined to form a compound are in contact and coaxial. The power of
lens. Its focal length in cm will be: the combination is:
(1) 40 (2) –40
f1 f2
(3) –80 (4) 160 (1) (2)
f2 f1

77. Lenses of powers 3D and -5D are f1 + f2 f1 + f2

(3) (4)
combined to from a compound lens. An 2 f1f2
object is placed at a distance of 50 cm
from this lens. Calculate the position of
83. An equiconvex lens has a power of 5
its image:
diopter. If it is made of glass of
(1) −10cm (2) +10cm
refractive index 1.5. then radius of
(3) −25cm (4) + 25cm
curvature of its each surface will be:

78. Two thin lenses of power +5D and –2D (1) 20 cm (2) 10 cm
are placed in contact with each other. (3) 40 cm (4) ∞
Focal length of the combination will
behave like a- Chromatic Aberrations
(1) Convex lens of focal length 3 m
(2) Concave lens of focal length 0.33 m 84. Lenses applied in achromatic
(3) Convex lens of focal length 0.33 m combination having dispersive power in
(4) None of the above ratio of 5:3 if focal length of concave
lens is 15 cm, then focal length of
79. The focal length of a plano-concave lens another lens will be:
is –10 cm, then its focal length when its (1) -9 cm (2) +9 cm
plane surface is polished is (n = 3/2):
(3) –12 cm (4) +12 cm
(1) 20 cm (2) − 5 cm
(3) 5 cm (4) none of these
85. If the magnitude of dispersive powers of

80. The plane surface of a plano - convex two lenses are 0.024 and 0.036. Then
lens of focal length f is silvered. It will their focal lengths will be for aberration
behave as: free combination:
(1) plane mirror (1) 30 cm, –40 cm (2) 30 cm, –45 cm
(2) convex mirror of focal length 2f (3) 10 cm, 30 cm (4) 20 cm, –35 cm
(3) concave mirror of focal length f/2
(4) none of the above 86. An achromatic convergent doublet of
two lenses in contact has a power of
81. A convex lens and a concave lens, each
+2D. The convex lens has a power +5D.
having same focal length of 25 cm, are
What is the ratio of the dispersive
put in contact to form a combination of
powers of the convergent and divergent
lenses. The power in diopters of the
combination is: lenses:
(1) 25 (2) 50 (1) 2 : 5 (2) 3 : 5
(3) infinite (4) zero (3) 5 : 2 (4) 5 : 3

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 79

87. The dispersive powers of the materials 92. A telescope consisting of objective of
of the two lenses are in the ratio 4 : 3. If focal length 60 cm and a single lens eye
the achromatic combination of these piece of focal length 5 cm is focused at
two lenses in contact is a convex lens of a distant object in such a way that

focal length 60 cm then the focal parallel rays emerge from the eye piece.
If the object subtends an angle of 2° at
lengths of the component lenses are:
the objective, then angular width of
(1) –20 cm and 25 cm
image will be:
(2) 20 cm and –25 cm
(1) 10° (2) 24°
(3)–15 cm and 40 cm
(3) 48° (4) 54°
(4) 15 cm and –20 cm

93. The distance between objective and

Optical Instruments and Defects of Vision eyepiece of the compound microscope
is 14 cm. The magnifying power for
88. Minimum and maximum distance should
relaxed eye is 25. If the focal length of
be for clear vision of healthy eye: eye lens is 5 cm, then the object distance
(1) 100 cm & 500 cm for objective lens will be:
(2) Infinite & 25 cm (1) 1.8 cm (2) 1.5 cm
(3) 25 cm & 100 cm (3) 2.1 cm (4) 2.4 cm
(4) 25 cm & infinite
94. If the focal length of objective and eye
89. The focal length of convex lens is 2.5 cm. lens are 1.2 cm and 3 cm respectively
Its magnifying power for minimum and the object is put 1.25 cm away from
the objective lens and the final image is
distance of distinct vision will be:
formed at infinity. The magnifying power
(1) 25 (2) 52
of the microscope is:
(3) 11 (4) 1.1
(1) 150 (2) 200
(3) 250 (4) 400
90. The image formed by an objective of a
compound microscope is: 95. The objective of small telescope has
(1) virtual and diminished focal length 120 cm and diameter 5 cm.
(2) real and diminished The focal length of the eye-piece is 2 cm.
(3) real and enlarged The magnifying power of the telescope
(4) virtual and enlarged for distant object is:
(1) 12 (2) 24
91. Least distance of distinct vision is 25 cm, (3) 60 (4) 300
What will be Magnifying power of simple
96. An astronomical telescope has a
microscope of focal length 5 cm, if final
magnifying power 10 for distance object.
image is formed at minimum distance of
The focal length of the eye-piece is 20
distinct vision:
cm. The focal length of the objective is:
(1) 1/5 (2) 5
(1) 2 cm (2) 200 cm
(3) 1/6 (4) 6
(3) (1/2) cm (4) (1/200) cm

80 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

97. The distance between the objective lens 99. An astronomical telescope of magnifying
and the eye lens of an astronomical power 8 is made using two lenses
telescope when adjusted for parallel spaced 45 cm apart. The focal length of
light is 100 cm. The measured value of the lenses used are
the magnification is 19. The focal lengths (1) F = 40 cm, f = 5 cm
of the lenses are: (2) F = 8 cm, f = 5 cm
(1) 85 and 15 cm (2) 82 and 18 cm (3) F = 5 cm, f = 47 cm
(3) 95 and 5 cm (4) 50 and 50 cm (4) F = 20 cm, f = 5 cm

98. In order to increase the magnifying

power of a telescope:
(1) the focal powers of the objective and
the eye-piece should be large
(2) objective should have small focal
length and the eye-piece should
have large
(3) both should have large focal length
(4) the objective should have large focal
length and the eye-piece should
have small

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 81

 Exercise - II
1. To get three images of a single object, 5. A short linear object of length b lies along
one should have two plane mirrors at an the axis of a concave mirror of focal
angle of: length f, at a distance u from the mirror.
(1) 60° (2) 90° The size of the image is approximately:
1/2 1/2
(3) 120° (4) 30° u− f   f 
(1) b   (2) b  
 f  u− f 
2. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each 2
u− f   f 
other such that a ray of light incident on (3) b   (4) b  
 f  u− f 
the first mirror (M1) and parallel to the
second mirror (M2) is finally reflected 6. A thin rod of length f/3 is placed along
from the second mirror (M2) parallel to the optic axis of a concave mirror of
the first mirror (M1). The angle between focal length f such that its image, which
the two mirrors will be: is real and elongated, just touches the
(1) 90° (2) 45° rod. The magnification is ………………… :
(3) 75° (4) 60° (1) + 1.5 (2) − 1.5
(3) − 0.67 (4) − 2.5
3. A point source of light, S is placed at a
7. A instrument uses two mirror as shown
distance L in front of the centre of plane
in figure. Such instrument is built with
mirror of width d which is hanging
the mirrors 20 mm apart. If the radius of
vertically on a wall. A man walks in front
curvature of the large mirror is 220 mm
of the mirror along a line parallel to the
and the small mirror is 140 mm. Where
mirror, at a distance 2L as shown below. will the final image from M3 of an object
The distance over which the man can at infinity be:
see the image of the light source in the
mirror is:

(1) 21 cm (2) 31.5 cm

(3) 27.5 cm (4) 19 cm

(1) 3 d (2) d / 2
8. A light ray falls on a square glass slab as
(3) d (4) 2 d
shown in the diagram. The index of
refraction of the glass, if total internal
4. You are asked to design a shaving mirror reflection is to just occur at the vertical
assuming that a person keeps it 10 cm face, is equal to:
from his face and views the magnified 45o
Incident ray
image of the face at the closest
comfortable distance of 25 cm. The
radius of curvature of the mirror would
then be:
(1) 60 cm (2) 24 cm (1) 32 (2) ( 2+1 2)
(3) − 60 cm (4) − 24 cm (3) 3/2 (4) 52

82 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

9. A diver looking up through the water 12. The graph between angle of deviation (δ)
sees the outside world contained in a and angle of incidence (i) for a triangular
circular horizon. The refractive index of prism is represented by:
water is 4 3 , and the diver’s eyes are 15 δ δ

cm below the surface of water. Then the

(1) (2)
radius of the circle is:
(1) 15 × 3 × 5cm O i O i
δ
(2) 15 × 3 × 7cm
15 × 7 (3) (4)
(3) cm
3
15 × 3 O i
(4) cm
7
13. What is the position and nature of image
formed by lens combination shown in
10. What should be the maximum acceptance
figure: (f1, f2 are focal lengths)
angle at the air-core interface of an
2cm
optical fiber if n1 and n2 are the
A B
refractive indices of the core and the
o
cladding, respectively:
(1) sin–1 (n2n1)
20cm f1=+5cm f2=–5cm
(2) sin–1 n21 – n22
(1) 70 cm from point B at left; virtual
 n  (2) 40 cm from point B at right; real
(3) tan–1 2 
 n1  20
(3) cm from point B at right, real
 n  3
(4) tan–1 1  (4) 70 cm from point B at right, real
 n2 

14. A transparent solid cylindrical rod has a

11. A light ray is incident perpendicularly to
2
one face of a 90° prism and is totally refractive index of . It is surrounded
3
internally reflected at the glass – air by air. A light ray is incident at the
interface. If the angle of reflection is 45°, midpoint of one end of the rod as shown
we conclude that the refractive index n: in the figure.

θ
45°
The incident angle for which the light ray
θ grazes along the wall of the rod is:
 1  3
(1) sin−1   (2) sin−1  
(1) n < 1/ 2 (2) n > 2 2  2 
 
(3) n > 1/ 2 (4) n < 2  2   1 
(3) sin−1  (4) sin−1 
 3   3 
   

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 83

15. A thin glass (refractive index 1.5) lens 20. In the Q.No. 19, the final image is
has optical power of − 5 D in air. Its formed at the least distance of distinct
optical power in a liquid medium with vision (25 cm) then magnification will
refractive index 1.6 will be:
be:
(1) − 1 D (2) 1 D
(1) 28 (2) 33.6
(3) − 25 D (4) 5/8 D
(3) 72 (4) ∞
16. The focal length of the objective and
eye piece of a microscope are 21. In the Q.No. 19, what is the separation
respectively 1cm and 2cm. The between the objective lens and the
distance between them is 12 cm. eyepiece:
Where an object should be placed in
(1) 145 cm (2) 135 cm
order to view it at the least distant of
(3) 105 cm (4) 75 cm
distinct vision.
(1) 4.05 cm (2) 0.05 cm
(3) 2.05 cm (4) 1.1 cm 22. In the Q.No. 19, if this telescope is used
to view a 100 m tall tower 3 km away,
17. An astronomical telescope of length 50 what is the approximate height of the
cm produces a magnification of 9 in image of the tower formed by the
normal adjustment. Calculate focal
objective lens:
length of its objective and eye piece.
(1) 2 cm (2) 6 cm
(1) 4cm, 2cm (2) 30cm, 5cm
(3) 55cm, 10cm (4) 45cm, 5 cm (3) 4.7 cm (4) 7 cm

18. A compound microscope consists of an 23. In the Q.No. 22, what is the height of
objective lens of focal length 2 cm and the final image of the tower if it is
an eye piece of focal length 6.25 cm
formed at 25 cm is nearly
separated by a distance of 15 cm. How
(1) 18.8 cm (2) 32 cm
far from the objective should on object
(3) 28 cm (4) None of these
be placed in order to obtain the final
image at the least distance of distinct
vision (25 cm): 24. A glass prism (µ =1.5) is dipped in water
(1) 2.5 cm (2) 1.67 cm (µ =4 / 3) as shown in figure. A light ray
(3) 2 cm (4) 3.3 cm
is incident normally on the surface AB. It
reaches the surface BC after totally
19. A astronomical telescope has an
objective lens of focal length 140 cm reflected, if
and an eye piece of focal length 5 cm.
What is the magnifying power of the
telescope for viewing distant objects
when the telescope is in normal
adjustment (i.e. when the final image
is at infinity): (1) sin θ > 8/9 (2) 2/3 < sin θ < 8/9
(1) 13 (2) 7
(3) sinθ ≤ 2/3 (4) It is not possible
(3) 6 (4) 28

84 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

25. A vessel is half filled with a liquid of 29. A biconvex lens has a radius of curvature
refractive index µ The other half of the of magnitude 20 cm. Which one of the
vessel is filled with an immiscible liquid following options describes best the
of refractive index 1.5 µ . The apparent image formed of an object of height 2
depth of vessel is 50% of the actual cm placed 30 cm from the lens: (µ = 1.5)
depth. The value of µ is (1) Virtual, upright, height = 0.5 cm
(1) 1.6 (2) 1.67 (2) Real, inverted, height = 4 cm
(3) 1.5 (4) 1.4 (3) Real, inverted, height = 1 cm
(4) Virtual, upright, height = 1 cm
26. A bulb is located on a wall. Its image is
to be obtained on a parallel wall with the
30. A thin prism of angle 15° made of glass
help of convex lens. If the distance
of refractive index µ1 = 1.5 is combined
between parallel walls is ‘d’ then
with another prism of glass of refractive
required focal length of lens placed in
between the walls is:- index µ2 = 1.75. The combination of the

d prism produces dispersion without

(1) Only
4 deviation. The angle of the second prism
d should be:
(2) Only
2 (1) 7° (2) 10°
d d
(3) More than but lens than (3) 12° (4) 5°
4 2
d
(4) Less than or equal to 31. A conversing beam of rays is incident on
4
a diverging lens. Having passed through
27. In compound microscope, the the lens the rays intersect at a point 15
magnification is 95, and the distance of cm from the lens on the opposite side.
1 If the lens is removed the point where
object from objective lens cm and
3.8 the rays will move 5 cm closer to the
1 lens. The focal length of the lens is:
focal length of objective is cm. What
4
(1) –10 cm (2) 20 cm
is the angular magnification of eye-piece
(3) –30 cm (4) 5 cm
when final image is formed at least
distance of distinct vision:
(1) 5 (2) 10 32. When a biconvex lens of glass having

(3) 100 (4) none of these refractive index 1.47 is dipped in a liquid,
it acts as a plane sheet of glass. This
28. Which of these is not due to total implies that the liquid must have
internal reflection: refractive index:
(1) Working of optical fiber (1) less than that of glass
(2) Difference between apparent and (2) equal to that of glass
real depth of pond (3) less than one
(3) Mirage on hot summer days (4) greater than that of glass
(4) Brilliance of diamond

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 85

33. A rod of length 10 cm lies along the 36. For the angle of minimum deviation of a
principal axis of a concave mirror of prism to be equal to its refracting angle,
focal length 10 cm in such a way that its
the prism must be made of a material
end closer to the pole is 20 cm away
whose refractive index:
from the mirror. The length of the image
is: (1) lies between 2 and 1
(1) 10 cm (2) 15 cm (2) lies between 2 and 2
(3) 2.5 cm (4) 5 cm
(3) is less than 1

34. A ray of light is incident at an angle of (4) is greater than 2

incidence, i on one face of a prism of
angle A (assumed to be small) and 37. The magnifying power of a telescope is
emerges normally from the opposite 9. When it is adjusted for parallel rays
face. If the refractive index of the prism
the distance between the objective and
is µ, the angle of incidence i, is nearly
equal to: eye-piece is 20 cm. The focal lengths of
A lenses are:
(1) (2) µA
2µ (1) 11 cm, 9 cm
µA A (2) 10 cm, 10 cm
(3) (4)
2 µ
(3) 15 cm, 5 cm
(4) 18 cm, 2 cm
35. A concave mirror of focal length f1 is
placed at a distance of d from a convex
lens of focal length f2. A beam of light
coming from infinity and falling on the
convex lens-concave mirror combination
returns to infinity. The distance d must
equal:
(1) –2f1 + f2 (2) f1 + f2
(3) –f1 + f2 (4) 2f1 + f2

86 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Exercise - III
Matrix-Match Type 2. Four combinations of two thin lenses are
1. An optical component and an object S given in Column I. The radius of curvature
placed along its optic axis are given in of all curved surfaces is r and the
Column I. The distance between the object refractive index of all the lenses is 1.5.
and the component can be varied. The Match lens combinations in Column I with
properties of images are given in Column II. their focal length in Column II and select
Match all the properties of iamges from the correct answer
Column II with the appropriate
components given in Column I and choose Column I Column II
correct option.

(a) (p) 2r
Column I Column II

(a (p
Real image
r
(b) (q)
2

(b (q Virtual
image (c) (r) -r

Magnified
(c) (r)
image (d) (s) r

(d Image at Code:
(s)
infinity (1) a-p, b-q, c-r, d-s
(2) a-q, b-s, c-r, d-p
(3) a-s, b-p, c-q, d-r
(1) a-p,q,r,s; b-q; c-p,q,r,s; d-p,q,r,s
(4) a-q, b-p, c-r, d-s
(2) a-p, r,s; b-q,p; c-p,s; d-q,r,s
(3) a- q,r,s; b-p,q,r; c-p,q,r; d-p
(4) a- r,s; b-q,s; c- r,s; d- r

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 87

For The Question (3 to 8) 5. Assertion : The relation among u, v and f
In each of the following questions, a for the spherical mirror is valid only for
statement of Assertion (A) is given mirrors whose sizes are very small
followed by a corresponding statement of compared to their radii of curvature.
Reason (R) just below it. Of the Reason : The laws of reflection are strictly
statements, mark the correct answer as : valid for plane surfaces but not for large
(A) If both assertion and reason are true spherical surfaces.
and reason is the correct explanation (1) A (2) B
of Assertion. (3) C (4) D
(B) If both assertion and reason are true
but reason is not the correct 6. Assertion : A secondary rainbow have
explanation of Assertion. inverted colours than the primary rainbow.
(C) If assertion is true but reason is false. Reason : The secondary rainbow is formed
(D) If both assertion and reason are false. by single total internal reflection.
(1) A (2) B
3. Assertion : The edges of the images of (3) C (4) D
white object formed by a concave mirror
on the screen appear white. 7. Assertion : When an object is placed
Reason : Concave mirror does not suffer between two plane parallel mirrors, then
from chromatic aberration. all the images found are of equal intensity.
(1) A Reason : In case of plane parallel mirrors,
(2) B only two images are possible.
(3) C (1) A (2) B
(4) D (3) C (4) D

4. Assertion : If objective and eye lenses of a 8. Assertion : A ray of light is incident from
microscope are interchanged, then it can outside on a glass sphere surrounded by
work as telescope. air. This ray may suffer total internal
Reason : The objective lens of telescope reflection at second interface.
has small focal length. Reason : If a ray of light goes from denser
(1) A to rarer medium, it bends away from the
(2) B normal.
(3) C (1) A (2) B
(4) D (3) C (4) D

88 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A plane convex lens fit exactly into a plane 5. In an astronomical telescope in normal
concave lens. Their plane surfaces are adjustment a straight black line of length
parallel to each other. If lenses are made L is drawn on inside part of objective lens.
of different materials of refractive indices
The eyepiece forms a real image of this line.
and R is the radius of curvature of the
The length of this image is Ι. The
curved surface of the lenses, then the focal
length of the combination is: [NEET_2013] magnification of the telescope is:
R R [AIPMT_2015]
(1) (2)
(
2 µ 1 − µ2 ) ( µ 1 − µ2 ) (1)
L
(2)
L
+1
2R R I I
(3) (4)
L L+I
( µ2 − µ 1 ) (
2 µ 1 + µ2 ) (3) –1 (4)
I L−I
2. For a normal eye, the cornea of eye
provides a converging power of 40 D and 6. The refracting angle of a prism is A, and
the least converging power of the eye lens refractive index of the material of the
behind the cornea is 20 D. Using this prism is cot(A/2.) The angle of minimum
information, the distance between the deviation is: [AIPMT_2015]
retina and the cornea eye lens can be
(1) 180° – 3 A (2) 180° – 2 A
estimated to be: [NEET_2013]
(3) 90° – A (4) 180° + 2 A
(1) 5 cm (2) 2.5 cm
(3) 1.67 cm (4) 1.5 cm
7. A beam of light consisting of red, green
3. The angle of a prism is A. One of its and blue colours is incident on a right-
refracting surfaces is silvered. Light rays
angled prism. The refractive index of the
falling at an angle of incidence 2A on the
material of the prism for the above red,
first surface returns back through the
same path after suffering reflection at the green and blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44
silvered surface. The refractive index µ of and 1.47, respectively.
the prism: [AIPMT_2014]
(1) 2 sin A (2) 2 cos A
1
(3) cos A (4) tan A
2

4. If the focal length of objective lens is

increased, then magnifying power of:
The prism will: [RE-AIPMT_2015]
[AIPMT_2014]
(1) Microscope will increase but that of (1) separate the red colour apart from the
telescope decrease green and blue colours
(2) Microscope and telescope both will (2) separate the blue colour apart from
increase the red and green colours
(3) Microscope and telescope both will
(3) separate all the three colours from
decrease
one another
(4) Microscope will decrease but that of
telescope will increase (4) not separate the three colours at all

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 89

8. Two identical thin planoconvex glass 12. A person can see clearly objects when
lenses (refractive index 1.5) each having they lie between 50 cm and 400 cm from
radius of curvature of 20 cm are placed his eyes. In order to increase the
with their convex surface in contact at the maximum distance of distinct vision to
centre. The intervening space is filled with infinity, the type and power of the
oil of refractive index 1.7. The focal length
correcting lens, the person has to use, will
of the combination is: [AIPMT_2015]
be: [NEET-II_2016]
(1) –20 cm (2) –25 cm
(1) concave, -0.2 diopter
(3) –50 cm (4) 50 cm
(2) convex, +0.15 diopter
(3) convex, +2.25 diopter
9. The angle of incidence for a ray of light at
(4) concave, -0.25 diopter
a refracting surface of a prism is 45°. The
angle of prism is 60°. If the ray suffers
minimum deviation through the prism, the 13. Two identical glass (µg =3/2) equiconvex
angle of minimum deviation and refractive lenses of focal length f each are kept in
index of the material of the prism contact. The space between the two
respectively, are: lenses is filled with water (µw = 4 / 3) . The
[NEET-I_2016]
focal length of the combination is:
ο
(1) 45 , 1 / 2 (2) 30ο , 2 [NEET-II_2016]
ο ο
(3) 45 , 2 (4) 30 , 1 / 2 (1) 4f/3 (2) 3f/4
(3) f/3 (4) f
10. A astronomical telescope has objective
and eyepiece of focal length 40 cm and 4 14. An air bubble in a glass slab with
cm respectively. To view an object 200 cm refractive index 1.5 (near normal
away from the objective, the lenses must incidence) is 5 cm deep when viewed from
be separated by a distance: [NEET-I_2016] one surface and 3 cm deep when viewed
(1) 37.3 cm (2) 46.0 cm
from the opposite face. The thickness
(3) 50.0 cm (4) 54.0 cm
(in cm) of the slab is 1: [NEET-II_2016]
(1) 8 (2) 10
11. Match the corresponding entries of
(3) 12 (4) 16
Column -1 with column-2 (Where m is the
magnification produced by the mirror):
0
[NEET-I_2016] 15. A thin prism having refractive angle 10 is
Column -1 Column-2 made of glass of refractive index 1.42. This
(A) m = – 2 (a) Convex mirror prism is combined with another thin prism
(B) m = –1/2 (b) Concave mirror of glass of refractive index 1.7. This
(C) m = +2 (c) Real image combination produces dispersion without
(D) m = +1/2 (d) Virtual image deviation. The refracting angle of second
(1) A → b,c / B → b,c / C → b,d / D → a,d prism should be: [NEET_2017]
(2) A → a,c / B → a,d / C → a,b / D → c,d (1) 6° (2) 8°
(3) A → a,d / B → b,c / C → b,d / D → b,c (3) 10° (4) 4°
(4) A → c,d / B → b,d / C → b,c / D → a,d

90 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

16. A beam of light from a source L is incident 20. Two similar thin equi-convex lenses, of
normally on a plane mirror fixed at a focal length f each, are kept coaxially in
certain distance x from the source. The contact with each other such that the
beam is reflected back as a spot on a focal length of the combination is F1. When
scale placed just above the source L. the space between the two lenses is filled
When the mirror is rotated through a small with glycerin (which has the same
refractive index (µ = 1.5) as that of glass)
angle θ, the spot of the light is found to
then the equivalent focal length is F2. The
move through a distance y on the scale.
ratio F1 : F2 will be: [NEET_2019]
The angle θ is given by: [NEET_2017]
(1) 3 : 4 (2) 2 : 1
y y
(1) (2) (3) 1 : 2 (4) 2 : 3
2x x
x x 21. An equiconvex lens has power P. It is cut
(3) (4)
2y y into two symmetrical halves by a plane
containing the principal axis. The power of
17. An object is placed a distance of 40 cm from one part will be: [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. If P
(1) 0 (2)
the object is displaced through a distance of 2
20 cm towards the mirror, the displacement P
(3) (4) P
4
of the image will be: [NEET_2018]
(1) 30 cm away from the mirror 22. Pick the wrong answer in the context with
(2) 36 cm away from the mirror rainbow: [NEET_2019]
(3) 30 cm towards the mirror (1) Rainbow is a combined effect of dispersion,
refraction and reflection of sunlight.
(4) 36 cm towards the mirror
(2) When the light rays undergo two
internal reflections in a water drop, a
18. The refractive index of the material of a
secondary rainbow is formed.
prism is 2 and the angle of the prism is (3) The order of colours is reversed in the
30°. One of the two refracting surfaces of secondary rainbow.
the prism is made a mirror inwards, by (4) An observer can see a rainbow when
silver coating. A beam of monochromatic his front is towards the sun.
light entering the prism from the other
23. Which colour of the light has the longest
face will retrace its path (after reflection
wavelength: [NEET_2019]
from the silvered surface) if its angle of (1) violet (2) red
incidence on the prism is: [NEET_2018] (3) blue (4) green
(1) 60° (2) 45°
24. A ray is incident at an angle of incidence i
(3) 30° (4) zero
on one surface of a small angle prism
(with angle of prism (A) and emerges
19. In total internal reflection when the angle
normally from the opposite surface. If the
of incidence is equal to the critical angle refractive index of the material of the
for the pair of media in contact, what will prism is µ, then the angle of incidence is
be angle of refraction: [NEET_2019] nearly equal to: [NEET_2020]
(1) 90° µA
(1) µA (2)
(2) 180° 2
(3) 0° A 2A
(3) (4)
(4) equal to angle of incidence 2µ µ

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 91

25. An object is placed on the principal axis of 29. Find the value of the angle of emergence
a concave mirror at a distance of 1.5 f(f is from the prism. Refractive index of the
the focal length). The image will be at: glass is 3: [NEET_2021]
[NEET_2020(Covid)]
(1) –3 f (2) 1.5 f
90°
(3) –1.5 f (4) 3 f

26. If the critical angle for total internal

60°
reflection from a medium to vacuum is
(1) 60° (2) 30°
45°, then velocity of light in the medium
(3) 45° (4) 90°
is: [NEET_2020(Covid)]
3
(1) 1.5 × 108 m/s (2) × 108 m / s 30. A convex lens 'A' of focal length 20 cm and
2 a concave lens 'B' of focal length 5 cm are
(3) 2 × 108 m / s (4) 3 × 108 m/s kept along the same axis with a distance
'd' between them. If a parallel beam of
27. The power of a biconvex lens is 10 dioptre light falling on 'A' leaves 'B' as a parallel
and the radius of curvature of each surface beam, then the distance 'd' in cm will be:
is 10 cm. Then the refractive index of the [NEET_2021]
material of the lens is:[NEET_2020(Covid)] (1) 25 (2) 15
4 9 (3) 50 (4) 30
(1) (2)
3 8
5 3 31. A biconvex lens has radii of curvature, 20
(3) (4) cm each. If the refractive index of the
3 2
material of the lens is 1.5, the power of the
lens is: [NEET_2022]
28. A point object is placed at a distance of
(1) + 2D (2) + 20D
60 cm from a convex lens of focal length
(3) + 5D (4) infinity
30 cm. If a plane mirror were put
perpendicular to the principal axis of the
32. Two transparent media A and B are
lens and at a distance of 40 cm from it,
separated by a plane boundary. The speed
the final image would be formed at a 8
distance of: [NEET_2021] of light in those media are 1.5 × 10 m/s
8
and 2.0 × 10 m/s, respectively. The critical
angle for a ray of light for these two media
is: [NEET_2022]
—1 —1
(1) sin (0.50) (2) sin (0.75)
—1 —1
(3) tan (0.50) (4) tan (0.75)

60 cm 40 cm
33. Light travels a distance x in time t1 in air
(1) 20 cm from the lens, it would be a real
and 10x in time t2 in another denser
image.
medium. What is the critical angle for this
(2) 30 cm from the lens, it would be a real
medium? [NEET_2023]
image.
t   10 t2 
(3) 30 cm from the plane mirror, it would (1) sin−1  2  (2) sin−1  
t
be a virtual image.  1   t1 
(4) 20 cm from the plane mirror, it would  t   10 t 1 
(3) sin−1  1  (4) sin−1 
be a virtual image.  10 t  t 
 2   2 

92 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

34. In the figure shown here, what is the 37. 0 and µ0 are the electric permittivity and
equivalent focal length of the combination magnetic permeability of free space
of lenses (Assume that all layers are thin)? respectively. If the corresponding
[NEET_2023] quantities of a medium are 20 and 1.5µ0
n1 = 1.5
respectively, the refractive index of the
medium will nearly be:
R1 = R2 = 20 cm
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
R1
R2
n2 = 1.6
(1) 2 (2) 3
(3) 3 (4) 2
(1) 40 cm
(2) –40 cm
38. A horizontal ray of light is incident on the
(3) –100 cm
right angled prism with prism angle 6° . If
(4) –50 cm
the refractive index of the material of the
prism is 1.5, then the angle of emergence
35. Two thin lenses are of same focal lengths
will be: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(f), but one is convex and the other one is
concave. When they are placed in contact
with each other, the equivalent focal length
of the combination will be:
[NEET_2023]
(1) Zero
(2) f/4 (1) 9° (2) 10°
(3) f/2 (3) 4° (4) 6°
(4) Infinite

39. An object is mounted on a wall. Its image

36. A lens is made up of 3 different transparent of equal size is to be obtained on a parallel
media as shown in figure. A point object O wall with the help of a convex lens placed
is placed on its axis beyond 2f. How many between these walls. The lens is kept at
real images will be obtained on the other distance x in front of the second wall. The
side? required focal length of the lens will be:
[NEET_2023(Manipur)] [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
x
(1) less than
4
x x
(2) more than but less than
4 2
x
(1) 2 (3)
2
(2) 1
x
(3) No image will be formed (4)
4
(4) 3

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 93

 ANSWER KEY

Exercise-I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 1 3 1 4 2 2 3 4 1 2 4 2 1 1 3 4 1 3 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 2 1 3 4 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 3 1 3 3 1 2 2 3 2 2 4 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 4
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 3 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 3
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Ans. 4 4 1 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 4 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 1

Exercise-II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 1 3 4 2 2 1 4 2 2 3 4 4 2 4 4 1 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Ans. 1 3 3 1 2 4 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 1 2 4

Exercise-III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. 1 2 1 4 3 3 4 4

Exercise-IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Ans. 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 1 2 3 2 4 3 4 4 2 1 3

94 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

 2 Wave Optics
Newton's Corpuscular Theory of Light

Characteristics of the theory

(i) Extremely minute, very light and elastic particles are being constantly emitted by all
luminous bodies (light sources) in all directions which are known as corpuscles.
8
(ii) These corpuscles travel with the speed of light (3×10 m/s in vacuum).
(iii) When these corpuscles strike the retina of our eye then they produce the sensation
of vision.
(iv) The different colours of light are due to different size of these corpuscles.
(v) The rest mass of these corpuscles is zero.
(vi) The velocity of these corpuscles in an isotropic medium is same in all directions but it
changes with the change of medium.
(vii) These corpuscles travel in straight lines.
(viii) These corpuscles are invisible.

The phenomena explained by this theory

(i) Reflection and refraction of light.
(ii) Rectilinear propagation of light.
(iii) Existence of energy in light.

The phenomena not explained by this theory

(i) Interference, diffraction, polarization, double refraction and total internal reflection.
(ii) Velocity of light being greater in rarer medium than that in a denser medium.
(iii) Photoelectric effect.

Wave Nature of Light

• It is based on wave theory of light put forward by Christiaan Huygen (a Dutch Physicist:
1629-95) in 1678.
• According to wave theory, a body emits light in the form of waves. Each point source of light
is a centre of disturbance from which waves spread in all directions.
Huygens coined a term ‘Wavefront’.

Wavefronts
The continuous locus of all particles in a medium which are vibrating in same phase at a given
instant is called a wavefront.
Shape of Wavefront
The shape of wavefront depends on the source producing the wave. It is usually of three types :

Wave Optics 1
 Spherical, Cylindrical or Plane Wavefront.
(i) For a point source of light, the wavefront is spherical in shape with source lying at its centre.
(ii) When the source of light is linear, then the wavefront takes the cylindrical shape.
(iii) For a source of light situated far away, the wavefront may be considered to be a plane
wavefront.

Comparative Study of Three Types of Wavefront

• The shape or orientation of a wavefront may change when it undergoes reflection or

refraction.
• A wavefront travels parallel to itself and perpendicular to the rays.
• A ray of light represents the direction along which light energy travels.
• Wavefront always travels in the forward direction in a medium, with speed of wave.

Huygen’s Principle
Huygen’s Principle provides geometrical method of finding the successive positions of the
wavefront. It states :
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wave front) acts as fresh source of new
disturbance, (called secondary wavelets).
(ii) The secondary wavelets travel in all the directions with the speed of light in the medium.

2 Wave Optics
 (iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any
instant gives the new (secondary) wavefront at the instant.
A A A'
A A' A'

O O

B B B'
B' B B'

• Huygen’s wave theory could explain reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction of
light.
• It failed to explain polarization of light and photoelectric effect.

Shape of Wavefronts of Reflected & Refracted Wave

Here we are going to draw the shapes of wavefronts associated with reflected as well as
refracted waves.
(A) Reflection from Plane Mirror
Incident
wavefront (plane) Re flected
wavefront (plane)

(B) Reflection from Curved Mirror

Incident wavefront
(plane)

Re flected wavefront
Incident wavefront Re flected wavefront
(Plane) (sphereical)

Reflection from concave mirror Reflection from convex mirror

(C) Refraction from Plane Surface

Incident wavefront Medium − 1

(Plane)

Medium − 2

Incident wavefront
(Plane)

(D) Refraction Through Prism (Monochromatic Beam)

IWF RWF

Wave Optics 3
 (E) Refraction Through Convex Lens

Emergent
wavefront
(spherical)
Incident wavefront
(plane)

(F) Refraction Through Concave Lens

Incident wavefront Emergent

(plane) wavefront
(spherical)

Example 1:
A plane wavefront is incident at angle of 37° with a horizontal boundary of refractive surface
3
from air (µ = 1) to a medium of refractive index µ = . Find the angle of refracted wavefront
2
with horizontal.
Solution:
It has been given that incident wavefront makes 37° with horizontal. Hence incident ray makes
37° with normal as the ray is perpendicular to the
wavefront. µ=1
Now normal as the ray is perpendicular to the wavefront. 37°
Now, by Snell’s law r
sin37° 3
=
sin r 2 µ = 3/2
2 3 2
sin r = × =
3 5 5
–1 2
r = sin  
5
which is same as angle of refractive wavefront with horizontal

Example 2:
Yellow light with wavelength 0.5 µm in air undergoes refraction in a medium in which velocity
8
of light is 2 × 10 m/s. Find wavelength of the light in the medium.

4 Wave Optics
Solution:
λ1 v1
=
λ2 v2
8
Here, λ1 = 0.5 µm, v1 = 3 × 10 m/s
8
λ2= ? (x),v2 = 2 × 10 m/s

0.5 3 × 108
= ⇒ x = 0.33 µm
x 2 × 108
Note :The frequency remains unchanged.

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 Which of the following prediction of corpuscular theory was proved wrong by Huygens's wave
model?
(1) Frequency of the wave remains same during refraction
(2) Speed of the light increases in denser medium
(3) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
(4) All of these

3
Q.2 A ray of light with wavelength 5000 Å travelling in a medium of refractive index   suffers
2
4
partial reflection and refraction in a medium refractive index   . Find the wavelength of
3
reflected and refracted ray.

Q.3 Huygen's conception of secondary waves

(1) Allow us to find the focal length of a thick lens
(2) Is a geometrical method to find a wavefront
(3) Is used to determine the velocity of light
(4) Is used to explain polarization

Interference
• The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of energy in the medium due to superposition of
two or more light waves originated from coherent sources, is called interference of light.
• The interference pattern in which the position of maxima and minima of intensity of light remain
fixed all along on the screen is called sustained or permanent interference pattern.
• At the points where resultant intensity (amplitude, energy) is maximum, interference is said
to be constructive (CI) and fringes are Bright.
• At the points where the resultant intensity (amplitude, energy) is minimum, interference is
said to be destructive (DI) and fringes are Dark.

Wave Optics 5
 Condition for Coherent Sources
• The two sources are said to be coherent if
(i) they emit light waves have same frequency.
(ii) the emitted waves are either in same phase or a constant phase difference.
(iii) the emitted waves may or may not have same amplitude.
• Two independent light sources can never be coherent.
• They are produced from a single source of light.

Condition for Sustained Interference

• The two sources should be coherent,
• For good contrast between maxima and minima,
(i) the amplitudes of the two interfering waves should be as nearly equal as possible and
(ii) the background should be dark.
• For a large number of fringes in the field of view, the source should be narrow and
monochromatic.

Method of Producing Coherent Sources

Two coherent sources are produced from a single source of light by two methods namely :

(A) Division of Wavefront

• In this method, the wavefront is divided into two or more parts.
• The Light source is narrow.
• Example : Young's double slit experiment.
P
S1

S2 YDSE

(B) Division of Amplitude

• In this method, the amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two or more parts by partial
reflection or refraction.
• These divided parts travel different paths and finally brought together to produce
interference.
• Example :Colour of thin films.

thin film

6 Wave Optics
 Principle of Superposition
When two or more waves superimpose over each other at a common point of the medium then

the resultant displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacement
    
(y 1 and y2 ) produced by individual waves =
y y 1 + y2
Re sul tan t
Re sul tan t
y2

y1

Constructive Destructive
int erference int erference

Resultant Amplitude and Intensity

Consider two waves with same frequency and different amplitudes
y1 = a1 sin ωt and y2 = a2 sin (ωt + φ)
where a1, a2 are individual amplitudes
and φ is constant phase difference between the waves.
• After superposition, the resultant wave can be written as
y = A sin (ωt + δ)
• The resultant amplitude (A) is
A= a21 + a22 + 2a 1a2 cos φ
Amax = a1 + a2& Amin = a1− a2
For two identical sources
a 1 = a2 = a0

∴A= a20 + a20 + 2a0a0 cos φ

φ
orA = 2a0 cos ∴ Amax = 2a0& Amin = 0
2
• The Resultant intensity (I) is
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos φ ( I ∝ (A)2)

( ) &I ( )
2 2
Imax
= I1 + I2 min = I1 – I2

For two identical sources

I1 = I2 = I0∴ I = I0 + I0 + 2 I0I0 cos φ
φ 2
or I = 4I0 cos ∴ Imax = 4I0& Imin = 0
2
• Comparison of Intensities

( )
2
Imax I1 + I2 (a 1 + a2 )2
= =
( I )
Imin 2
(a 1 – a2 )2
I1 – 2

2
 I 
I1 m ax + Imin
= 
I2  I 
 m ax – Imin 

Wave Optics 7
 Relationship Between Path Difference and Phase Difference
Symbol of path difference = ∆x
Symbol of phase difference = ∆φ
2π λ
=
Phase diff. Pathdiff.
2π λ
⇒ =
∆φ ∆x
The phase difference (2π) is equivalent to path difference (λ).

Example 3:
 π
If two waves represented by y1 = 4 sin ωt and y2 = 3 sin  ωt +  interfere at a point. Find out
 3
the amplitude of the resulting wave.
Solution:
Resultant amplitude

A= a21 + a22 + 2a 1a2 cos φ

π
= (4)2 + (3)2 + 2.(4)(3)cos ⇒A~6
3

Example 4:
Two beams of light having intensities I and 4I interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen.
The phase difference between the beam is π / 2 at point A and 2π at point B. Then find out the
difference between the resultant intensities at A and B.
Solution:
Resultant intensity I= I1 + I2 + 2 I 1 I2 cos φ

Resultant intensity at point A is

π
IA = I + 4I + 2 I 1 4I cos = 5I
2
Resultant intensity at point B,
IB = I+ 4I+ 2 I 4I cos 2π = 9I
(Ans= 9I – 5I ⇒ 4I)

Example 5:
Two coherent sources each emitting light of intensity I0 interfere in a medium at a point where
phase difference between them is 2π / 3. Then the resultant intensity at that point would be
Solution:
2π 2 π
Given here, φ = and Ires = 4I0 cos   = I0
3 3

8 Wave Optics
Example 6:
Consider interference between waves from two sources of Intensities I & 4I. Find intensities at
points where the phase difference is π.
(1) I (2) 5I (3) 4I (4) 3I
Solution:
Inet = I + 4I + 2 (I)(4I) cos π
= 5I – 4I = I

Example 7:
The intensity ratio of two waves is 9 : 1. These waves produce interference. The ratio of
maximum to minimum intensity will be
(1) 1 : 9 (2) 9 : 1 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 4 : 1
Solution:
 I1 
 + 1 2
I1 9 I  I2   9 + 1 Imax 42 4
= ⇒ max =  =   ⇒ = =
I2 1 Imin  I1   9 – 1  Imin 22 1
 –1
 I2 

Example 8:
Two sources with intensity I0 and 4I0 respectively interfere at a point in a medium. Then the
maximum and minimum possible intensity would be
Solution:

( )
2
Imax = I 1 + I2

Here, I1 = I0 and I2 = 4I0

( ) ( )
2 2
∴ Imax = I0 + 4I0 = 9I0 and Imin = I 1 − I2 = I0

Example 9:
Waves emitted by two identical sources produces intensity of K unit at a point on screen where
path difference between these waves is λ, calculate the intensity at that point on screen at
λ
which path difference is .
4
Solution:
2πx 2π 2π λ π
φ1 = = × λ = 2π and φ2 = × =
λ λ λ 4 2
I1 = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I 0 cos 2π = 4I0
π
and I2 = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I 0 cos = 2I0
2
I1 4I0 I1 K
∴ = =2 ⇒ I2 = = unit
I2 2I0 2 2
[ I1 = K unit]

Wave Optics 9
 Concept Builder-2

Q.1 Find phase difference if path difference between the waves is

(a) λ/2 (b) λ/3

Q.2 If two light rays have intensity I0 and 4I0 then find out the intensity at points where the phase
difference between the waves is π, 2π and π / 3

Q.3 Two incoherent sources of light emitting intensity I0 and 3I0 interfere in a medium. Then the
resultant intensity at any point will be.

Q.4 If two waves of intensity I0 interfere in a medium. Then find out the intensity when phase
difference between them is
π
(a) 2π (b) π (c)
3

Q.5 Two light sources with intensity I0 each interfere in a medium where phase difference between
π
them is . Find resultant intensity at that point.
2

Q.6 The equation of two light waves are y1 = 6cosωt, y2 = 8cos(ωt + φ). The ratio of maximum to
minimum intensities produced by the superposition of these waves will be
(1) 49 : 1 (2) 1 : 49 (3) 1 : 7 (4) 7 : 1

Q.7 Two incoherent sources of light each with equal intensity I0 interfere in a medium. Will any
interference pattern be observed? If no, then why? Also what would be resultant intensity then?

Q.8 If two light rays of equal intensity superimposes, find out the ratio of maximum intensities when
sources are coherent and when sources are incoherent.

Q.9 The phenomenon of interference is shown by

(1) Longitudinal mechanical waves only (2) Transverse mechanical waves only
(3) Electromagnetic waves only (4) All the above types of waves

Q.10 Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I and 4I are superposed. The maximum
and minimum possible intensities in the resulting beam are
(1) 5I and I (2) 5I and 3I (3) 9I and I (4) 9I and 3I

Q.11 Two sources of waves are called coherent if

(1) Both have the same amplitude of vibrations
(2) Both produce waves of the same wavelength
(3) Both produce waves of the same wavelength having constant phase difference
(4) Both produce waves having the same velocity

10 Wave Optics
 Young's Double-Slit Experiment
• Double-slit experiment is a simple technique to produce interference fringes.
• This experiment was first performed with light by Thomas Young (British scientist : 1773-
1829) in 1801.
• In 1927, Davisson and Germer demonstrated that electrons show the same behavior, which
was later extended to atom and molecules.
• A monochromatic (single wavelength) light from a source S fall on two narrow slits S1 and
S2 which are very close together. The light waves are very close together.
• The light waves passing through the two slits are coherent, superpose on each other and
form an interference pattern on the screen.
• The pattern consists of alternate bright and dark fringes. The central fringe at point O is
always bright.

S1 Second bright
Interference fringes Second dark
First bright
First dark
Central bright
S First dark
Light First bright
Source Second dark
Second bright
S2

Screen

• At a point P on screen to find dark or bright fringe, it depends upon path difference between
S1P & S2P light waves.
Path difference, S2P − S1P = ∆x = d sinθ
• If the point P on the screen, situated at a distance y from central point O, is given by
Point position, y = D tan θ
For small angle or D >> d, (sinθ≈ tanθ≈θ)
yd
∆x.D = d.y ⇒ ∆x =
D
P
y
S1 θ
θ
d 0
M
S2
D

Condition for Constructive Interference

• Amplitude: Amax = a1 + a2

( )
2
• Intensity: Imax = I1 + I2

Wave Optics 11
 • Phase difference:
∆φ = 2n π Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
For CB(φ = 0), for B1(φ = 2π), for B2(φ = 4π),.....
(where CB is central bright fringe, B1 is 1st Bright fringe, B2 is 2nd Bright fringe…)
• Path difference:
∆x = n λ Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
For CB(x = 0), for B1(x = λ), for B2(x = 2λ),.....
• Fringe position:
xD nλD
y
= = Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
d d
For CB(y = 0), for B1(y = λD/d),
for B2(y = 2λD/d),...

Condition for Destructive Interference

• Amplitude: Amin = a 1 – a2

( )
2
• Intensity: Imin = I1 – I2

• Phase difference:
φ = (2n−1) π Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
For D1(φ=π), for D2(φ=3π), for D3(φ=5π),... (where D1 is 1stDark fringe, D2 is 2ndDark fringe…)

• Path difference:
x = (2n−1) λ/2 Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
For D1(x=λ/2), for D2(x=3λ/2), for D3(x=5λ/2), ...
• Fringe position:
D λD
y=x = (2n – 1) Here n = 1, 2, 3, ...
d 2d
For D1 (y = λD/2d), for D2(y = 3λD/2d), for
D3 (y = 5λD/2d), ...

Average Intensity
(Imax + Imin )
Iaverage = = Ι 1 + Ι2 = 2 Ι0
2
This shows that energy is simply redistributed in interference. i.e., Energy is conserved in
interference

Slit Width & Intensity

• If W1 and W2 represents width of two slits, then
2
W1 I1 a 
= =  1 
W2 I2 a
 2 

12 Wave Optics
 Fringe Width
The distance between the centers of two consecutive bright or dark
S1
fringes is called the fringe width.
In Young’s double-slit experiment, all the fringes are of equal width, α β
where S2
λD D
Linear width: β= and
d
β λ
Angular fringe width: α= =
D d
• If YDSE set-up is immersed in a liquid of refractive index µL, then the fringe width changes to
β λ D
βL= = ·
µL µL d

Shapes of Fringes
• The interference fringes are usually hyperbolic in shape.
• When distance of screen (D) is very large compared to the distance between the slits (d),
then fringes are straight.

YDSE With White Light

• If white light is used in place of monochromatic light in young's double slit experiment.
(a)central fringe is white
(b)Coloured fringe around the central white fringe
(c) Adjacent to centre of screen is red and edge of the CB is violet.

Fringe Visibility
Imax – Imin
• It is defined by the relation V = .
Imax + Imin
The fringe visibility is maximum
when I1 = I2 = I0 or Imin = 0,
i.e., when both slits are of equal width, the fringe visibility is best, equal to 1.

Example 10:
In YDSE wavelength of light is 5000Å, distance between screen & slits is 2m, distance between
two slits is 1mm, then calculate,
(i) Fringe width (ii) Angular fringe width
th th
(iii) Position of 4 bright fringe (iv) Position of 4 dark fringe
Solution:
–7
λ = 5 × 10 m; D=2m
–3
d = 1 × 10 m
λD –3
(i) Fringe width β = = 10 m
d
λ –4
(ii) Angular fringe width θ = = 5 × 10 rad
d
th
(iii) Position of 4 bright fringe
–3
= 4β = 4 × 10 m (from central maxima)

Wave Optics 13
 th
(iv) Position of 4 dark fringe
β 7 –3
= + 3β = β = 3.5 × 10 m
2 2

Example 11:
In a Young's slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.10 mm, the wavelength of
light used is 600 nm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 1.0 m away. Find the
separation between the successive bright fringes.
(1) 6.6 mm (2) 6.0 mm (3) 6 m (4) 6 cm.
Solution:
The separation between the successive bright fringes is-
Dλ 1 × 600 × 10–9
β= = ; β = 6.0 mm
d 1 × 10–3

Example 12:
A beam of light consisting of two wavelength 6500 Å & 5200 Å is used to obtain interference
fringes in a young's double slit experiment. The distance between the slits is 2.0 mm and the
distance between the plane of the slits and the screen is 120 cm. What is the least distance
from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide?
(1) 0.156 cm (2) 0.152 cm (3) 0.17 (4) 0.16 cm.
Solution:
th th
Suppose the m bright fringe of 6500 Å coincides with the n bright fringe of 5200 Å
mλ 1D nλ2D
yn = =
d d
m × 6500 × D n × 5200 × D
⇒ =
d d
m 5200 4
= = =
n 6500 5
∴ distance y is
mλ 1D 4 × 6500 × 1010 × 1.2
y= = = 0.156 cm
d 2 × 10–3

Example 13:
A double slit is illuminated by light of wave length 6000Å. The slit are 0.1 cm apart and the
screen is placed one meter away. Calculate :
th
(i) The angular position of the 10 maximum in radian and
(ii) Separation of the two adjacent minima.
Solution:
–7 –3
(i) λ = 6000 Å = 6 × 10 m, d = 0.1 cm = 1 × 10 m, D = 1m, n = 10
nλ 10 × 6 × 10–7
Angular position, θn = =
d 10–3
(ii) Separation between two adjacent minima = fringe width β
λD 6 × 10–7 × 1 –4
β= = = 6 × 10 m = 0.6 mm
d 1 × 10–3

14 Wave Optics
Example 14:
Find the percentage decrease in fringe width when YDSE experiment is performed in water
4
(µ = )
3
Solution:
λ0D λ0
β0 = In water λw =
d µ
β0 3
⇒βw = = β = 75%β0
µ 4 0
So, percentage decrease in fringe width = 25%

Example 15:
Find the total no. of bright fringes formed on the screen.
Screen

S1 S2
4λ

Solution:
As shown in the diagram total no. of bright fringes will be 16.
λ 0 λ
2λ 2λ
3λ 3λ
S1 S2
4λ 4λ
3λ 4λ
3λ
2λ 2λ
λ 0 λ

Thin Slab in Front of Slit

• If a thin glass plate or mica sheet is placed in front of one of the slits, then the central
fringe shifts towards the slit in front of which the glass shifted central
plate is placed. fringe P
t
• If t is the thickness of glass of mica sheet and is the
S1
refractive index of the material of sheet, then extra path
d O
difference introduced by the sheet is
S2 central
∆x = (µ – 1) t. path difference (µ – 1)t fringe
D
• In this situation, the fringe pattern shifts by
D β
yshift = (µ – 1)t = (µ – 1)t
d λ

Wave Optics 15
 • If the shift is equivalent to n fringes, then
y shift (µ – 1)t
N= =
β λ
• If the central fringe now appears at the location of previously formed nth bright fringe, then
∆x = (µ – 1)t = nλ
• If the central fringe appears at the position of previously formed nth dark fringe, then
(2n – 1)λ
(µ – 1)t =
2

Example 16:
In YDSE λ = 5000 Å, D = 2m, d = 1mm, A thin sheet of refractive index 1.5 and thickness 100 µm
is placed on the upper source find
(i) Path diff. introduced by sheet
(ii) Shift in the fringe pattern
(iii) No. fringes crossing the central point
Solution:
(i) Path difference
1 –6 –4
∆x = (µ – 1)t = × 100 × 10 = 0.5 × 10 m
2
(ii) Shift in fringe pattern
D 2m –1
∆y = ∆x = × 0.5 × 10–4 = 10 m
d 1 × 10–3
∆y 10–1 × 10–3 2
(iii) No. of fringes crossing = = = 10 m
β –10
5000 × 10 × 2

Concept Builder-3

Q.1 In Young's double slit experiment, carried out with light of wavelength λ = 5000 Å, the distance
between the slits is 0.2 mm and the screen is at 200 cm from the slits. The central maximum
is at x = 0. The third maximum will be at x equal to.
(1) 1.67 cm (2) 1.5 cm (3) 0.5 cm (4) 5.0 cm.

th
Q.2 In an interference pattern, at a point we observe the 16 order maximum for λ1=6000Å. What
order maxima will be visible here if the source is replaced by light of wavelength λ2 = 4800 Å.
(1) 40 (2) 20 (3) 10 (4) 80

Q.3 Two slits separated by a distance of 1mm are illuminated with red light of wavelength
-7
6.5 × 10 m. The interference fringes are observed on a screen placed 1m from the slits. The
distance between third dark fringe & the fifth bright fringe is equal to.
(1) 0.65 mm (2) 1.63 mm (3) 3.25 mm (4) 4.87 mm.

16 Wave Optics
 th th
Q.4 In YDSE light of wavelength λ1&λ2 is used find λ1 / λ2 if 5 bright fringe of λ1 coincides with 6
dark fringe of λ2

Q.5 In Young's double slit experiment the fringes are formed at a distance of 1m from double slit of
separation 0.12 mm. Calculate
(i) The distance of 3rd dark band from the centre of the screen.
(ii) The distance of 3rd bright band from the centre of the screen, given λ = 6000Å

Q.6 In Young's double slit experiment the two slits are illuminated by light of wavelength 5890Å and
the distance between the fringes obtained on the screen is 0.2°. The whole apparatus is
4
immersed in water, then find out angular fringe width, (refractive index of water = ).
3
Q.7 Young's experiment supports that
(1) Light consists of waves
(2) Light consists of particles
(3) Light consists of neither particles nor waves
(4) Light consists of both particles and waves

Q.8 Monochromatic green light of wavelength 5 × 10−7 m illuminates a pair of slits 1 mm apart. The
separation of bright lines on the interference pattern formed on a screen 2 m away is
(1) 0.25 mm (2) 0.1 mm (3) 1.0 mm (4) 0.01 mm

Q.9 In Young's double slit interference experiment, the slit separation is made 3 fold. The fringe
width becomes
(1) 1/3 times (2) 1/9 times (3) 3 times (4) 9 times

Q.10 Two coherent light sources S1 and S2 (λ= 6000 Å) are 1 mm apart from each other. The screen
is placed at a distance of 25 cm from the sources. The width of the fringes on the screen should
be
(1) 0.015 cm (2) 0.025 cm (3) 0.010 cm (4) 0.030 cm

Q.11 In Young's double slit experiment, a mica slit of thickness t and refractive index µ is introduced
in the ray from the first source S1. By how much distance the fringes pattern will be displaced

d D
(1) (µ − 1) t (2) (µ − 1) t
D d
d D
(3) (4) (µ − 1)
(µ − 1)D d

Wave Optics 17
Diffraction
• Italian scientist F.M. Grimaldi coined the word “diffraction”.
• He was the first to record accurate observations of the phenomenon in 1660.
• Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or
a slit.
• It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle/aperture in the path
of light into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
• Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, visible light , X-rays
and radio waves.
• Condition : The linear dimension ‘a’ of obstacle/aperture is comparable to the wavelength
‘λ’ of wave.
• Diffraction effects become more prominent when (λ/a) increases.
• It is further observed that greater the wavelength of waves, higher is the degree of
diffraction.
As λsound>λlight,diffraction is more easily observed in sound as compared to light.
• The basic arrangement for observing diffraction effects, three things needed - a source of
light, a diffracting element (an obstacle/aperture-an opening), and a screen.

Diffraction Pattern
• The illuminated region above the shadow of the object contains alternating bright and dark
fringes. Such a display is called a diffraction pattern.
• In the diffraction pattern, the intensity of successive maxima decreases rapidly.

Diffraction at a Single Slit (Fraunhoffer Diffraction)

Suppose a plane wavefront is incident on a slit AB(of width ‘a’). Each and every point of the exposed
part of the plane wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets spreading in all directions.
The diffraction is obtained on a screen placed at the focal plane of convex lens placed just after
the slit.
L2 P
L1 A
x
d θ θ
S O
C
B N
D

The diffraction pattern consists of a central bright fringe (central maxima- CB) surrounded by
dark (secondary minima - SD) and bright fringes (secondary maxima -SM).

Central Maxima (CM)

At point O on the screen, the central maxima is obtained. The wavelets originating from points
A and B meets in the same phase at this point, hence at O, intensity is maximum.

18 Wave Optics
 Minima (D)
• For obtaining nth minima at point P on the screen, path difference between the diffracted
waves
a sin θ = nλ, where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
• Angular position of nth dark,
nλ
sin θ ≈ θ =
a
• Distance of nth dark from CM on screen,
nλ D nλ f
yn = D.θ= =
a a
where, D = f = focal length of convex lens.

Secondary Maxima (SM)

• For obtaining nth secondary maxima at point P on the screen, path difference between the
diffracted waves
λ
a sin=
θ (2n + 1) , where n = 1, 2, 3, ....
2
• Angular position of nth SM,
(2n + 1)λ
sin θ ≈ θ =
2a
• Distance of nth SM from CM on screen,
(2n + 1)λD (2n + 1)λf
yn = D.θ= =
2a 2a

Fringe Width
The distance between two minima formed on two sides of central maximum is known as the
width of central maximum, So
Linear width of CM:
2λD 2λf M2 x2
W
=CM 2y
= D1 =
a a M1
2λ x1
Angular width of CM : θCM =2θSD = θ1
a θ1
λD λf θ2
M'1
Linear width of secondary minima - SD : W=
SD =
a a
λ
Angular width of secondary minima - SD : θSD =
a

Intensity Distribution Curve

The intensity distribution is shown is figure.

Wave Optics 19
 • Diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a central maxima flanked by alternate
minima and secondary maxima.
• If I0be the intensity of central maxima, then intensity of first three secondary maxima is
I0 I0 I
=I1 = , I2 and I3 = 0
22 62 121
• The diffraction fringes are of unequal width and unequal intensities.

Example 17:
In single slit diffraction experiment, width of slit is 1 mm and wavelength of light is 5000 Å;
distance of slit is 2 m from screen find
st
(i) Position of 1 minima
(ii) Width of central maxima
Solution:
(i) d sinθ = nλ
λ 5 × 10–7 –4
sinθ = = = 5 × 10
d 1 × 10–3

–4
θ = 5 × 10 rad.
2λD 2 × 5 × 10–7 –4
(ii) w = = = 20 × 10
d 10–3

–3
= 2 × 10 = 2 mm

Example 18:
–5
Light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 24 × 10 cm. Find out the
angular position of second minimum from central maximum?
Solution:
a sinθ = 2λ
–7 –5 –2
given λ = 6 × 10 m, a = 24 × 10 × 10 m
–7
2λ 2 × 6 × 10 1
sinθ = = = ∴θ = 30°
a 24 × 10–7 2

Example 19:
Light of wavelength 6328 Å is incident normally on a slit of width 0.2 mm. Calculate the angular
width of central maximum on a screen distance 9 m?
Solution:
–7 –3
given λ = 6.328 × 10 m, a = 0.2 × 10 m
2λ 2 × 6.328 × 10–7
wθ= = radian
a 2 × 10–4
6.328 × 10–3 × 180
= = 0.36°
3.14

20 Wave Optics
Example 20:
0
The first diffraction minima due to a single slit diffraction is at θ = 30 for a light of wavelength
5000 Å. The width of the slit is-
–5 –4 –5 –5
(1)5 × 10 cm (2)1.0 × 10 cm (3) 2.5 × 10 cm (4)1.25 × 10 cm
Solution:
The distance of first diffraction minimum from the central principal maximum x = λD/d
x λ λ
∴ sin θ = = ⇒d=
D d sin θ
5000 × 10–8 –5
⇒d = = 2 × 5 × 10
sin30°
–4
⇒ d = 1.0 × 10 cm,

Example 21:
The Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single slit is formed at the focal plane of a lens of focal
length 1 m. The width of the slit is 0.3 mm. If the third minimum is formed at a distance of 5
mm from the central maximum then calculate the wavelength of light.
Solution:
nfλ
xn =
a
axn 3 × 10–4 × 5 × 10–3
⇒ λ= = = 5000 Å [ n = 3]
fn 3× 1

Example 22:
A screen is placed 2 m away from the single narrow slit. Calculate the slit width if the first
minimum lies 5 mm on either side of the central maximum. Incident plane waves have a
wavelength of 5000 Å.
–4 –3 –2
(1) 2 × 10 m (2) 2 × 10 cm (3) 2 × 10 m (4) None
Solution:
Here distance of the screen from the slit,
D = 2 m, a = ?, x = 5 mm
–3
= 5 × 10 m, λ = 5000 Å
–10
= 5000 × 10 m
for the first minima,
sin θ = λ/a = x/D,

2 × 5000 × 10–10 –4
a = Dλ/x = = 2 × 10 m.
5 × 10–3
Hence correct answer is (1)

Wave Optics 21
 Concept Builder-4
–3
Q.1 In single slit experiment width of slit is 10 mm wavelength of light is 5000Å, distance of screen
is 2m, Find
st
(i) Angular position of 1 minima (ii) width of principal maxima

Q.2 Light of wavelength 5000Å is incident on a slit of width 0.1 mm. Find out the width of the central
bright line on a screen at a distance 2m from the slit?

Q.3 Width of slit is 0.3mm. Fraunhofer diffraction is observed at 1 m focal length in focus placed
lens. If third minima is at 5 mm distance from central maxima, then wavelength of light is-
(1) 7000Å (2) 6500Å (3) 6000Å (4) 5000Å

Q.4 A diffraction pattern is produced by a single slit of width 0.5mm with the help of a convex lens
of focal length 40cm. If the wave length of light used is 5896 Å. then the distance of first dark
fringe from the axis will be-
(1) 0.047 cm (2) 0.047 m (3) 0.047 mm (4) 47 cm

Q.5 A slit of width a is illuminated by white light. For red light (λ = 6500 Å), the first minima is
obtained at θ =30o . Then the value of a will be
(1) 3250 Å (2) 6.5 × 10−4 mm (3) 1.24 microns (4) 2.6 × 10−4 cm

Q.6 The light of wavelength 6328 Å is incident on a slit of width 0.2 mm perpendicularly, the angular
width of central maxima will be
(1) 0.36o (2) 0.18o (3) 0.72o (4) 0.09o

Q.7 The bending of beam of light around corners of obstacles is called

(1) Reflection (2) Diffraction (3) Refraction (4) Interference

Q.8 A slit of size 0.15 cm is placed at 2.1 m from a screen. On illuminated it by a light of wavelength
5 × 10–5 cm. The width of central maxima will be
(1) 70 mm (2) 0.14 mm (3) 1.4 mm (4) 0.14 cm

Q.9 Conditions of diffraction is

a a a
(1) ≈1 (2) >> 1 (3) << 1 (4) None of these
λ λ λ

Q.10 Wavelength of light is 500 nm and width of each slit is 4 µm. If slits are separated by 20 µm
then find no. of interference fringes inside central maxima of diffraction pattern.

22 Wave Optics
 Validity of Ray Optics
• When a slit or hole of size a is illuminated by a parallel beam, then it is diffracted into an
angle of ≈ λ / a
• When travelling a distance Z, the size of image is Zλ / a.
Zλ a2
So, taking ≥a⇒Z≥
a λ
2
Now, distance ZF is called Fresnel’s distance. ZF = a /λ
• Spreading due to diffraction is comfortable upto distance ZF/2 and
• Spreading due to diffraction is prominent, for distance much greater than ZF,
• So, image formation can be explained by ray optics for distance less than ZF.

a2
Fresnel’s distance is given by ,
λ

a θ=λ/a

Differences Between Interference & Diffraction

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
It due to superposition of waves from two It due to superposition of wavelets from same
coherent source. wavefront.
All bright fringes are of same intensity. Intensity decreases with the increase in the
order of maxima.
Fringes are of same width. Fringes are not of same width.
The number of bands is large. The number of bands is small.
Bands are equally spaced. Bands are unequally spaced.

Polarisation
Light is an electromagnetic wave in which Electric and Magnetic field vectors vary sinusoidally
perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
The magnitude of electric field vector is much larger as compared to the magnitude of magnetic
field vector.
Thus, we prefer to describe light in terms of electric field oscillations.

Wave Optics 23
 Unpolarized Light
• In ordinary light, the electric field vectors are distributed uniformly in all the possible
directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
Such light is known as the “unpolarized light”.
• The unpolarized light is symmetrical about the direction of propagation.
• An unpolarized light is equivalent to superposition of two mutually perpendicular identical
plane polarized light.

Ray Diagram of UPL & PL

Unpolarized Light

Polarized Light
Polarization / Plane Polarized Light
• If vibrations of electric field vector are limited in one direction in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of light wave, then this light is called the “plane polarized light”.
• The phenomenon of the restriction of the vibrations to a particular direction is called
“polarization”.
• The crystal doing polarization known as “polarizer”.
• Tourmaline crystal acts as polarizer.
• The lack of symmetry of vibration around the direction of wave propagation is called
polarization.
• Polarization of light waves shows that they are transverse waves.
plane of vibration
A B
plane
E polarised light

O'
unpolarised G
F plane of
light
D C polarisation

• The plane is which vibrations of polarized light are confined is called plane of vibration (ABCD).
• A plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarization(EFGH).
• The angle between plane of vibration and direction of propagation of wave is 90°.
• The angle between plane of polarization and direction propagation of wave is 90°.
• If an unpolarized light is converted into plane polarized light, its intensity reduces to half.

24 Wave Optics
 Polaroid
• These are artificially prepared polarizing materials (like iodosulphate of quinone) in the form
of sheets or plates capable of producing strong beam of plane polarized light.
• It is a very big polarizing film mounted between two glass plates and is used to obtain plane-
polarized light for commercial purposes.
• Polaroid allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis to pass through them.
• The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarized light is incident is called polarizer.
• The crystal or polaroid on which polaroised light is incident is called analyser.
Detector
θ

Unpolarised
light
Analyser

Polariser

If intensity of unpolarized light falling on the polarizer is I0 then only half of it I0/2 is
transmitted by the polarizer

Malus’s Law
When a beam of completely plane polarized light (intensity I0) is incident on an analyser, the
resultant intensity of light (I) transmitted from the analyser varies directly as the square of the
cosine of the angle between plane of transmission of analyser and polarizer.
2 2
I ∝ cos θ & I = I0 cos θ
This law is called Malus’s law.
It is named after E. L. Malus (1775-1812), a French Physicist.

• If light of intensity I1 emerging from one polaroid (called polarizer) is incident on a second
polaroid (usually called analyser) the intensity of the light emerging from the second
polaroid will be given by
2
I2 = I1 cos θ′
where θ' is the angle between the transmission axis of the two polaroids.
(i) if the two polaroids have their transmission axes parallel to each other, i.e., θ′ = 0°,
2
I2 = I1 cos 0° = I1

Wave Optics 25
 (ii) if the two polaroids are crossed, (transmission axes perpendicular to each other), i.e.,
θ′ = 90°.
2
I2 = I1 cos 90° = 0

Parallel polaroids Crossed polaroids

So, if an analyser is rotated from 0° to 90° with respect to polarizer, the intensity of
emergent light changes from maximum value I1 to minimum value zero.

Example 23:
A polarizer and an analyser are oriented so that maximum light is transmitted, what will be the
intensity of outcoming light when analyser is rotated through 60°.
Solution:
2
2 2  1 I
According to Malus Law I = I0 cos θ = I0 cos 60° = I0   = 0
2 4
Methods of Polarization
Plane polarized light can be produced by the following methods:
(a) by reflection
(b) by dichroism (Polaroids)
(c) by scattering.

By Reflection
Brewster discovered that when light is incident at a particular angle on a transparent substance,
the reflected light is completely plane polarized with vibrations in a plane perpendicular to the
plane of incidence. UPL PPL
This specific angle of incidence is called polarizing angle θP and is
i = θp
related to the refractive index µ of the material through the relation: r
tan θp = µ
This is known as Brewster's law.
It is named after Sir D. Brewster (1781-1868), a British Scientist.
In case of polarization by reflection: PL
Partially
• For i = θp, refracted light is plane polarized.
• For i = θp, reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.
• For i< or >θp, both reflected and refracted light become partially polarized.

26 Wave Optics
 By Scattering
When a beam of white light passes through a medium consisting of y
Unpolarised
small particles of dust, smoke, air molecules etc. (having size of the light

order of wavelength of light), it is absorbed by the particle and is re-

radiated in all directions. This phenomenon is called as scattering. Polarised Polarised
light light
Light scattered in a direction at right angles to the incident light is
always plane-polarized. z x
Unpolarised
light

Example 24:
If light beam is incident at polarizing angle (56.3°) on air-glass interface, then what is the angle
of refraction in glass?
Solution:
 ip + rp = 90°

∴ rp = 90° – ip

= 90° – 56.3° = 33.7°

Example 25:
When light of a certain wavelength is incident on a plane surface of a material at a glancing
angle 30°, the reflected light is found to be completely plane polarized. Determine
(a) refractive index of given material and
(b) angle of refraction.
Solution:
Angle of incident light with the surface is 30°. Hence angle of incidence = 90° – 30° = 60°. Since
reflected light is completely polarized, therefore, incidence takes place at polarizing angle of
incidence θp.

(a) ∴ θp = 60°

Using Brewster's law

µ = tan θp = tan 60°

∴ µ= 3
(b) From Snell's law
sin60º
µ =∴ = 3=
sinr

3 1 1
or sinr= × =
2 3 2

r = 30°

Wave Optics 27
 Concept Builder-5

Q.1 A polarizer and an analyser are oriented so that maximum light is transmitted, what will be the
intensity of outcoming light when analyser is rotated through 30°.

Q.2 Two polaroids as oriented with their planes perpendicular to incident light and transmission
axis making an angle of 30° with each other. What fraction of incident unpolarized light is
transmitted?

Q.3 Two polaroids P1 & P2 are placed with their axis perpendicular to each other. Unpolarized light I0
is incident on P1. A third polaroid P3 is kept in between P1& P2 such that its axis makes an angle
30° with that of P1. Find the intensity of transmitted light through P2 ?
Q.4 Refractive index of a medium is 3 . Find the angle of incidence to polarize the incoming light
after reflection.

Q.5 Image of Sun formed due to reflection at air water interface is found to be very highly polarized.
Refractive index of water being µ = 4/3, find the angle of Sun above the horizon.

Q.6 A polarizer is used to

(1) Reduce intensity of light (2) Produce polarized light
(3) Increase intensity of light (4) Produce unpolarized light

Q.7 Light waves can be polarized as they are

(1) Transverse (2) Of high frequency
(3) Longitudinal (4) Reflected

Q.8 The angle of polarization for any medium is 60o, what will be critical angle for this
1
(1) sin−1 3 (2) tan−1 3 (3) cos−1 3 (4) sin−1
3

Q.9 The angle of incidence at which reflected light is totally polarized for reflection from air to glass
(refraction index n) is
 1  1
(1) sin−1 (n) (2) sin−1   (3) tan−1   (4) tan−1 (n)
n n

Q.10 Plane polarized light is passed through a polaroid. On viewing through the polaroid we find that
when the polaroid is given one complete rotation about the direction of the light, one of the
following is observed
(1) The intensity of light gradually decreases to zero and remains at zero
(2) The intensity of light gradually increases to a maximum and remains at maximum
(3) There is no change in intensity
(4) The intensity of light is twice maximum and twice zero

28 Wave Optics
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDER

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-4

1. (2) 2. 5000Å, 5625 Å
3. (2)
1. (i)θ = 30° (ii) w =2 mm.

CONCEPT BUILDER-2 2. 20 mm 3. (4)

2π 4. 10 5. (1)
1. (a) π (b)
3
2. I0, 9I0 and 7I0 6. (3) 7. (1)

3. 4I0 8. (2) 9. (3)

4. (a) 4I0 (b) 0 (c) 3I0 10. (1)
5. 2I0 6. (1)
CONCEPT BUILDER-5
7. No, 2I0 8. 2:1
3I0 3
9. (4) 10. (3) 1. 2. = 37.5 %
4 8
11. (3)
3 I0
3. 4. 60°
CONCEPT BUILDER-3 32
1. (2) 2. (2)
5. 37° 6. (2)
λ1 11
3. (2) 4. = 7. (1) 8. (4)
λ2 10
5. (i) 1.25 cm (ii) 1.5 cm [n = 3] 9. (4) 10. (4)

6. 0.15° 7. (1)
8. (3) 9. (1)
10. (1) 11. (2)

Wave Optics 29
 Exercise - I
Wave Nature of Light 7. If the amplitude ratio of two sources
producing interference is 3 : 5, the ratio of
1. Wavefront means
intensities at maxima and minima is
(1) All particles in it have same phase
(2) All particles have opposite phase of (1) 25 : 16 (2) 5 : 3
vibrations (3) 16 : 1 (4) 25 : 9
(3) Few particles are in same phase, rest
are in opposite phase 8. For the sustained interference of light, the
(4) None of these necessary condition is that the two
sources should
2. Wavefront of a wave has direction with
(1) Have constant phase difference
wave motion
(2) Be narrow
(1) Parallel (2) Perpendicular
(3) Be close to each other
(3) Opposite (4) At an angle of θ
(4) Of same amplitude
3. Ray diverging from a point source forms a
wave front that is 9. y 1 4 sin ωt
If two waves represented by=
(1) Cylindrical (2) Spherical
 π
(3) Plane (4) Cubical and =
y2 3 sin  ωt +  interfere at a point,
 3
the amplitude of the resulting wave will be
4. Huygen wave theory allows us to know
(1) The wavelength of the wave about
(2) The velocity of the wave (1) 7 (2) 6
(3) The amplitude of the wave (3) 37 (4) 35
(4) The propagation of wave fronts

10. If two light waves having same frequency

5. The idea of secondary wavelets for the
have intensity ratio 4 : 1 and they interfere,
propagation of a wave was first given by
the ratio of maximum to minimum
(1) Newton (2) Huygen
(3) Maxwell (4) Fresnel intensity in the pattern will be
(1) 9 : 1 (2) 3 : 1
Interference (3) 25 : 9 (4) 16 : 25

6. Which of the following is false for

interference of light 11. Two light sources are said to be coherent
(1) Coherence of the sources is an essential if they are obtained from
condition for interference (1) Two independent point sources emitting
(2) The minima of the interference pattern light of the same wavelength
need not be of zero intensity
(2) A single point source
(3) Interference simply redistributes light
(3) A wide source
energy, without destroying any of it
(4) Two ordinary bulbs emitting light of
(4) The minima of the interference pattern
must always be of zero intensity different wavelengths

30 Wave Optics
12. Two waves having intensity in the ratio YDSE
25 : 4 produce interference. The ratio of
the maximum to the minimum intensity is 18. In a certain double slit experimental
(1) 5 : 2 (2) 7 : 3 arrangement interference fringes of width
(3) 49 : 9 (4) 9 : 49 1.0 mm each are observed when light of
wavelength 5000 Å is used. Keeping the set
13. Which of the following is conserved when up unaltered, if the sources is replaced by
light waves interfere another source of wavelength 6000 Å, the
(1) Intensity (2) Energy fringe width will be
(3) Amplitude (4) Momentum (1) 0.5 mm (2) 1.0 mm
(3) 1.2 mm (4) 1.5 mm
14. In a wave, the path difference corresponding
to a phase difference of φ is: 19. The figure shows a double slit experiment
π π where P and Q are the slits. The path
(1) ϕ (2) ϕ
2λ λ
lengths PX and QX are nλ and (n + 2) λ
λ λ
(3) ϕ (4) ϕ respectively, where n is a whole number
2π π
and λ is the wavelength. Taking the central
fridge as zero, what is formed at X
15. Two coherent sources of intensities, I1 and
I2 produce an interference pattern. The
maximum intensity in the interference
pattern will be:
(1) I1 + I2 (2) I21 + I22
(1) First bright (2) First dark
(3) (I1 + I2)2 (4) ( I1 + I2 )2
(3) Second bright (4) Second dark

16. Two beams of light having intensities I and

20. In Young’s double slit experiment, if one of
4I interfere to produce a fringe pattern on
the slits is closed fully, then on screen.
a screen. The phase difference between
(1) No interference pattern will exist
π
the beams is at point A and π at point B. (2) The bright fringes will become more bright
2
Then the difference between the resultant (3) The bright fringes will become fainter
intensities at A and B is (4) None of the above
(1) 2I (2) 4I
(3) 5I (4) 7I 21. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the
fringe width is found to be 0.4 mm. If the
17. Two light sources are coherent when: whole apparatus is immersed in water of
(1) their amplitude are equal refractive index 4/3 without disturbing the
(2) their frequencies are equal geometrical arrangement, the new fringe
(3) their wavelength are equal width will be
(4) their frequencies are equal and their (1) 0.30 mm (2) 0.40 mm
phase difference is constant (3) 0.53 mm (4) 450 micron

Wave Optics 31
22. In Young’s double slit interference pattern 26. In Young's double slit experiment when
the fringe width wavelength used is 6000 Å and the screen
(1) Can be changed only by changing the is 40 cm from the slits, the fringes are
wavelength of incident light 0.012 cm wide. What is the distance
(2) Can be changed only by changing the between the slits
separation between the two slits (1) 0.024 cm (2) 2.4 cm
(3) Can be changed either by changing the (3) 0.24 cm (4) 0.2 cm
wavelength or by changing the
separation between the two slits 27. If yellow light in the Young's double slit
(4) Is a universal constant, hence cannot experiment is replaced by red light, the
be changed fringe width will
(1) Decrease
23. The slits in a Young’s double slit (2) Remain unaffected
experiment have equal widths and the (3) Increase
source is placed symmetrically relative to (4) First increase and then decrease
the slits. The intensity at the central
fringes is I0. If one of the slits is closed, the 28. In Young's double slit experiment, angular
intensity at this point will be width of fringes is 0.20o for sodium light of
(1) I0 (2) I0/4 wavelength 5890 Å. If complete system is
(3) I0/2 (4) 4I0 dipped in water, then angular width of
fringes becomes
24. In a Young’s double slit experiment, 12 (1) 0.11o (2) 0.15o
fringes are observed to be formed in a (3) 0.22o (4) 0.30o
certain segment of the screen when light
of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the 29. In young’s double slit experiment with a
wavelength of the light is changed to 400 source of light of wavelength 6320 Å, the
nm, number of fringes observed in the first maxima will occur when
same segment of the screen is given by (1) Path difference is 9480 Å
(1) 12 (2) 18 (2) Phase difference is 3π radian
(3) 24 (4) 30 (3) Path difference is 6320 Å
(4) Phase difference is π radian
25. The Young's experiment is performed with
the lights of blue (λ = 4360 Å) and green 30. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the
colour (λ = 5460 Å), If the distance of the separation of the two slits is doubled. To
4th fringe from the centre is x, then keep the same spacing of fringes, the
(1) x (Blue) = x (Green) distance D of the screen from the slits
(2) x (Blue)> x (Green) should be made
(3) x (Blue) < x (Green) D D
(1) (2)
x(Blue) 5460 2 2
(4) =
x(Green) 4360 (3) 2D (4) 4D

32 Wave Optics
31. In the Young’s double slit experiment with 35. What happens to the fringe pattern when
sodium light. The slits are 0.589 m a part. the Young’s double slit experiment is
The angular separation of the third performed in water instead or air then
maximum from the central maximum will fringe width
be (given λ = 589 nm) (1) Shrinks (2) Disappear
(3) Unchanged (4) Enlarged
(1) sin−1 (0.4 × 108 )
(2) sin−1 (0.4 × 10−6 ) 36. In Young’s double slit experiment, if
(3) sin−1 (3 × 10−8 ) monochromatic light used is replaced of
−1
(4) sin (3 × 10 ) −6 the waves is:
(1) no fringes are observed
(2) all bright fringes become white
32. In Young’s double slit experiment, the
(3) all bright fringes have colours between
wavelength of the light used is doubled
violet and red
and distance between two slits is half of
(4) only central fringe is white and all other
initial distance, the resultant fringe width
fringes are coloured
becomes
(1) 2 times (2) 3 times
Diffraction of Light
(3) 4 times (4) 1/2 times
37. Angular width of central maximum of a
diffraction pattern on a single slit does not
33. In Young’s double slit experiment the
depend on
wavelength of light was changed from
(1) Distance between slit and source
7000 Å to 3500 Å. While doubling the
(2) Wavelength of light used
separation between the slits which of the
(3) Width of the slit
following is not true for this experiment (4) Frequency of light used
(1) The width of the fringes changes
(2) The colour of bright fringes changes 38. A single slit of width 0.20 mm is
(3) The separation between successive illuminated with light of wavelength 500
bright fringes changes nm. The observing screen is placed 80 cm
(4) The separation between successive from the slit. The width of the central
dark fringes remains unchanged bright fringe will be
(1) 1 mm (2) 2 mm

34. In Young’s double-slit experiment, an (3) 4 mm (4) 5 mm

interference pattern is obtained on a

39. Red light is generally used to observe
screen by a light of wavelength 6000 Å,
diffraction pattern from a single slit. If blue
coming from the coherent sources S1 and
light is used instead of red light, then
S2. At certain point P on the screen third
diffraction pattern
dark fringe is formed. Then the path
(1) Will be more clear
difference S1P – S2P in microns is (2) Will contract
(1) 0.75 (2) 1.5 (3) Will be expanded
(3) 3.0 (4) 4.5 (4) Will not be visualized

Wave Optics 33
40. The phenomenon of diffraction of light was 45. Light of wavelength λ = 5000 Å falls
discovered by normally on a narrow slit. A screen placed
(1) Huygen (2) Newton at a distance of 1 m from the slit and
(3) Fresnel (4) Grimaldi perpendicular to the direction of light. The
first minima of the diffraction pattern is
41. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from situated at 5 mm from the centre of central
a distant source falls on a single slit 1 mm maximum. The width of the slit is
wide and the resulting diffraction pattern (1) 0.1 mm (2) 1.0 mm
is observed on a screen 2m away. The (3) 0.5 mm (4) 0.2 mm
distance between the first dark fringes on
either side of the central bright fringe is 46. The phenomenon of diffraction can be
(1) 1.2 mm (2) 1.2 cm exhibited by:
(3) 2.4 cm (4) 2.4 mm (1) infrared waves
(2) microwaves
42. A parallel monochromatic beam of light is (3) X-rays
incident normally on a narrow slit. A
(4) all of these
diffraction pattern is formed on a screen
placed perpendicular to the direction of
47. A diffraction pattern is obtained using a
incident beam. At the first maxima of the
beam of red light. What happens if the red
diffraction pattern the phase difference
light is replaced by blue light?
between the rays coming from the edges
(1) No change
of the slit is
(2) Diffraction bands become narrower and
π
(1) 0 (2) crowded together.
2
(3) Bands become broader and farther
(3) π (4) 3π
apart

43. Diffraction effects are easier to notice in (4) Bands disappear.

the case of sound waves than in the case

of light waves because 48. A slit of width a is illuminated by white
(1) Sound waves are longitudinal light. The first minimum for red light
(2) Sound is perceived by the ear (λ = 6500 Å) will fall at θ = 30°, when a will
(3) Sound waves are mechanical waves be:
(4) Sound waves are of longer wavelength (1) 3250 Å
(2) 6.5 × 10–4 cm
44. Direction of the first secondary maximum (3) 1.3 micron
in the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern at a (4) 2.6 × 10–4 cm
single slit is given by (a is the width of the
slit) 49. Light of wavelength 2 × 10−3 m falls on a slit
λ 3λ of width 4 × 10−3 m . The angular width of
(1) a sin θ = (2) a cos θ =
2 2
the central maximum will be:
3λ
(3) a sin θ = λ (4) a sin θ = (1) 30° (2) 60°
2
(3) 90° (4) 180°

34 Wave Optics
 Polarization 55. The angle of incidence at which reflected
light is totally polarized for reflection from
50. Polarized glass is used in sun glasses air to glass (refractive index n) is
because  1
(1) sin–1(n) (2) sin−1  
(1) It reduces the light intensity to half an n
account of polarization  1
(3) tan−1   (4) tan−1 (n)
(2) It is fashionable n
(3) It has good colour
(4) It is cheaper 56. Refractive index of material is equal to
tangent of polarizing angle. It is called
51. Two Nicols are oriented with their principal
(1) Brewster’s law (2) Lambert’s law
planes making an angle of 60°. The
(3) Malus’s law (4) Bragg’s law
percentage of incident unpolarized light
which passes through the system is
57. In case of linearly polarized light, the
(1) 50% (2) 100%
magnitude of the electric field vector
(3) 12.5% (4) 37.5%
(1) Does not change with time
(2) Varies periodically with time
52. When the angle of incidence on a material
(3) Increases and decreases linearly with
is 60°, the reflected light is completely
polarized. The velocity of the refracted ray time

inside the material is (in ms–1) (4) Is parallel to the direction of

propagation
(1) 3 × 108
 3  8
(2)   × 10 58. Polarization of light proves the:
 2 
(1) corpuscular nature of light
(3) 3 × 108
(2) quantum nature of light
(4) 0.5 × 108
(3) transverse wave nature of light
(4) longitudinal wave nature of light
53. A polarizer is used to
(1) Reduce intensity of light
59. A ray of light is incident on the surface of
(2) Produce polarized light
a glass plate at an angle of incidence equal
(3) Increase intensity of light
to Brewster’s angle φ. If µ represents the
(4) Produce unpolarized light
represents the refractive index of glass

54. Light waves can be polarized as they are with respect to air, the angle between the

(1) Transverse reflected and refracted rays is:

(2) Of high frequency (1) ( 90 + φ ) (2) sin−1 ( µ cos φ )
(3) Longitudinal  sin φ 
(3) 90° (4) sin−1  
(4) Reflected
 µ 

Wave Optics 35
 Exercise - II
1. In a double-slit experiment, two parallel 4. The central fringe of the interference
slits are illuminated first by light of pattern produced by light of wavelength
wavelength 400 nm. The fourth-order dark 6000 Å is found to shift to the position of
fringe resulting from the known 4th bright fringe after a glass plate of
wavelength of light falls in the same place refractive index 1.5 is introduced.
on the same place on the screen as the
The thickness of the glass plate would be:
second-order bright fringe from the
(1) 4.8 µm (2) 8.23 µm
unknown wavelength. The value of
(3) 14.98 µm (4) 3.78 µm
unknown wavelength of the light is
(1) 900 nm
5. In Young’s experiment monochromatic
(2) 700 nm
(3) 300 nm light is used to illuminate the two slits

(4) none of these A and B. Interference fringes are observed

on a screen placed infront of the slits,
2. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits Now, if a thin glass plate is placed normally
are 2 mm apart and are illuminated with a in the path of the beam coming from the
mixture of two wavelength λ0 =750 nm slit A, then:
and λ =900 nm. The minimum distance
A
from the common central bright fringe on
a screen 2 m from the slits, where a bright
fringe from one interference pattern B
coincides with a bright fringe from the
(1) the fringes will disappear
other, is
(1) 1.5 mm (2) the fringe width will increase

(2) 3 mm (3) the fringes width will increases

(3) 4.5 mm (4) there will be no change in fringe width
(4) 6 mm but fringe pattern shifts

3. One of the two slits in YDSE in painted over, 6. In Young’s double slit experiment, the two
so that it transmits only light waves having slits act as coherent sources of equal
intensity half of the intensity of the light amplitude a and of wavelength λ but are
waves through the other slit. As a result of this incoherent. The ratio of the intensity of
(1) fringe pattern disappears light at the mid-point of the screen in the
(2) bright fringes becomes brighten and first case to that in the second case is:
dark ones become darker (1) 2 : 1
(3) dark and bright fringes get fainter (2) 1 : 2
(4) dark fringes get brighter and bright (3) 3 : 4
fringes get darker (4) 4 : 3

36 Wave Optics
7. In Young’s double slit, experiment, 11. Two polaroids A and B are placed in such
illuminated by yellow light, one slit is a way that the pass-axis of polaroids are
covered with plane transparent thin glass perpendicular to each other. Now, another
plate and the other slit by blue filter. Then: polaroid C is placed between A and B
(1) there will be yellow and blue bisecting angle between them. If intensity
interference fringes formed on the screen of unpolarised light is I0 then intensity of
(2) there will be uniform illumination on transmitted light after passing through
the screen polaroid B will be:
(3) the maximum intensity fringes will be I0 I0
(1) (2)
doubly coloured 4 2
(4) the minimum intensity fringes will be I0
(3) (4) Zero
dark 8

8. Two polaroids are kept crossed to each 12. The maximum number of possible
other. Now one of them is rotated through interference maxima for slit-separation
equal to twice the wavelength in Young's
an angle of 45°. The percentage of incident
double-slit experiment, is :
light now transmitted through the system is:
(1) infinite (2) five
(1) 15% (2) 25%
(3) three (4) zero
(3) 50% (4) 60%
13. A Young's double slit experiment uses a
9. Two polaroids are placed in the path of monochromatic source. The shape of the
unpolarized beam of intensity I0 such that interference fringes formed on a screen is:
no light is emitted from the second Polaroid. (1) hyperbola (2) circle
If a third Polaroid whose polarization axis (3) straight line (4) parabola
makes an angle θ with the polarization axis
of first polaroid, is placed between these 14. In a Young's double slit experiment the
polaroids then the intensity of light intensity at a point where the path
emerging from the last polaroid will be difference is λ / 6 (λ being the wavelength
I  I  of the light used) is I. If I0 denotes the
(1)  0  sin2 2θ (2)  0  sin2 2θ maximum intensity, I/I0 is equal to:
8 4
   
1 3
I  (1) (2)
(3)  0  cos4 θ 4
(4) I0 cos θ 2 2
2
  1 3
(3) (4)
2 4
10. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the
intensities at two points, for the path 15. In Young's double slit experiment, one of
λ λ the slit is wider than other, so that the
difference and ( λ being the
4 3 amplitude of the light from one slit is
wavelength of light used) are I1 and I2 double of that from other slit. If Im be the
maximum intensity, the resultant intensity
respectively. If I0 denotes the intensity
I when they interfere at phase difference v
produced by each one of the individual
is given by:
I +I
slits, then 1 2 = ..... Ιm  2 φ Ιm
I0 (1)  1 + 8cos 2  (2) (4 + 5cos φ)
9 9
(1) 2 (2) 4
Ιm  2 φ Ιm  2 φ
(3) 3 (4) None of these (3)
9  1 + 2cos 2  (4)
5  1 + 4cos 2 

Wave Optics 37
 16. The maximum number of possible 19. If I0 is the intensity of the principle
interference maxima slit separation equal maximum in the single slit diffraction
to 1.8λ , where λ is the wavelength of light pattern, then what will be its intensity
used, in a Young's double slit experiment when the slit width is doubled:
is: (1) 2I0 (2) 4I0
(1) Zero (2) 3 (3) I0 (4) I0 / 2
(3) Infinite (4) 5
20. In a Young's double slit experiment, the
17. This question has Statement-1 and distance between the two identical slits is
Statement-2. Of the four choices given 6.1 times larger than the slit width. Then
after the Statements, choose the one that the number of intensity maxima observed
best describes the two Statements. within the central maximum of the single
Statement-1: In young's double slit slit diffraction pattern is:
experiment, the number of fringes (1) 3 (2) 6
observed in the field of view is small with (3) 12 (4) 24
longer wavelength of light and is large with
shorter wavelength of light. 21. A single slit of width b is illuminated by a

Statement-2: In the double slit experiment coherent monochromatic light of

the fringe width depends directly on the wavelength λ. If the second and fourth

wavelength of light. minima in the diffraction pattern at a

(1) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true distance 1 m from the slit are at 3 cm and

and the Statement-2 is correct 6 cm respectively from the central

explanation of the Statement-1 maximum, wheat is the width of the

(2) Statement-1 is false and the central maximum? (i.e. distance between

Statement-2 is true first minimum on either side of the central

maximum):
(3) Statement-1 is true Statement-2 is true
and the Statement-2 is not correct (1) 1.5 cm (2) 3.0 cm

explanation of the Statement-1 (3) 4.5 cm (4) 6.0 cm

(4) Statement-1 is true and the Statement-2

22. When an unpolarized light of intensity I0 is
is false
incident on a polarizing sheet, the intensity
of the light which does not get transmitted is:
18. In a Young's double slit experiment with
(1) 1 / 2I0 (2) 1 / 4I0
light of wavelength λ the separation of
slits is d and distance of screen is D such (3) Zero (4) I0

that D  d  λ . If the fringe width is β , the

23. Two Polaroids have their polarizing directions
distance from point of maximum intensity
parallel so that the intensity of a transmitted
to the point where intensity falls to half of
light is maximum. The angle through which
maximum intensity on either side is:
either polaroid must be turned if the
β β
(1) (2) intensity is to drop by one-half is:
6 3
(1) 135° (2) 90°
β β
(3) (4) (3) 120° (4) 180°
4 2

38 Wave Optics
24. Two beams, A and B, of plane polarized 25. Unpolarized light of intensity I is incident
light with mutually perpendicular planes of on a system of two polarizers, A followed
polarization are seen through a polaroid. by B. The intensity of emergent light is I/2.
From the position when the beam A has If a third polarizer C is placed between A
maximum intensity (and beam B has zero and B, the intensity of emergent light is
intensity), a rotation of polaroid through reduced to I/3. The angle between the
30° makes the two beams appear equally polarizers A and C is θ, then
bright. If the initial intensities of the two  2
1/4
 1
1/4

(1) cos θ =  (2) cos θ = 

beams are IA and IB respectively, then IA / IB  3  3
equals: 1/2 1/2
 1  2
(1) 3 (2) 3/2 (3) cos θ =  (4) cos θ = 
 3  3
(3) 1 (4) 1/3

Wave Optics 39
 Exercise - III

1. In YDSE, match the column-I & column-II 3. Match the column :

Column I Column II
Column-I Column-II
Interference
(A) (1)
= I I0 cos2 θ
3λD of light
(i) Fringe width (a)
d
Brewster’s obstacle/aperture
(B) (2)
Angular fringe 7λ D Law of size = 1
(ii) (b)
width 2d Diffraction of
(C) (3) µ =tan ip
light
Position of 3rd
λ (D) Law of Malus (4) Coherent sources
(iii) bright w.r.t. (c)
d
centre (1) (A) → (3); (B) → (4); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(2) (A) → (1); (B) → (2); (C) → (3); (D) → (4)
Position of 4 λD
(iv) (d) (3) (A) → (4); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
dark w.r.t. centre d
(4) (A) → (4); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(1) (i) – a, (ii) - b, (iii) - c, (iv) - d
4. Match Plane wave incident on different
(2) (i) - d, (ii) - c, (iii) - a, (iv) - b
surfaces. In column I with the emergent
(3) (i) - d, (ii) - c, (iii) - b, (iv) - a
wavelength in Column II.
(4) (i - c, (ii) - d, (iii) - a, (iv) – b
Column I Column II

2. Match the column :

Column-A Column-B (A) (1)

Fresnel distance equal 𝜃𝜃

(A) (P)
to = 90∘

In a single slit (B) (2)

a2
(B) experiment, when Δ a, (Q)
𝜆𝜆
then angular width

In single slit (C) (3)

experiment, angular
(C) (R) n𝜆𝜆
width for first dark
fringe.

Path difference for (D) (4)

𝜆𝜆
(D) dark fringe in single slit (S)
a
diffraction

(1) A → Q, B → P, C → S, D → R (1) (A) → (1); (B) → (3); (C) → (2); (D) → (4)
(2) A → R, B → Q, C → P, D → S (2) (A) → (3); (B) → (4); (C) → (2); (D) → (1)
(3) A → P, B → R, C → Q, D → P (3) (A) → (2); (B) → (4); (C) → (3); (D) → (1)
(4) A → S, B → S, C → R, D → Q (4) (A) → (4); (B) → (2); (C) → (1); (D) → (3)

40 Wave Optics
From the (5 to 12) 8. Assertion (A) : If white light is used in place
Read the Assertion and Reason carefully of monochromatic light in YDSE then
and mark the correct options. central point is white. Although at other
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and places coloured fringes will be obtained.
Reason is the correct explanation of Reason (R) : At centre, path difference is
Assertion. zero for each wave length. Hence all wave

(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but will interfere constructively.
(1) A (2) B
Reason is not correct explanation of
(3) C (4) D
Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
9. Assertion (A) : In case of single slit
(D) Assertion is false and Reason is true.
diffraction intensity of higher order
maxima decreases.
5. Assertion (A) : Wave nature can be proved
Reason (R) : Higher order maxima are at
by phenomena of interference and
larger distance.
diffraction.
(1) A
Reason (R) : Only transverse wave can
(2) B
show the phenomena of polarization. (3) C
(1) A (2) B (4) D
(3) C (4) D
10. Assertion (A) : Out of radio waves and
6. Assertion (A) : When width of one of the microwaves, the radio waves are more
slits in Young's double slit experiment is diffracted in daily life.
four times that of the other, then brighter Reason (R) : Practically diffraction is more
fringes are nine times brighter than the for waves which have longer wavelength.
dark fringes. (1) A
Reason (R) : The amplitude of the wave is (2) B
proportional to the width of the slit. (3) C
(1) A (2) B (4) D

(3) C (4) D
11. Assertion (A) : Diffraction takes place for
all types of waves mechanical or non-
7. Assertion (A) : In the figure shown zero
mechanical, transverse or longitudinal.
order maxima will be above point "O".
Reason (R) : Diffraction's effects are
perceptible only if wavelength of wave is
comparable to dimensions of diffracting
device.
(1) A
Reason (R) : Zero order maxima means a (2) B
point where the phase difference is zero. (3) C
(1) A (2) B (4) D
(3) C (4) D

Wave Optics 41
12. Assertion (A) : If three polarisers are 14. In a single slit diffraction, for first maxima:
arranged such that the axis of any two (i) ∆x = λ
successive polarisers make equal angle of (ii) ∆φ = 2π
3λ
45° with each other. If unpolarised light of (iii) ∆x =
2
intensity I0 incident on first polariser then
(iv) ∆φ = 3π
intensity of emergent light after 3rd
(1) (i) and (ii) (2) (i) and (iv)
I0 (3) (ii) and (iii) (4) (iii) and (iv)
polariser is .
8
Reason (R) : In given condition each time 15. When incident light is polarized in a plane
intensity becomes 50% by Malus law. perpendicular to the plane of incidence
(1) A and it is incident at the angle of polarization
(2) B (A) Reflected light is perfectly polarized

(3) C (B) Refracted light will be partially

polarized
(4) D
(C) Reflected light is partially polarized
(D) There will be no reflection
13. (A) Phase difference between various
(1) (A, B) (2) (B, C)
particles on a wave front is zero
(3) (B, D) (4) (D)
(B) Normal to the wave front represents a
ray of light. 16. When sun light is incident on water surface
(C) A point source of light gives rise to at an angle of incidence 53 , the reflected
spherical wavefronts. ray is found to be completely polarized then
(D) A wave front always travels in forward (A) The angle of refraction is 37°
direction in a medium. 3
(B) The refractive index of water is
2
Correct statements are –
(C) The angle of refraction is 53°
(1) A and B only
4
(D) The refractive index of water is
(2) A, B and C only 3
(3) C and D only (1) A, B (2) B, C
(4) A, B, C and D (3) C, D (4) A, D

42 Wave Optics
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. A parallel beam of light of wavelength λ 5. A parallel beam of fast moving electrons
is incident normally on a narrow slit. A is incident normally on a narrow slit. A
diffraction pattern is formed on a screen fluorescent screen is placed at a large
placed perpendicular to the direction of distance from the slit. If the speed of the
the incident beam. At the second electrons is increased, which of the
following statements is correct?
minimum of the diffraction pattern, the
[NEET_2014]
phase difference between the rays coming
(1) The angular width of the central
from the two edges of slit is [NEET_2013]
maximum of the diffraction pattern
(1) πλ (2) 2π will increase
(3) 3π (4) 4π (2) The angular width of the central
maximum will decrease
2. In Young’s double experiment, the slits are (3) The angular width of the central
2mm apart and are illuminated by photons maximum will be unaffected
o (4) Diffraction pattern is not observed on
of two wavelengths λ 1 =12000 A and the screen in case of electrons
o
λ2 =10000 A . At what minimum distance 6. In a double slit experiment, the two slits
from the common central bright fringe on are 1 mm apart and the screen is placed
the screen 2m from the slit will a bright 1 m away. A monochromatic light
fringe from one interference pattern wavelength 500 nm is used. What will be
the width of each slit for obtaining ten
coincide with a bright fringe from the
maxima of double slit pattern?
other? [NEET_2013]
[NEET_2015]
(1) 6 mm (2) 4 mm
(1) 0.1 mm (2) 0.5 mm
(3) 3 mm (4) 8 mm
(3) 0.02 (4) 0.2 mm

3. In Young’s double slit experiment the 7. Two slits in Young’s experiment have
distance between the slits and the screen widths in the ratio 1:25. The ratio of
is doubled. The separation between the intensity at the maxima and minima in the
slits s reduced to half. As a result the Imax
interference pattern, is [NEET_2015]
fringe width [NEET_2013(Kar.)] Imin
(1) is doubled (1) 49/21 (2) 4/9
(2) is halved (3) 121/49 (4) 9/4
(3) becomes four times
8. For a parallel beam of monochromatic
(4) remains unchanged
light of wavelength ' λ ', diffraction is
produced by a single slit whose ‘a’ is of the
4. In the Young’s double slit experiment, the
wavelength of the light. If ’D’ is the
intensity of light at a point on the screen distance of the screen from the slit, the
where the path difference is λ is K, width of the central maxima will be
(λ being the wave length of light used). The [NEET_2015]
intensity at a point where the path Da 2Da
(1) (2)
difference is λ / 4 , will be : [NEET_2014] λ λ
(1) K (2) K/4 Dλ 2Dλ
(3) (4)
(3) K/2 (4) zero a a

Wave Optics 43
9. At the first minimum adjacent to the 13. Two Polaroids P1 and P2 are placed with
central maximum of a single slit their axis perpendicular to each other.
diffraction pattern, the phase difference Unpolarized light I0 is incident on P1 . A
between the Huygen’s wavelet from the
third Polaroid P3 is kept in between P1 and
edge of the slit and the wavelet from the
midpoint of the slit is: [NEET_2015] P2 such that its axis makes an angle 45o
π with that of P1 . The intensity of
(1) radian (2) π radian
2
transmitted light through P2 is:
π π
(3) radian (4) radian [NEET_2017]
8 4
I0 I0
(1) (2)
10. A beam of light of λ =600 nm from a 4 8
distant source falls on a single slit 1 mm I0 I0
(3) (4)
wide and the resulting diffraction pattern 16 2
is observed on a screen 2 m away. The
distance between first dark fringes on 14. The ratio of resolving powers of an optical
either side of the central bright fringe is microscope for two wavelengths
[NEET_2015]
λ 1 =4000 Å and λ2 =6000 Å is
(1) 1.2 cm (2) 1.2 mm
[NEET_2017]
(3) 2.4 cm (4) 2.4 mm
(1) 9 : 4 (2) 3 : 2
11. The intensity at the maximum in a Young’s (3) 16 : 81 (4) 8 : 27
double slit experiment is I0 . Distance
between two slits is d= 5λ , where λ is the 15. Light is incident on a polarizer with
wavelength of light used in the intensity I0. A second prism called analyzer
experiment. What will be the intensity in is kept at a angle of 15°, from the first
front of one of the slits on the screen polarizer then the intensity of final
placed at a distance D = 10 d?[NEET_2016]
emergent light will be [NEET_2018]
I0
(1) I0 (2) (1) Ι0 ( 2 − 1) (2) Ι0 ( 3 − 1)
4
3 I0 Ι0 Ι0
(3) I (4) (3) (2 + 3) (4) (2 − 3)
40 2 8 8

12. In a diffraction pattern due to a single slit 16. In a double slit experiment, when light of
of width ‘a’, the first minimum is observed wavelength 400 nm was used, the angular
o
at an angle 30 when light of wavelength width of the first minima formed on a
o
5000 A is incident on the slit. The first screen placed 1 m away, was found to be
secondary maximum is observed at an 0.2°. What will be the angular width of the
angle of: [NEET_2016] first minima, if the entire experimental
 1 2 apparatus is immersed in water
(1) sin–1   (2) sin–1  
2 3 (mwater = 4/3) [NEET_2019]
 1 3 (1) 0.266° (2) 0.15°
(3) sin–1   (4) sin–1  
4 4 (3) 0.05° (4) 0.1°

44 Wave Optics
17. In a Young's double slit experiment if there 22. Two coherent sources of light interfere
is no initial phase difference between the and produce fringe pattern on a screen.
light from the two slits, a point on the For central maximum, the phase
screen corresponding to the fifth difference between the two waves will be:
minimum has path difference. [NEET_2020(Odisha)]
[NEET_2019(Odisha)] (1) zero (2) λ
λ λ (3) 3λ/2 (4) λ/2
(1) 5 (2) 10
2 2
λ λ 23. A lens of large focal length and large
(3) 9 (4) 11
2 2
aperture is best suited as an objective of
an astronomical telescope since:
18. Angular width of the central maxima in the
[NEET_2021]
Fraunhofer diffraction for l = 6000 Å is µ0.
(1) a large aperture contributes to the
When the same slit is illuminated by
quality and visibility of the images.
another monochromatic light, the angular
(2) a large area of the objective ensures
width decreases by 30%. The wavelength
better light gathering power.
of this light is, [NEET_2019(Odisha)]
(3) a large aperture provides a better
(1) 1800 Å (2) 4200 Å
resolution.
(3) 6000 Å (4) 420 Å
(4) all of the above.

19. Assume that light of wavelength 600 nm

is coming from a star. The limit of 24. In a Young's double slit experiment, a
resolution of telescope whose objective student observes 8 fringes in a certain
has a diameter of 2 m is: segment of screen when a monochromatic
[NEET_2020] light of 600 nm wavelength is used. If the
(1) 6.00 × 10
–7
rad (2) 3.66 × 10
–7
rad wavelength of light is changed to 400 nm,

(3) 1.83 × 10
–7
rad (4) 7.32 × 10
–7
rad the number of fringes he would observe in
the same region of the screen is:
20. The Brewsters angle i0 for an interface [NEET_2022]

should be: [NEET_2020] (1) 6 (2) 8

(1) i0 = 90° (2) 0° <i0< 30° (3) 9 (4) 12

(3) 30° <i0< 45° (4) 45° <i0< 90°

25. A linearly polarized monochromatic light
of intensity 10 lumen is incident on a
21. In a Young's double slit experiment, if the
separation between coherent sources is polarizer. The angle between the direction

halved and the distance of the screen of polarization of the light and that of the
from the coherent sources is doubled, polarizer such that the intensity of output
then the fringe width becomes: light is 2.5 lumen is:
[NEET_2020] [NEET_2022(Dubai)]
(1) one-fourth (2) double (1) 75° (2) 30°
(3) half (4) four times (3) 45° (4) 60°

Wave Optics 45
26. For Young's double slit experiment, two 27. Which set of colours will come out in air
statements are given below: for a situation shown in figure?
Statement I: If screen is moved away [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
from the plane of slits, angular separation
of the fringes remains constant.
Statement II : If the monochromatic
source is replaced by another
monochromatic source of larger
wavelength, the angular separation of
fringes decreases. (1) Yellow, Orange and Red
In the light of the above statements, (2) All
choose the correct answer from the
(3) Orange, Red and Violet
options given below:
(4) Blue, Green and Yellow
[NEET_2023]
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are
true.
(2) Both Statement I and Statement II are
false.
(3) Statement I is true but Statement II is
false.
(4) Statement I is false but Statement II is
true.

46 Wave Optics
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 2 4 2 4 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 3 4 2 4 3 3 1
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 3 2 2 3 4 3 2 3 3 4 3 4 2 1 4 1 3 2 4
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
Ans. 4 4 4 4 1 4 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 4 1 2 3 3

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 3 4 1 4 1 2 2 1 3 3 3 1 4 1 2 1 3 2 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. 2 1 1 4 2

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. 2 1 4 2 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 1 4 4 4 4

Exercise - IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 1 3 3 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Ans. 4 1 4 4 4 2 1

Wave Optics 47
 3 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

1. Dual Nature of Radiation

(Electromagnetic Wave):
Electromagnetic radiation is an emission with a dual nature, i.e. it has both wave and particle
aspects.

2. Photon Theory
According to quantum theory, light consists of photons as energy packets having following
properties :
(i) Each photon is of energy E = hν = hc/λ = mc2
12400
E= eV
λ(Å)
–34 –15
Where h is Planck's constant. Where h = 6.63×10 J-sec = 4.14×10 eV–sec,
(ii) All photons travel in straight line with the speed of light in vacuum.
(iii) Photons are electrically neutral.
(iv) Photons have zero rest mass.
(v) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
(vi) The equivalent mass of a photon while moving is given by
E hν hc h
m= = = =
c 2
c 2
cλ 2
cλ
(vii) Momentum of the photon
⇒ p = E/c = hν/c = h/λ
(viii) Number of photons per second of wavelength λ emitted from a lamp of power P is-
Pλ
n=
hc
(ix) Velocity of photon in vacuum is always c & it's independent from frame of reference.
(x) Equivalent mass
energy of photon(E) hv
m= ⇒m=
2
c c2

Example 1:
12
Find the number of photons in 6.63 joule of radiation energy of frequency 10 Hz?
Solution:
No. of photons
Total Energy E
n= =
Energy of one Photon hν

6.63 22
= = 10
6.63 × 10–34 × 1012

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 1

Example 2:
Calculate the energy and momentum of a photon of wavelength 6600Å.
Solution:
Energy of photon
hc 6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108 –19
E= = = 3 × 10 J
λ 6600 × 10–10
Momentum of photon
h 6.6 × 10–34 –27
p= = = 10 kg m/sec.
λ 6600 × 10–10

3. Momentum, Force and Radiation Pressure

The electromagnetic wave transports not only energy but also momentum, and hence can exert
a radiation pressure and force on a surface due to the absorption or reflection.
• The energy of photons is given as
hc 2
E = hν = = mc
λ
where ν is frequency, λ is wavelength, h is Planck's constant.
• The photon is a chargeless particle of zero rest mass.
• Photons are electrically neutral. They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
• If E is the energy of source in joule then number of photons emitted is
total energy radiated E Eλ
n= = =
energy of each photon hν hc

• Intensity of photons is defined as amount of energy carried per unit area per unit time.
Or power carried per unit area
Energy Power
Intensity (Ip) = =
area × time area
N
Ip = nhν = P
4πr2
where n = number of photons per unit area per unit time
N = number of photons, P = power of source
N
e.g. (a) For a point source Ip = nhν = P
4πr2
S
E hv
P= = r
t t
P

N
(b) For a line source Ip = nhν = P
2πr

r

2 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 According to Newton's second law the force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface
may be related by the equation,
∆P
F= …(i)
∆t
∆P 1  ∆E 
From Eq. (i), =  
∆t c  ∆t 
1  ∆E 
∴ F=   ...(ii).
c  ∆t 
Intensity (I) of a wave is the energy transported per unit area per unit time.
 1  ∆E ∆E
or I=   ∴ = I.A.
 A  ∆t ∆t
ΙA
Substituting in Eq. (ii), F=
c
F Ι Ι
or = pressure = or Prad =
A c c
Ι
is also equal to the energy density (energy per unit volume) u.
c
If absorption and reflection coefficient be 'a' and 'r'

Case 1. a = 1, r = 0
F ΙA
Prad = = = I/c
A cA
Case 2. r = 1, a = 0
F 2ΙA 2Ι
Prad = = =
A cA c
Case 3. 0<r<1 a+r=1
F ΙA 1 Ι
Prad = = (1 + r) × = (1+r)
A c A c
Case 4. General case When 0 < r < 1
a + r = 1 & angle of incidence makes an angle θ with normal θ

F ΙA 1 θ
Ι 2
Prad = = (a + r) × cosθ = (a + r) cos θ
A c A c

Example 3:
2
The intensity of direct sunlight before it passes through the earth's atmosphere is 1.4 kW/m . If
it is completely absorbed find the corresponding radiation pressure.
Solution:
For completely absorbing surface,
Ι 1.4 × 103 –6 –2
Prad = = = 4.7 × 10 Nm
c 3.0 × 108

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 3

Example 4:
2
Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 Å is incident normally on a surface of area 4 cm . If
–2 2
the intensity of the light is 15 × 10 W/m , determine the rate at which photons strike the
surface.
Solution:
Rate at which photons strike the surface
ΙA 6 × 10–5 J / s 13
= = = 9.05 × 10 photon/s.
hc / λ –19
6.63 × 10 J / photon

Example 5:
A plate of mass 10 g is in equilibrium in air due to the force exerted by light beam on plate.

Calculate power of beam. Assume plate is perfectly absorbing.

Solution:
Since plate is in air, so gravitational force will act on this
Fgravitational = mg (downward)
–3 –1
= 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 N
for equilibrium force exerted by light beam should be equal to Fgravitational.
Fphoton = Fgravitational
Let power of light beam be P
P P –1
∴ Fphoton = ∴ = 10
c c
8 –1 7
P = 3.0 × 10 × 10 ⇒ P = 3 × 10 W
I E A P
F
= = A .
=
C At C C

Example 6:
Radiation of wavelength 200 nm. propagating in the form of a parallel beam, fall normally on a
2
plane metallic surface. The intensity of the beam is 5 mW and its cross-sectional area is 1.0 mm .
Find the pressure exerted by the radiation on the metallic surface if the radiation is completely
reflected.
Solution:
P 5 × 10–3 3 2
I= = = 5 × 10 W/m
A 1 × 10–6

2Ι 2 × 5 × 103 –5 2
p= = = 3.3 × 10 N/m
c 3 × 10 8

Example 7:
A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 663 nm is incident on a totally reflected
plane mirror. The angle of incidence is 60° and the number of photons striking the mirror per
19
second is 1.0 × 10 . Calculate the force exerted by the light beam on the mirror.

4 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Solution:
h
2N cos θ
∆P λ
F =
=
∆t t
2nh
= cos θ
λ

2 × 1 × 1019 × 6.6 × 10−34 1

×
663 × 10−9 2
F = 10−8 N

Example 8:
A beam of white light is incident normally on a plane surface absorbing 70% of the light and
reflection the rest. If the incident beam carries 10 W of power, find the force exerted by it on
the surface.
Solution:
F = 2 P/c, if light is completely reflected
F = P/c, if light is completely absorbed
Here, in this problem, 70% light is absorbed and 30% is reflected.
70 P 30 2P P 1.3 × 10 –8
F= × + × = 1.3 = = 4.3 × 10 N
100 c 100 c c 3 × 10 8

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 The energy of a photon is equal to 3 kilo eV. Calculate its linear momentum?

Q.2 Which colour of photon has greater energy either red or violet?

Q.3 Calculate number of photons passing through a ring of unit area in unit time if light of
intensity 100 Wm–2 and of wavelength 400 nm is falling normally on the ring.

Q.4 A TV station is operated at 100 MW with a signal frequency of 10 MHz. Calculate the number
of photons radiated per second by its antenna.

Q.5 A special kind of light bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 700 nm. Electrical
energy supply to it at the rate of 60 W and the bulb is 50% efficient at converting that energy
to light energy. How many photons are emitted by the bulb during its life time of 1 day.

Q.6 A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wave length 500 nm is incident normally on a
perfectly absorbing surface. The power through any cross-section of the beam is 10 W. Find
(a) Number of photon absorbed by the surface per second.
(b) The force exerted by light beam on the surface.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 5

4. Photoelectric Effect
When light of an appropriate frequency (or correspondingly of an appropriate wavelength) is
incident on a metallic surface, electrons are liberated from the surface. This observation is
known as photoelectric effect. Photoelectric effect was first observed in 1887 by Hertz.
Attempts to explain the effect by classical electromagnetic failed. In 1905, Albert Einstein
presented an explanation based on the quantum concept of Max Planck. The effect is based on
the principle of conservation of energy.

Threshold Frequency (ν0):

The minimum frequency of incident radiations required to eject the electron from metal surface
is known as threshold frequency.
If incident frequency ν < ν0 ⇒ No photoelectron emission.
Threshold Wavelength (λ0):
The maximum wavelength of incident radiations required to eject the electrons from a metallic
surface is known as threshold wavelength.
If incident wavelength λ > λ0 ⇒ No photoelectron emission.
Work Function (W or φ):
The minimum energy of incident radiation, required to eject the electrons from metallic surface
is known as work function of that surface.
φ = hν0, ν0 = Threshold frequency ;
hc
φ = hν0 = (Joule) ; ν0 = Threshold frequency ; λ0 = Threshold wavelength
λ0
hc 12400
φ= = eV
eλ0 λ0 (Å)
Maximum Kinetic Energy (Kmax): According to Einstein maximum of kinetic energy is –
Kmax = E – φ
where E is energy of incident photon and φ is work function.
And also Kmax = hν – hν0
 hc hc 
or Kmax =  – 
 λ λ0 

6 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Stopping Potential (V0):
At a particular negative potential of Anode no electron will reach the plate and the current will
become zero, this negative potential is called stopping potential denoted by V0.
• If we apply negative potential equal to stopping potential then photoelectric effect takes
place but no photo current are observed.
⇒ Kmax = eV0
⇒ hν – hν0 = eV0
 hν hν 0 
⇒ V0 =  – 
 e e 
The stopping potential V0 depends only on the metal and frequency of incident photon and does
not depend on the intensity of incident light.
Saturation Current (Is): This is the current in the circuit for which all the electron emitted by
cathode are able to reach anode.
Graphs

Variation of Photoelectric current with Variation of photocurrent with collector plate potential for
intensity of light. different intensity of incident radiation.

Variation of photoelectric current with collector plate Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency ν of
potential for different frequencies of incident radiation. incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.

Example 9:
–19
The kinetic energies of photoelectrons range from zero to 4.0 × 10 J when light of wavelength
3000 Å falls on a surface. What is the stopping potential for this light ?
Solution:
–19 1eV
Kmax = 4.0 × 10 J× = 2.5 eV.
1.6 × 10–19 J
Then, from eVs = Kmax, Vs = 2.5 V.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 7

Example 10:
What is the threshold wavelength for the material in above problem ?
Solution:
12400eV 12400eV
2.5 eV = –
3000Å λ th
Solving, λth = 7590 Å.

Example 11:
In an experiment on photo electric emission, following observations were made;
–7
(i) Wavelength of the incident light = 1.98 × 10 m;
(ii) Stopping potential = 2.5 volt.
Find :
(a) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed.
(b) Work function and
(c) Threshold frequency;
Solution:
(a) Since Vs = 2.5 V, Kmax = eVs
so, Kmax = 2.5 eV
(b) Energy of incident photon
12400
E= = 6.26 eV
1980
W = E – Kmax = 3.76 eV
–19
(c) hνth = W = 3.76 × 1.6 × 10 J
–19
3.76 × 1.6 × 10 J
∴ νth = –34
≈ 9.1 × 1014 Hz
6.6 × 10
14
≈ 9.1 × 10 Hz

Example 12:
A metallic surface is irradiated with monochromatic light of variable wavelength. Above a
wavelength of 5000 Å, no photoelectrons are emitted from the surface. With an unknown
wavelength, stopping potential is 3V. Find the unknown wavelength.
Solution:
Using equation of photoelectric effect
Kmax = E – φ (Kmax = eVs)
12400 12400 12400
∴ 3 eV = – = – 2.48 eV
λ 5000 λ
or λ = 2262 Å

Example 13:
Illuminating the surface of a certain metal alternately with light of wavelengths λ1 = 0.35 µm
and λ2 = 0.54 µm, it was found that the corresponding maximum velocities of photo electrons
have a ratio η = 2. Find the work function of that metal.

8 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Solution:
Using equation for two wavelengths
1 hc
mv 21 = –φ ....(i)
2 λ1

1 hc
mv 22 = –φ ....(ii)
2 λ2
hc
–φ
λ
Dividing Eq. (i) with Eq. (ii), with v1 = 2v2, we have 4= 1
hc
–φ
λ2
 hc   hc 
⇒ 3φ = 4   –  
λ
 2  λ1 
4 × 12400 12400
⇒ 3φ = – = 5.64 eV
5400 3500
φ = 1.88 eV

Example 14:
1 mW of light of wavelength 456 nm is incident on a cesium surface. Calculate the photoelectric
current produced, if the quantum efficiency of the surface for photoelectric emission is only 0.5%.
Solution:
hc
P=n , n : number of photons/sec
λ
Pλ
n=
hc
Quantum efficiency
number of electron sejected / sec n'
η= =
number of photonsincident / sec n
n' = ηn
Photoelectric current
 Pλ 
i = n'e = (η n)e = η   e
 hc 
 0.5  (10–3 )(456 × 10–9 ) –19 –6
=   × 1.6 × 10 = 1.84 × 10 A = 1.84 µA
 100  (6.6 × 10–34
)(3 × 108
)

Example 15:
In a experiment on photoelectric effect, light of wavelength 400 nm is incident on a cesium
plate at the rate of 5.0 W. The potential of the collector plate is made sufficiently positive with
respect to the emitter so that the current reaches its saturation value. Assuming that on the
6
average one out of every 10 photons is able to eject a photoelectron, find the photocurrent in
the circuit.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 9

Solution:
1 Pλ
Here ; η = ;i=η e
106 hc
1 5 × 400 × 10–9 –19 –6
= × × 1.6 × 10 = 1.6 × 10 A = 1.6 µA
106 6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108

Example 16:
Light described at a place by the equation
15 –1 15 –1
E = (100 V/m) [sin (5 × 10 s ) t + sin (8 × 10 s )t]
falls on a metal surface having work function 2.0 eV. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons.
Solution:
The light contains two different frequencies. The one with larger frequency will cause
photoelectrons with largest kinetic energy. This larger frequency is
ω 8 × 1015 s–1
v= =
2π 2π
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
Kmax = hυ – W

–15  8 × 1015 –1 
= (4.14 × 10 eV-s) ×  s  – 2.0 eV = 5.27 eV – 2.0 eV = 3.27 eV.
 2π 

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 A monochromatic light incident on metal ‘A’ having threshold frequency ν0. It emits photo
electrons of maximum kinetic energy K. Now incident frequency is made three times and
fall on a metal ‘B’ having threshold frequency 2ν0. What will maximum kinetic energy of
photo electrons emitted by metal ‘B’?

Q.2 A metalic surface of work function hn is illuminated by a radiation beam of frequency 5ν.
Stopping potential observed is X. What will be stopping potential if the surface is illuminated
by radiations of 7ν frequency?

Q.3 If light of wavelength 4000 Å falls on a metal which has a stopping potential 1.4 volt against
photoelectric emission then what is the work function of the metal. [Take h = 6.6 × 10 –34 Js
and c = 3 × 108 ms–1 ]

Q.4 A light beam of power 1.5 mW and 400 nm wavelength incident on a cathode. If quantum
efficiency is 0.1% then, find out obtained photo current and number of photoelectron per
second.

10 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Q.5 The kinetic energy of the fastest moving photo electron from a metal of work function 2.8
eV is 2eV. If the frequency of light is doubled, then find the maximum kinetic energy of
photo electron.

Q.6 The wavelength of photons in two cases are 4000 Å and 3600 Å respectively what is
difference in stopping potential for these two?

Q.7 The work function of a metal is 4 eV if 5000Å wavelength of light is incident on the metal.
Is there any photo electric effect?

Q.8 When incident wavelength is λ, stopping potential is 3 V0. If incident wavelength is 2λ then
stopping potential is V0. Find out threshold wavelength in terms of λ.

Q.9 In a photo cell 4 unit photo electric current is flowing, the distance between source and
cathode is 4 unit. Now distance between source and cathode becomes 1 unit. What will be
photo electric current now ?

Q.10 Threshold frequency of a surface is ν0. It is illuminated by 3 ν0 frequency, then maximum

speed of photo electrons is V m/sec. What will be maximum speed if incident frequency is
9 ν0 ?

5. De-Broglie Wavelength of Matter Wave

As wave behaves like material particles, similarly matter also behaves like waves. According to
de-Broglie, a wavelength of the matter wave associated with a particle is given by
h h h
λ= = = , where m is the mass, v is velocity and K is kinetic energy of the particle.
p mv 2Km
• de-Broglie wavelength for an electron:
If an electron (charge = e) is accelerated by a potential of V volts, it acquires a kinetic energy,
K = eV
Substituting the values of h, m and q in above Eq. we get a simple formula for calculating
de-Broglie wavelength of an electron.
150
λ(in Å) =
V(in volts)

• de-Broglie wavelength of a gas molecule:

Let us consider a gas molecule at absolute temperature T. Kinetic energy of gas molecule
is given by
3
K.E. = kT ; k = Boltzmann constant
2
h
∴ λgas molecule =
3mkT

Example 17:
An electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 50 volt. Find the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with it.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 11

Solution:
For an electron, de-Broglie wavelength is given by,
150 150
λ= = = 3 = 1.73 Å
V 50

Example 18:
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelength of molecules of hydrogen and helium which are at
temperatures 27°C and 127°C respectively.
Solution:
de-Broglie wavelength is given by
λH mHe THe 4 (127 + 273) 8
∴ 2
= = . =
λHe mH TH 2 (27 + 273) 3
2 2

Example 19:
Find the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.01 kg pellet having a velocity of 10 m/s.
Solution:
6.63 × 10–34 J.s –23
λ = h/p = = 6.63 × 10 Å.
0.01kg × 10m / s

Example 20:
Determine the accelerating potential necessary to give an electron for de Broglie wavelength of
1 Å, which is the size of the interatomic spacing of atoms in a crystal.
Solution:
150
V= 2
= 150 V
λ (inÅ)

Concept Builder-3

Q.1 The potential energy of a particle of mass m is given by

U(x) = {
E0 ; 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
0; x > 1
λ1 and λ2 are the de-Broglie wavelength of the particle, when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and x > 1, respectively.
λ1
If the total energy of particle is 2E0 the ratio will be:
λ2
1
(1) 2 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4)
2

Q.2 Find out voltage applied to an electron microscope to produce electron of wavelength 0.6Å.

Q.3 A particle of mass M at rest decays into two particles of masses m1 and m2 having non zero
velocities. Find out the ratio of the de–Broglie wavelengths of the two particles.

Q.4 de-Broglie wavelength of an electron, accelerated by potential V is λ. What will be de-Broglie

wavelength of the electron which is accelerated by 4V potential ?

Q.5 Find out velocity of an electron so that its momentum is equal to that of photon with a
wavelength of λ = 5200Å.

12 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Key Points

Wave – Particle Duality

• Particle can show wave like properties and wave can show particle like properties.
• It is just a matter of experiment that which property will be revealed.
• Only one of the nature will be revealed in a given experiment.
• Both wave nature and particle nature will not be shown simultaneously in a given situation.

7. Atomic Structure
7.1 Thomson's Atomic Model
• Plum-pudding model– In atom positive charge is spread out in space with electron
embedded throughout the region.
• He found the charge to mass ratio of electron for atomic structure.
E
= 1.7 × 10+11 e / kg
M

7.2 Rutherford's Model of The Atom

• Performed gold foil experiment on bombarding high speed α-particle on thin gold foil.
• Most of the alpha-particles went straight.
- conclusion: atoms are mostly empty space.
• Very few alpha particle (1 in 8000) were deflected by more than 90°.
- conclusion: atoms have a very small, dense positive center called nucleus''.
• Rutherford could not explain
- Stability of atom
- Characteristic spectrum/spectral lines.

7.3 Distance of Closest Approach

When a light charged particle is projected directly on heavy nucleus.
(Changed particle)
(m,v) •
• Nuclues
rmin

If
Z1e : Charge on projected particle
Z2e : Charge on nucleus
v0 : Speed of charged particle at large distance from nucleus.
m : mass of projected charged particle.
rmin : Distance of closest approach
At, minimum distance, whole K.E. will be converted into P.E.
1 1 (Z1e)(Z2e) Z1Z2e2
mv 20 = . ; rmin =
2 4πε0 rmin 2πε0mv 02

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 13

Example 21:
An α-particle with kinetic energy 10 MeV is heading towards a stationary point-nucleus of atomic
number 50. Calculate the distance of closest approach.
Solution:
 TEA = TEB
6 K × (2e)(50e)
∴ 10 × 10 e =
r0
–14 –4
r0 = 1.44 × 10 m ; r0 = 1.44 × 10 Å

Example 22:
7
A beam of α-particles of velocity 2.1 × 10 m/s is scattered by a gold (z = 79) foil. Find out the
distance of closest approach of the α-particle to the gold nucleus. The value of charge/mass
7
for α-particle is 4.8 × 10 C/kg.
Solution:
 2e 
2K   (79e)
1 2 K(2e)(Ze)  mα  2 × (9 × 109 )(4.8 × 107 )(79 × 1.6 × 10–19 )
mαVα = ⇒ r0 = =
2 r0 Vα2
(2.1 × 107 )2
–14
r0 = 2.5 × 10 m

Example 23:
Calculate the nearest distance of approach of an α-particle of energy 2.5 MeV being scattered
by a gold nucleus (Z = 79)
Solution:
T.E1 = T.E2
2
6 1 2e(79) e
2.5 × 10 e =
4πε0 rmin

9 × 109 × 2 × 79 × 1.6 × 10–19 –14

⇒ rmin = = 9 × 10 m
2.5 × 106

7.4 Bohr's Atomic Theory

1 2 + ++
• Bohr's theory is applicable for Hydrogen/hydrogen like atoms/ions (1H , 1H , He , Li etc).

According to Bohr's Theory:

V
• An electron moves in circular orbits; necessary centripetal force is
provided by electrostatic attraction between nucleus and electron.
Mathematically,
+ ze ( − e)
mv 2 1 Ze.e
FC = = . ...(1)
r 4πε0 r2
r

14 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 • The electron revolves only in those (stationary orbits) for which angular momentum of
electron is integral multiple of h/2π (Bohr's quantisation rule).
Mathematically,
nh
mvr = ...(2)
2π
where n = 1, 2,....
This is called Bohr's quantum condition.
• The emission or absorption of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one of its
orbit to another. The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits
is absorbed when the electron jumps from an inner to an outer orbit and emitted when
electron jumps from outer to the inner orbit.
Mathematically,
hf = E2 – E1
This is called Bohr's frequency condition

th
7.5 Radius of Electron in n Orbit
Using eq. (1)
2
mv 2 1 Ze 2 1 Ze2
= ⇒ v = .
r 4πε0 r2 4πε0 mr
2
Putting value of v in eq. (2) after squaring eq (2)
2
 1 Ze2  2  nh 
2
m   r =  
 4πε0 mr   2π 
 h2 ε0  n2
⇒ r = rn =   .
 πme2  Z
 
n2  n2 ε0 
= a0  where
= a0 = 0.53Å 
Z  πme 2 
 
n2 1
a0 is known Bohr radius rn ∝ ,r ∝
Z n m
Graphs:

rn rn rn

Z n n2
th
Speed of Electron in n Orbit
On Solving eq (1) & (2)
 e Z 6 Z
vn =   = (2.2×10 ) m/s
 2h ε 0 
n n
Z 0
vn ∝ vn ∝ m
n

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 15

 Graphs

vn vn

n Z
th
Energy of Electron in n Orbit
1 2 Ze2
Kinetic energy K = mv =
2 8πε0r

1 (Ze)(–e) Ze2
Potential energy U = =–
4πε0 r 4πε0r
Ze2
Total energy E = K + U = –
8πε0r

Ze2
E=–
8πε0r
Putting value of r
 me4  Z2
E = –  2 2 · 2
 8h ε  n
 0 

z2 z2
= –13.6 eV = – Rhc
n2 n2
13.6 me4 7 –1
Where, R = = = 1.097 × 10 m
hc 3 2
8h ε0c
R is called Rydberg constant.
Rhc = 13.6 eV is known as Rydberg energy.
z2
En ∝ , En ∝ m
n2
Kn = –En, Un = 2 En = –2Kn

Time Period of Revolution

2πrn 2π
Tn = =
vn ωn

n2 Z
Since, rn ∝ , vn ∝
Z n
n3 Z2
Tn ∝ , ωn ∝
Z2 n3

th
Angular Momentum of Electron in n Orbit
nh
Ln =
2π
Angular momentum is independent of Z.

16 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Example 24:
++
Find the radius of Li ions in its ground state assuming Bohr's model to be valid.
Solution:
th
For H-like ions the radius of the n orbit is
n2
rn = r0
z
++
For Li , Z = 3 and in ground state n = 1
The radius is
12 × 53 × 10–12
r1 = m
3
r1 = 1.76 × 10–11 m

Example 25:
Find the maximum angular speed of the electron of a hydrogen atom in a stationary orbit.
Solution:
Z
2.2 × 106 m / sec
vn n
ωn = =
rn n2
0.53 Å
Z
For hydrogen atom Z = 1 and ωn will be maximum for n = 1
2.2 × 106 16
ωmax = = 4.1 × 10 rad/sec
0.53 × 10–10

Example 26:
–8
Average lifetime of a H atom excited to n = 2 state is 10 sec. Find the number of revolutions
made by the electron on the average before it jumps to the ground state.
Solution:
Time period of revolution of electron in n = 2, Z = 1
3
2πrn 2π 2π 2πn
Tn = = = =
vn ωn 6
2.2 × 10 Z 2
4.1 × 1016 Z2
0.53 × 10–10 n3
2π(2)3 16π –16
T2 = 16
= = 12.25 × 10 sec
4.1 × 10 4.1 × 1016
t
Number of revolutions =
T2

10–8 6
= = 8.2 × 10
12.25 × 10–16

Example 27:
2
A small particle of mass m moves in such a way that the potential energy U = ar where a is a
constant and r is the distance of the particle from the origin. Assuming Bohr’s model of
th
quantization of angular momentum and circular orbits, find the radius of n allowed orbit.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 17

Solution:
The force at a distance r is,
dU
F=– = – 2ar
dr
th
Suppose r be the radius of n orbit. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the above
force. Thus,
mv 2
= 2ar
r
Further, the quantization of angular momentum gives,
nh
mvr =
2π
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) for r, we get
1/4
 n2h2 
r =  2 

 8amπ 

Example 28:
An electron rotates in a circle around a nucleus with positive charge Ze. How is the electrons’
velocity related to the radius of its orbit ?
Solution:
The force on the electron due to the nucleus provides the required centripetal force

1 Ze.e mv 2 Ze2
= ⇒ v=
4πε0 r 2
r 4πε0rm

Example 29:
Calculate the magnetic dipole moment corresponding to the motion of the electron in the
ground state of a hydrogen atom.
Solution:
Magnetic dipole moment M or µ = i A
q e ev
i= = =
T 2πr / v 2πr
2
A = πr
ev 2 erv
M= πr =
2πr 2
6 Z
vn = 2.2 × 10 m/sec
n
n2 –10 n
2
rn = 0.53 Å = 0.53 × 10 m
Z Z
For hydrogen Z = 1, ground state n = 1
ev 1r1 1.6 × 10–19 × 2.2 × 106 × 0.53 × 10–10 –24 2
M= = = 9.2 × 10 A.m
2 2

18 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Concept Builder-4
+
Q.1 Calculate the nearest distance of approach of Li ion of energy 5 MeV being scattered by a gold
nucleus (Z = 79)

Q.2 A proton with kinetic energy 5 MeV is heading towards a stationary point-nucleus of atomic
number 50. Calculate the distance of closest approach.

Q.3 The innermost orbit of the hydrogen atom has a diameter 1.06 Å. Then find diameter of tenth orbit.

th th
Q.4 When an electron in hydrogen atom is excited, from its 4 to 5 stationary orbit, the change in
–34
angular momentum of electron is (Planck's constant: h = 6.6 × 10 J-s)

Q.5 In Bohr model of hydrogen atom, the ratio of periods of revolution of an electron in n = 2 and
n = 1 orbits is

Q.6 In an atom, the two electrons move round the nucleus in circular orbits of radii R and 4R. Find
the ratio of the time taken by them to complete one revolution.

Energy in Atom
• Excitation Energy: The energy needed to jump an electron to higher orbit.
• Excitation Potential: The potential through which an electron should be accelerated to
acquire higher state is known as excitation potential.
• Binding Energy of Atom: Energy required to separate electron from nucleus to a large
distance. The binding energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is 13.6 eV.

Absorption Spectrum
When an electron absorbs a photon it goes to higher orbit. The spectrum of photon is called
absorption spectrum. It means electron can absorb only certain specific value, which is
difference of energy of two orbits.
13.6
n=4 E4
= = –0.85 eV
1275eV 2.55 eV 0.66 eV 42
n=3 13.6
E3 =
= –1.51eV
12.1eV 1.9 eV 32
n=2 13.6
E2 =
= –3.4 eV
22
10.2 eV

n =1 E1 = –13.6 eV

• If case of H-atom absorption spectrum will be of energy 10.2 eV, 12.1 eV etc.
• On moving up energy differences decreases.

Excitation of Atom(S) During Collision

• During collision energy loss can only be used to exited the atoms.
• Minimum loss is zero during elastic collision.
• Maximum loss is during perfectly inelastic collision.
• Collision will be inelastic if electron can jump to higher orbit.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 19

 Emission Spectrum
–8
Excited electron remains in higher orbit for a time about 10 s, then it tries to return to ground
state by emitting photon. In this way we get emission spectrum.
• For n = 1, we can have only absorption spectrum but not emission spectrum.
n=4
1275eV 2.55 eV 0.66 eV
n=3
12.1eV 1.9 eV
n=2

10.2 eV

n =1
• Possible transition of an electron if it returns n = 4 to n = 1
4 → 3, 4 → 2, 4 → 1
3 → 2, 3 → 1
2→1
Total no. of possible emission spectrum = 6
n(n– 1) n
• No. of possible emission spectrum from ni = n to nf = 1 = C2
2
(n1 – n2 )(n1 – n2 + 1)
• No. of possible emission spectrum from ni = n1 to nf = n2 =
2
Wavelength of Emitted Radiation
If electron jumps from initial state ni to a final state nf then wavelength of radiation λ is given
hc hc 2  1 1  1  1 1  2
by Ei – Ef = = z Rhc  2 – 2  ⇒ = R 2 – 2  z
λ λ   λ  
 ni nf   ni nf 
Series Limit : Line of any group having maximum energy of photon is called series limit. In
Balmer series first line is known as Hα line and second line as Hβ line and so on.
First Member Maximum
Initial state Final Wavelength Second Series Limit wavelegth Lines
State formula Member ni → ∞To nf (ni + 1) To nf found in
From ∞ to 1 From 2 to 1
 1 1 4
1 1  ni 2=
to nf 1 λ= UV
Lyman = nf 1= R  2 – 2=
n 2, 3, 4,5,6,.. =  n 3= λ=
R 3R
λ  1 n = i
to nf 1 Re gion
 i 
λ =911Å
λ =1216Å
From ∞ to 2 From 3 to 2
  4 36
1 1 1 ni 3=
to nf 2 λ= Visible
Balmer= nf 2= R  2 – =
n 3, 4,5,6, 7,.. =  λ=
R 5R
λ 2 n=
2  ni 4=
to nf 2 Re gion
 i 
λ =3646Å λ =6563Å
From ∞ to 3 From 4 to 3
 1 9 144
1 1  ni 4=
to nf 3 λ= IR
Paschen= nf 3= R  2 – =
n 4,5,6, 7,8.. = 
2  n
λ=
R 7R
λ  3 n= i
5=
to nf 3 Re gion
 i 
λ =8204Å
λ =18753Å
From ∞ to 4 From 5 to 4
  16 400
1 1 1 ni 5=
to nf 4 λ= IR
Brackett=n 5,6, 7,8,9,.. =nf 4= R  2 – = 
2  n
λ=
R 9R
 n= 6=
to nf 4 Re gion
λ 4 i 
i

λ =14585Å λ =40515Å
From ∞ to 5 From 6 to 5
 1 25 900
1 1  ni 6=to nf 5 λ= Far IR
=Pfund n 6,= 7,8,9, 10,.. nf 5 = R 2 – =  λ=
R 11R
λ 5 n=
2  ni 7=
to nf 5 Re gion
 i 
λ =22790Å λ =74583Å

20 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Explanation of Bohr Quantization
According to de Broglie electron revolves round the nucleus in the form
of stationary waves
(i. e. wave packet) in the similar
fashion as stationary waves in a vibrating string. Electron can stay in
those circular orbits whose circumference is an integral multiple of de–Broglie wavelength
associated with the electron,
2πr = nλ
h nh
 λ= and 2πr = nλ ∴ mvr =
mv 2π
This is the Bohr quantization’s condition.

equivalent straightened orbit

8. Calculation of Recoil Speed of Atom on Emission of a Photon

h
Momentum of photon = mc =
λ
fixed free to move
H − atom in first excited state

hc h
= ∆E υ H − atom
(a) λ (b) λ'

m - mass of atom
According to momentum conservation
h
mv =
λ'
mv = ∆E/c
recoil speed of atom (v) = ∆E/mc

Example 30:
First excitation potential of a hypothetical hydrogen like atom is 15 volt. Find third excitation
potential of the atom.
Solution:
Let energy of ground state = E0
2 E0
E0 = – 13.6 Z eV and En =
n2
E0 E0
n = 2, E2 = given – E0 = 15
4 4
3E0 E0
– = 15 for n = 4, E4 =
4 16
E0 15 15  –4 × 15  75
third excitation energy = – E0 =– E0 = – ·  = eV
16 16 16  3  4
75
∴ third excitation potential is V
4

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 21

Example 31:
+
Calculate the energy of a He ion in its first excited state.
Solution:
–RhcZ2 –(13.6eV)Z2
The energy is En = 2
=
n n2
+ +
For He ion, Z = 2 and for the first excited state, n = 2 so that the energy of He ion.
–13.6eV × 22
E2 =
22
E2 = –13.6 eV

Example 32:
Calculate (a) the wavelength and (b) the frequency of the Hβ line of the Balmer series for
hydrogen.
Solution:
(a) Hβ line of Balmer series corresponds to the transition from n = 4 to n = 2 level.
The corresponding wavelength for Hβ line is,
1 7  1 1  7
= (1.097 × 10 )  2 – 2  = 0.2056 × 10
λ 2 4 
–7
∴ λ = 4.9 × 10 m
c 3.0 × 108 14
(b) ν = = –7
= 6.12 × 10 Hz
λ 4.9 × 10

Example 33:
Find the largest and shortest wavelengths in the Lyman series for hydrogen. In what region of
the electromagnetic spectrum does each series lie?
Solution:
The transition equation for Lyman series is given by,
1  1 1
= R 2 – 2 n = 2, 3, ......
λ  (1) n 
for largest wavelength, n=2
1 7 1 1 7
= 1.097 × 10  –  = 0.823 × 10
λmax  1 4
–7
∴ λmax = 1.2154 × 10 m = 1215 Å
The shortest wavelength corresponds to n = ∞
1 7 1 1
∴ = 1.097 × 10  – 
λmax 1 ∞
–7
or λmin = 0.911 × 10 m = 911 Å
Both of these wavelengths lie in ultraviolet (UV) region of electromagnetic spectrum.

22 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

Example 34:
Find the kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy in first and second orbit of hydrogen
atom if potential energy in first orbit is taken to be zero.
Solution:
E1 = – 13.60 eV
K1 = – E1 = 13.60 eV
U1 = 2E1 = –27.20 eV
E1
E2 = = – 3.40 eV
(2)2
K2 = 3.40 eV
and U2 = – 6.80 eV
Now U1 = 0, i.e., potential energy has been increased by 27.20 eV while kinetic energy will remain
unchanged. So values of kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy in first orbit are 13.60
eV, 0, 13.60 respectively and for second orbit these values are 3.40 eV, 20.40 eV and 23.80 eV.

Example 35:
+
Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted when He makes a transition from the state n =
3 to the state n = 2.
Solution:
The wavelength λ is given by
7
ni = 3, nf = 2, Z = 2, R = 1.097 × 10 /m
1  1 1 1 5
⇒ = 4R  –  ⇒ = R
λ 4 9 λ 9
9
⇒ λ= = 164.0 nm
5R

Example 36:
If the difference of energies of an electron in the second and the fourth orbits of an atom is E.
Find the ionisation energy of that atom.
Solution:
th
Energy of the atom in n excited state.
–13.6eV·Z2
En =
n2
–13.6eV 2 –13.6eV 2
E4 = Z and E2 = ·Z
16 4
2 3
E = E4 – E 2 = 13.6eV × Z ×
16
2 16E
Ionisation energy = 13.6 eV × Z =
3

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 23

Example 37:
The excitation energy of a hydrogen-like ion in the first excited state is 40.8 eV. Find the energy
needed to remove the electron from the ion.
Solution:
The excitation energy in the first excited state is
2 1 1 
E = 13.6(eV)Z  2 – 2 
n 
 i nf 
32
E = 13.6 × Z × eV
4
Given that E = 40.8 eV
2 3
⇒ 40.8 eV = 13.6 × Z ×
4
⇒ Z=2
+
So, the ion in question is He . The energy in the ground state is n = 1
13.6(eV)Z2 –13.6 × 22
E= = = –54.4 eV
n2 12
Thus 54.4 eV is required to remove the electron from the ion.

Example 38:
How many different photons can be emitted by hydrogen atoms that undergo transitions to the
ground state from the n = 5 state ?
Solution:
No. of possible transition from n = 5 are 10

Example 39:
A moving hydrogen atom makes a head on collision with a stationary hydrogen atom. Before
collision both atoms are in ground state and after collision they move together. What is the
minimum value of the kinetic energy of the moving hydrogen atom, such that one of the atoms
reaches one of the excitation state.
Solution:
Let K be the kinetic energy of the moving hydrogen atom and K’, the kinetic energy of combined
mass after collision.
From conservation of linear momentum,
n=2

∆E =
10.2eV
n =1

p = p’ or 2Km = 2K '(2m) or K = 2K’ ....(i)

From conservation of energy, K = K’ + ∆E ....(ii)
K
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get ∆E =
2

24 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Now minimum value of ∆E for hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV.
or ∆E ≥ 10.2 eV
K
∴ ≥ 10.2 ∴ K ≥ 20.4 eV
2
Therefore, the minimum kinetic energy of moving hydrogen is 20.4 eV

Example 40:
The total energy of electron in the first excited state of hydrogen is about –3.4 eV. Find kinetic
energy and potential energy of electron in this state.
Solution:
KZe2 –KZe2
We know kinetic energy of electron = and potential energy of electron =
2r r
P.E. = –2 (K.E.)
Total energy = K.E. + P.E. = K.E. –2 K.E. = –K.E.
⇒ K.E. = – Total Energy = – (– 3.4eV)
K.E. = 3.4 eV
Potential Energy = –2 × KE = –2 × (3.4eV) = –6.8 eV

Example 41:
Find the ratio of magnetic moment of an electron to its angular momentum in an orbit.
Solution:
Magnetic moment M = ΙA
e 2
M= · pr ......(i)
T
2πr 2πr
We know that velocity of electron v= or T=
T v
Putting the value of T in equation (i)
πr2 evr
⇒ M=e =
2π / v 2
th
Angular momentum of an electron in n orbit
L = mvr
M evr M e
∴ = =
L 2 × mvr L 2m

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 25

 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-3

1. 1.6 × 10
–24
kg-m/s 2. Violet 1. (3) 2. 416.6 volt

3. 2 × 1020 4. 1.5 × 1034 λ

3. 1:1 4.
2
5. 9 × 1024
5. 1400
19 –8
6. (a) 2.5 × 10 (b) 3.33 × 10 N
CONCEPT BUILDER-4
–14
1. 2.27 × 10 m
CONCEPT BUILDER-2 –14
2. 1.44 × 10 m
1. 3K + hν0 2. 1.5 X
3. 106 Å
3. 1.7 eV 4. 0.48 µA, 3 × 10 12
–34
4. 1.05 × 10 J-s
5. 6.8 eV 6. 0.34 V
5. T2 = 8T1
7. No 8. 4λ
6. 1/8
9. 64 unit 10. 2V

26 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 Exercise - I

Photoelectric Effect and Photon Theory 6. When an electro–magnetic radiation is

incident on the surface of metal, maximum
1. Momentum of photon of energy 3 keV in
kinetic energy of photoelectron depends on:
kg-m/s will be
(1) Frequency of radiation
–19 –21
(1) 1.6 × 10 (2) 1.6 × 10 (2) Intensity of radiation
–24 –27
(3) 1.6 × 10 (4) 1.6 × 10 (3) Both the frequency and intensity
(4) Polarization of radiation
2. The wavelength of photon is 0.01 Å, its
momentum in Kg m/sec is 7. The work functions of tungsten and sodium
–22 –20 are 5.06 eV and 2.53 eV respectively. If the
(1) 6.6 × 10 (2) 6.6 × 10
–46 –27
threshold wavelength for sodium is 5896 Å,
(3) 6.6 × 10 (4) 6.6 × 10
then the threshold wavelength for the
tungsten will be
3. The wavelength of photon is 5000 Å, its (1) 11792 Å (2) 5896 Å
energy will be : (3) 4312 Å (4) 2948 Å
(1) 2.5 eV (2) 50 eV
(3) 5.48 eV (4) 7.48 eV 8. If the threshold wavelength for sodium is
5420 Å, then the work function of sodium is
4. Photon of frequency ν has a momentum (1) 4.58 eV (2) 2.28 eV
associated with it. If c is the velocity of (3) 1.14 eV (4) 0.23 eV
light, the momentum is
(1) hν / c (2) ν / c 9. Light of wavelength 4000 Å is incident on
2 a metal plate whose work function is 2eV.
(3) h ν c (4) hν / c
What is maximum kinetic energy of
emitted photoelectron?
5. Photo electric effect is the phenomenon in
(1) 0.5 eV (2) 1.1 eV
which (3) 2.0 eV (4) 1.5 eV
(1) Photons come out of a metal when it is
hit by a beam of electrons. 10. Sodium and copper have work functions
(2) Photons come out of the nucleus of an 2.3 eV and 4.5 eV respectively. Then the
atom under the action of an electric field. ratio of threshold wavelengths is nearest to:
(3) Electrons come out of metal with a (1) 1 : 2 (2) 4 : 1
constant velocity depending on (3) 2 : 1 (4) 1 : 4
frequency and intensity of incident
light. 11. The work function of a metal is :
(4) Electrons come out of a metal with (1) the energy for the electron to enter
into the metal
different velocity not greater than a
(2) the energy for producing X-ray
certain value which depends only on
(3) the minimum energy for the electron to
the frequency of the incident light
come out from metal surface
wave and not on its intensity.
(4) none of these

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 27

12. Graph is plotted between maximum kinetic 16. If the threshold wavelength of light for
energy (EK) of electron with frequency of photoelectric effect from sodium surface
incident photon (ν) in Photo electric effect. is 6800 A° then, the work function of
The slope of curve will be– sodium is
(1) 1.8 eV (2) 2.9 eV
(3) 1.1 eV (4) 4.7 eV
Ek
17. When the distance of a point light source
O ν from a photocell is r1, photoelectric current
(1) Charge of electron is I1, If the distance becomes r2, then the
(2) Work function of metal
current is I2, The ratio (I1 : I2) is equal to
(3) Planck’s constant
2 2
(4) Ratio of Planck constant and charge of (1) r 2 :r 1 (2) r2 : r1
2 2
electron (3) r1 : r 2 (4) r1 : r2

13. When a certain metallic surface is 18. The maximum energy of the electrons
illuminated with monochromatic light of released in photocell is independent of
wavelength λ, the stopping potential for (1) Frequency of incident light
photo electric current is 6 V0. When the (2) Intensity of incident light
same surface is illuminated with light of (3) Nature of cathode surface
wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is (4) None of these
2V0. The threshold wavelength of this
19. In photoelectric effect, we assume the
surface for photoelectric effect is–
photon energy is proportional to its frequency
(1) 6 λ (2) 4λ/3
and is completely absorbed by the electrons
(3) 4λ (4) 8λ
in the metal. Then the photoelectric
14. A photo sensitive metallic surface has current (υ > νth)
work function hν0. If photons of energy (1) Decreases when the frequency of the
2hν0 fall on this surface, the electrons incident photon increases.
(2) Increases when the frequency of the
come out with a maximum velocity of
6 incident photon increases.
4 × 10 m/s. When the photon energy is
(3) Does not depend on the photon
increased to 5 hν0, then maximum velocity
frequency but only on the intensity of
of photo electrons will be– the incident beam.
6 7
(1) 2 × 10 m/s (2) 2 × 10 m/s (4) Depends both on the intensity and
5 6
(3) 8 × 10 m/s (4) 8 × 10 m/s frequency of the incident beam.

15. A metal surface is illuminated by a light of 20. When stopping potential is applied in an
given intensity and frequency to cause experiment on photoelectric effect, no
photoemission. If the intensity of illumination photocurrent is observed. This means that
is reduced to one fourth of its original (1) the emission of photoelectrons is stopped.
value, then the maximum kinetic energy of (2) the photoelectrons are emitted but are
the emitted photoelectrons would be : reabsorbed by the emitter metal.
(1) unchanged (3) the photoelectrons are accumulated
th
(2) 1/8 of original value near the collector plate.
(3) twice the original value (4) the photoelectrons are dispersed from
(4) four times the original value the sides of the apparatus.

28 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

21. If the frequency of light in a photoelectric 25. The collector plate in an experiment on
experiment is doubled then stopping photoelectric effect is kept vertically
potential will above the emitter plate. Light source is put
(1) be doubled on and a saturation photocurrent is
(2) be halved recorded. An electric field is switched on
(3) become more than double which has vertically downward direction
(4) become less than double (1) The photocurrent will increase
(2) The kinetic energy of the electrons will
22. Let p and E denote the linear momentum increase
and the energy of a photon. For another (3) The stopping potential will decrease
photon of smaller wavelength (in same (4) The threshold wavelength will increase
medium)
(1) both p and E increase 26. A point source of light is used in a
(2) p increases and E decreases photoelectric effect. If the source is moved

(3) p decreases and E increases farther from the emitting metal, the

(4) both p and E decreases stopping potential

(1) will increase
(2) will decrease
23. Two identical photocathodes receive light
(3) will remain constant
of frequencies f1 and f2. If the velocities of
(4) will either increase or decrease
the photo electrons (of mass m) coming
out are respectively v1 and v2, then
27. The photoelectrons emitted from a metal
2h
2
(1) v − v=
1
2
2 (f − f )
m 1 2
surface:
(1) Are all at rest
1/2
 2h  (2) Have the same kinetic energy
(2) v 1 + v=
2  ( f1 + f2 ) 
m  (3) Have the same momentum
2h
2 2
(3) v 1 + v 2= (f + f )
m 1 2
(4) Have speeds varying from zero up to a
certain maximum value
1/2
 2h 
(4) v 1 − v=
2  ( f1 − f2 ) 
m  28. The stopping potential as a function of
frequency of incident radiation is plotted
24. Which one of the following graphs in figure for two different photo electric surfaces A
shows the variation of photoelectric and B. The graphs show the work function
current (I) with voltage (V) between the of A is
electrodes in a photoelectric cell? Vs
A B

(1) (2)
ν
(1) Greater than that of B
(2) Smaller than that of B
(3) (4) (3) Same as that of B
(4) No comparison can be done from given
graphs

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 29

29. Light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a 34. The slope of a graph drawn between
sensitive plate with photoelectric work threshold frequency and stopping
function of 1.9 eV. The kinetic energy of the potential is:
photoelectron emitted will be : (1) e (2) h
(1) 0.58 eV (2) 2.48 eV (3) h/e (4) he
(3) 1.24 eV (4) 1.16 eV
35. If wavelength = 5400 Å is threshold value
30. In an electron gun electron are accelerated for a certain metal, then its work function
through a potential difference V. If e = would be:

charge of electron and m = mass of (1) 2.3 eV (2) 0.025 eV

electron then maximum electron velocity (3) 10 eV (4) 0.23 eV

will be
36. A light of wavelength 5000 Å falls on a
(1) 2eV/m (2) 2eV / m
2
sensitive plate with photoelectric work
(3) 2m / eV (4) V /2em
function 1.90 eV. Kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectrons will be (Given,
31. When intensity of incident light increases : –34
h = 6.62 × 10 J - s)
(1) photo - current increases
(1) 0.1 eV (2) 2 eV
(2) photo - current decreases
(3) 0.58 eV (4) 1.581 eV
(3) kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons
increases
37. The maximum wavelength of radiation that
(4) kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons can produce photoelectric effect in a
decreases certain metal is 200 nm. The maximum
kinetic energy acquired by electron due to
32. The stopping potential necessary to reduce radiation of wavelength 100 nm will be
the photoelectric current to zero- (1) 12.4 eV (2) 6.2 eV
(1) is directly proportional to wavelength (3) 3.4 eV (4) 7.0 eV
of incident light.
(2) uniformly increases with the wavelength 38. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV.
of incident light. The longest wavelength of light that can
(3) directly proportional to frequency. cause photoelectron emission from this
(4) uniformly increases with the frequency. substance is approximately
(1) 540 nm (2) 400 nm
33. The work function for aluminium surface is (3) 310 nm (4) 220 nm
4.2 eV. If intensity of photon beam is
doubled without changing numbers of 39. The photoelectric work function of a metal
photons striking per second. Find new cut- is 3.3 eV. The threshold frequency for this
off wavelength. metal is approximately :
13 14
(1) 1000 Å (2) 2000 Å (1) 3.3 × 10 Hz (2) 8.0 × 10 Hz
15 15
(3) 2955 Å (4) 4200 Å (3) 1.65 × 10 Hz (4) 9.9 × 10 Hz

30 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

40. The emission of electrons is possible by 46. An electron and a proton are possessing
(1) photoelectric effect same amount of kinetic energies. The de-
(2) thermionic effect Broglie wavelength is greater for :
(3) both (1) and (2) (1) electron (2) proton
(4) none of the above (3) equal (4) can't say

47. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron

De–Broglie Wave (Matter Waves) 8 –1
moving with a velocity 1.5 × 10 ms is
41. The ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths of a equal to that of a photon. The ratio of the
proton and an alpha particle of same kinetic energy of the electron to that of the
energy of photon is :
energy is
(1) 2 (2) 4
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1
1 1
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 0.25 : 1 (3) (4)
2 4

42. The ratio of de broglie wavelengths of a 48. Which one of the following statements is
proton and an alpha particle moving with NOT true for de Broglie waves ?
the same velocity is (1) All atomic particles in motion have
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 : 1 waves of a definite wavelength
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 0.25 : 1 associated with them
(2) The higher the momentum, the longer
43. The ratio of de Broglie wavelengths of a is the wavelength
(3) The faster the particle, the shorter is
proton and a neutron moving with the
the wavelength
same velocity is nearly
(4) For the same velocity, a heavier
(1) 1 : 1 (2) 2 :1 particle has a shorter wavelength
(3) 1 : 2 (4) None
49. The wavelength associated with an

44. Two particles have identical charges. If electron accelerated through a potential
difference of 100 V is of the order of :
they are accelerated through identical
(1) 1.2Å (2) 10.5 Å
potential differences, then the ratio of
(3) 100 Å (4) 1000 Å
their de-Broglie wavelength would be
(1) λ1 : λ2 = 1 : 1 –12
50. A particle of mass 11 × 10 kg is moving
(2) λ1 : λ2 = m2 : m1 with a velocity 6 × 10
–7
m/s. Its de–Broglie
(3) λ1 : λ2 = m2 : m1 wavelength is nearly :
–20 –16
(4) λ1 : λ2 = m1 : m2 (1) 10 m (2) 10 m
–12 –8
(3) 10 m (4) 10 m

45. If the velocity of a moving particle is 51. The de-Broglie wavelength λ :

reduced to half, then percentage change in (1) is proportional to mass
its wavelength will be (2) is proportional to impulse
(1) 100% decrease (2) 100% increase (3) inversely proportional to impulse
(3) 50% decrease (4) 50% increase (4) does not depend on impulse

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 31

 Bohr's Atomic Model Of H-Atom 57. If a0 is the Bohr radius, the radius of (n = 2)
and H-Like Species (Properties) electronic orbit in triply ionized beryllium is:
(1) 4a0 (2) a0
52. The Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum
(3) a0/4 (4) a0/16
lies in the region
(1) Infrared (2) visible
(3) Ultraviolet (4) of x – rays 58. Which energy state of doubly ionized
++
lithium (Li ) has the same energy as that
53. Which one of the series of hydrogen of the ground state of hydrogen ? Given Z
spectrum is in the visible region ? for lithium = 3 :
(1) Lyman series (2) Balmer series (1) n = 1 (2) n = 2
(3) Paschen series (4) Bracket series (3) n = 3 (4) n = 4

54. The Rutherford α–particle experiment

59. In Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, the
Shows that most of the α–particles pass
centripetal force is provided by the
through almost unsceptered while some
Coulomb attraction between the proton
are scattered through large angles. What
and the electron. If a0 is the radius of the
information does it give about the
ground state orbit, m is the mass and e the
structure of the atom:
(1) Atom is hollow charge of an electron and ε0 is the vacuum

(2) The whole mass of the atom is permittivity, the speed of the electron is :
concentrated in a small centre called e
(1) zero (2)
nucleus ε0a0m
(3) Nucleus is positively charged
e 4πε0a0m
(4) All the above (3) (4)
4πε0a0m e

55. The energy required to knock out the

electron which is in the third orbit of a 60. The energy of an electron in the excited
hydrogen atom is equal to state of H-atom is –1.5 eV, then according
13.6 to Bohr’ model, its angular momentum will
(1) 13.6 eV (2) + eV
9 be:
13.6 3 (1) 3.15 × 10
–34
J-sec
(3) – eV (4) – eV
3 13.6 –34
(2) 2.15 × 10 J-sec
–30
56. An electron makes a transition from orbit (3) 5.01 × 10 J-sec
–33
n= 4 to the orbit n = 2 of a hydrogen atom. (4) 3.15 × 10 J-sec
The wave number of the emitted radiation
(R = Rydberg’s constant) will be 61. The ground State energy of helium atom is

16 2R – 54.4 eV. What is the potential energy of

(1) (2)
3R 16 the electron in this state
3R 4R (1) 54.4 ev (2) –108.8 eV
(3) (4)
16 16 (3) 108.8 eV (4) –54.4 eV

32 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

62. According to Bohr’s model of hydrogen 66. The wavelength of light emitted due to
atom, relation between principal quantum transition of electron from second orbit to
number n and radius of stable orbit: first orbit in hydrogen atom is
1 (1) 6563 Å (2) 4102 Å
(1) r ∝ (2) r ∝ n
n (3) 4861 Å (4) 1215 Å
1 2
(3) r ∝ 2
(4) r ∝ n
n 67. When an electron in an hydrogen atom
makes a transition from first Bohr orbit to
63. The radius of first Bohr orbit is 0.5Å, then second Bohr orbit, how much energy it
radius of fourth Bohr orbit will be: absorbs ?
(1) 0.03 Å (2) 0.12 Å (1) 3.4 eV (2) 10.2 eV
(3) 2.0 Å (4) 8.0 Å (3) 13.6 eV (4) 1.51 eV

Electronic Transition in The H/H-Like Atom/Spec 68. If the binding energy of the electron in a
hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV the energy
64. The ionization energy of helium atom is
required to remove the electron from the
54.4 eV. Helium atoms in the ground state
3+
are excited by electromagnetic radiation of first excited state of Be is
energy 51 eV. How many spectral lines will (1) 30.6 eV (2) 13.6eV
be emitted by the Helium atoms? (3) 3.4 eV (4) 54.4 eV
(1) two (2) four
(3) six (4) eight 69. An electron makes a transition from orbit
n = 4 to the orbit n = 2 of a hydrogen atom.
65. The wavelength of the first line in Balmer The wave number of the emitted radiation
series in the hydrogen spectrum is λ. What (R = Rydberg’s constant) will be
is the wavelength of the second line : (1) 16/3R (2) 2R/16

20λ 3λ (3) 3R/16 (4) 4R/16

(1) (2)
27 16
5λ 3λ
(3) (4)
36 4

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 33

 Exercise - II
1. A radiation of energy E falls normally on a 5. If the kinetic energy of a free electron
perfectly reflecting surface. The doubles, its de-Broglie wavelength
momentum transferred to the surface is- becomes -

(1) E/c (2) 2E/c λ

(1) (2) 2λ
2
2
(3) Ec (4) E/c
λ
(3) (4) 2λ
2
2. According to Einstein's photoelectric
equation, the plot of the kinetic energy 6. The threshold frequency for a metallic
of the emitted photoelectrons from a surface corresponds to an energy of 6.2
metal Vs the frequency, of the incident eV and the stopping potential for a
radiation gives a straight line whose slope- radiation incident on this surface is 5V.
(1) depends on the nature of the metal The incident radiation lies in-
(1) ultra-violet region (2) infra-red region
used
(3) visible region (4) X-ray region
(2) depends on the intensity of the
radiation
7. The anode voltage of a photocell is kept
(3) depends both on the intensity of the
fixed. The wavelength λ of the light
radiation and the metal used falling on the cathode is gradually
(4) is the same for all metals and changed. The plate current I of the
independent of the intensity of the photocell varies as follows :
radiation
(1) I (2) I
3. The work function of a substance is 4.0 O λ O λ

eV. The longest wavelength of light that

can cause photoelectron emission from (3) I (4) I
O λ O λ
this substance is approximately-
(1) 540 nm (2) 400 nm
8. The surface of a metal is illuminated
(3) 310 nm (4) 220 nm
with the light of 400 nm. The kinetic
energy of the ejected photoelectrons
4. A photocell is illuminated by a small was found to be 1.68 eV. The work
bright source placed 1 m away. When the function of the metal is : (hc = 1240 eV-nm)
1 (1) 1.51 eV (2) 1.68 eV
same source of light is place m away,
2 (3) 3.09 eV (4) 1.42 eV
the number of electrons emitted by
photocathode would- 9. If a source of power 4kW produces 10
20

(1) decrease by a factor of 4 photons/second, the radiation belongs

(2) increase by a factor of 4 to apart of the spectrum called:
(3) decrease by a factor of 2 (1) γ-rays (2) X-rays
(4) increase by a factor of 2 (3) ultraviolet rays (4) microwaves

34 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

10. According to Einstein’s photoelectric 14. The total energy of an electron in the first
equation, the graph between the kinetic excited state of hydrogen atom is about
energy of photoelectrons ejected and - 3.4 eV. Its kinetic energy in this state is:
the frequency of incident radiation is
(1) –6.8 eV (2) 3.4 eV
(3) 6.8 eV (4) –3.4 eV

(1) (2) 15. Energy levels A, B and C of a certain

atom correspond to increasing values of
energy i.e., EA < EB < EC. If λ1, λ2 and λ3 are
wave lengths of radiations corresponding
to transitions C to B, to A and C to A
(3) (4)
respectively, which of the following
relations is correct:

11. Energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal

–13.6
quantum number n is given by E =
n2
eV. The energy of a photon ejected when
the electron jumps from n = 3 state to
(1) λ3 = λ1 + λ2 (2) λ1 = λ2 + λ3
n = 2 state of hydrogen is approximately:
(1) 0.85 eV (2) 3.4 eV λ 1λ 2
(3) λ23 = λ21 + λ22 (4) λ3 =
(3) 1.9 eV (4) 1.5 eV λ 1 + λ2

12. The work functions for metals A, B and 16. Light of wavelength λ = 4000 Å is
C are respectively 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and incident on a metal surface. If stopping
5eV According to Einstein’s equation, potential needed to stop the ejected
the metals which will emit photo
photoelectrons is 1.4 volt, then find out
electrons for a radiation of wavelength
the work function of metal surface.
4100 Å is /are:
(1) None (1) 1.69 eV
(2) A only (2) 2.69 eV
(3) A and B only (3) 3.09 eV
(4) All the three metals (4) None of these

13. A photosensitive metallic surface has 17. Ionization potential of hydrogen atom is
work function, hν0. If photons of energy
13.6 eV. hydrogen atoms in the ground
2hν0 fall on this surface, the electrons
state are excited by monochromatic
come, out with a maximum velocity of
radiation of photon energy 12.1 eV.
6
4 × 10 m/s. when the photon energy is According to Bohr’s theory, the spectral
increased to 5hν0, then maximum
lines emitted by hydrogen will be:
velocity of photo electrons will be:
7 7
(1) Two (2) Three
(1) 4 × 10 m/s (2) 2 × 10 m/s
(3) Four (4) One
5 6
(3) 8 × 10 m/s (4) 8 × 10 m/s

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 35

18. When photons of energy hν fall on an 23. Monochromatic light of frequency
aluminium plate (of work function E0), 14
6.0 × 10 Hz is produced by a a laser. The
photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy power emitted is 2 × 10
–3
W. The number
K are ejected. If the frequency of the of photons emitted, on the average, by
radiation is doubled, the maximum kinetic the source per second is:
energy of the ejected photoelectrons 15 16
(1) 5 × 10 (2) 5 × 10
will be:
17 14
(1) K + E0 (2) 2K (3) 5 × 10 (4) 5 × 10

(3) K (4) K + hν
24. The work function of a surface of a

19. The momentum of a photon of energy photosensitive material is 6.2 eV. The
1 Me V in kg m/s, will be: wavelength of the incident radiation for
6 –24 which the stopping potential is 5 V lies in
(1) 0.33 × 10 (2) 7 × 10
–22 –22 the:
(3) 10 (4) 5 × 10
(1) ultraviolet region (2) visible region
(3) infrared region (4) X-ray region
20. A photocell employs photoelectric effect
to convert
(1) change in the frequency of light into 25. A particle of mass 1 mg has the same
a change in electric voltage wavelength as an electron moving with a
6 –1
(2) change in the intensity of illumination velocity of 3 × 10 ms . The velocity of the
into a change in photoelectric current particle is (Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10
–31
kg)
(3) change in the intensity of illumination –18 –1 –2 –1
(1) 2.7 × 10 ms (2) 9 × 10 ms
into a change in the work function of –31 –1 –21 –1
(3) 3 × 10 ms (4) 2.7 × 10 ms
the photocathode
(4) change in the frequency of light into
26. A particle moving with velocity that is
a change in the electric current.
three times that of velocity of electron.

21. A 5 W source emits monochromatic light If ratio of the de-Broglie wavelength of

of wavelength 5000 Å. When placed 0.5 particle with respect to electron is
-4
m away, it liberates photoelectrons from 1.8 × 10 . Find of mass of particle
a photosensitive metallic surface, When (me = 9.1 × 10
-31
kg)
the source is moved to a distance of 1.0 -27 -13
(1) 1.6 × 10 kg (2) 1.3 × 10 kg
m, the number of photoelectrons -27 -34
(3) 2.6 × 10 kg (4) 6.63 × 10 kg
liberated will be reduced by a factor of:
(1) 4 (2) 8
(3) 16 (4) 2 27. Monochromatic light of wavelength
667 nm is produced by a helium neon
22. The total energy of electron in the laser. The power emitted is 9 mW. The
ground state of hydrogen atom is number of photons arriving per second
–13.6 eV. The kinetic energy of an on the average at a target irradiated by
electron in the first excited state is: this beam is:
(1) 3.4 eV (2) 6.8 eV (1) 9 × 10
17
(2) 3 × 10
16

(3) 13.6 eV (4) 1.7 eV (3) 9 × 10

15
(4) 9 × 10
19

36 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

28. The figure shows a plot of photo current 31. Sodium lamp emits 3.14 × 10
20
photons
versus anode potential for a photo per second. Calculate the distance from
sensitive surface for three different sodium lamp where flux of photon is one
radiations. Which one of the following is a photon per second per cm :
2

correct statement ? 9 9
(1) 1 × 10 cm (2) 3 × 10 cm
9 9
(3) 5 × 10 cm (4) 4 × 10 cm

32. In a hydrogen atom, electron moves

from second excited state to first
(1) Curves a and b represent incident excited state and then from first excited
radiations of different frequencies state to ground state. Find ratio of
and different intensities wavelengths obtained.
(2) Curves a and b represent incident 27 5
(1) (2)
radiations of same frequencies but 5 27
of different intensities 1
(3) (4) None of these
(3) Curves b and c represent incident 27
radiations of different frequencies
and different intensities 33. The ground state energy of hydrogen
(4) Curves b and c represent incident atom is –13.6 eV. When its electron is in
radiations of same frequencies the first excited state, its excitation
having same intensity energy is:
(1) 3.4 eV (2) 6.8 eV
29. The number of photoelectrons emitted (3) 10.2 eV (4) zero
for light of a frequency ν is proportional
to (higher than the threshold frequency ν0) 34. In a Rutherford scattering experiment
when a projectile of charge Z1 and mass
(1) ν – ν0
M1 approaches a target nucleus of
(2) threshold frequency (ν0)
charge Z2 and mass M2, the distance of
(3) intensity of light
(4) frequency of light (ν) closest approach is r0. The energy of the
projectile is:
30. The ionization energy of the electron in (1) directly proportional to M1 × M2
the hydrogen atom in its ground state is (2) directly proportional to Z1Z2
13.6 eV. The atoms are excited to higher (3) inversely proportional to Z1
energy levels to emit radiations of 6 (4) directly proportional to mass M1
wavelengths. Maximum wavelength of
emitted radiation corresponds to the
35. The energy of a hydrogen atom in the
transition between
ground state is –13.6 eV. The energy of a
(1) n = 3 to n = 2 states +
He ion in the first excited state will be:
(2) n = 3 to n = 1 states
(1) – 13.6 eV (2) – 27.2 eV
(3) n = 2 to n = 1 states
(3) – 54.4 eV (4) – 6.8 eV
(4) n = 4 to n = 3 states

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 37

36.
15
A source S1 is producing 10 photons per 1
40. An alpha nucleus of energy mv 2
second of wavelength 5000Å. Another 2
15 bombards a heavy nuclear target of
source S2 is producing 1.02 × 10 photons
charge Ze. Then the distance of closest
per second of wavelength 5100 Å. Then
approach for the alpha nucleus will be
(power of S2)/(power of S1) is equal to:
proportional to-
(1) 1.00 (2) 1.02
1
(3) 1.04 (4) 0.98 (1)
Ze
2
(2) v
37. The potential difference that must be
1
applied to stop the fastest (3)
m
photoelectrons emitted by a nickel
1
surface, having work function 5.01 eV, (4)
v4
when ultraviolet light of 200 nm falls on
it, must be:
41. If 13.6 eV energy is required to ionize the
(1) 2.4 V (2) –1.2 V
hydrogen atom, then the energy required
(3) – 2.4 V (4) 1.2 V
to remove an electron from n = 2 is-
(1) 10.2 eV
38. When monochromatic radiation of
(2) 0 eV
intensity Ι falls on a metal surface, the
(3) 3.4 eV
number of photoelectrons and their
maximum kinetic energy are N and T (4) 6.8 eV

respectively. If the intensity of radiation

is 2Ι, the number of emitted electrons 42. If the binding energy of the electron in a
and their maximum kinetic energy are hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the energy
respectively required to remove the electron from
2+
(1) N and 2T (2) 2N and T the first excited state of Li is-
(3) 2N and 2T (4) N and T (1) 30.6 eV
(2) 13.6 eV
39. The electron in the hydrogen atom (3) 3.4 eV
jumps from excited state (n = 3) to its (4) 122.4 eV
ground state (n = 1) and the photons
thus emitted irradiate a photosensitive
43. Which of the following transitions in
material. If the work function of the
hydrogen atoms emit photons of highest
material is 5.1 eV, the stopping potential
frequency ?
is estimated to be (the energy of the
(1) n = 2 to n = 6
th 13.6
electron in n state En = − eV ) (2) n = 6 to n = 2
n2
(3) n = 2 to n = 1
(1) 5.1 V (2) 12.1 V
(3) 17.2 V (4) 7V (4) n = 1 to n = 2

38 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

44. Suppose an electron is attracted 45. The transition from the state n = 4 to
k n = 1 in a hydrogen like atom results in
towards the origin by a force where
r ultraviolet radiation. Infrared radiation
‘k’ is a constant and 'r' is the distance of will be obtained in the transition from :
(1) 4 → 2 (2) 5 → 4
the electron from the origin. By applying
(3) 2 → 1 (4) 3 → 2
Bohr model to this system, the radius of
th
the n orbital of the electron is found to 46. Energy required for the electron excitation
++
be ‘rn’ and the kinetic energy of the in Li from the first to the third Bohr
orbit is:-
electron to be ‘Tn’. Then which of the
(1) 108.8 eV (2) 122.4 eV
following is true?
(3) 12.1 eV (4) 36.3 eV
1
(1) Tn ∝ 2 ,rn ∝ n2
n 47. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground
(2) Tn independent of n, rn ∝ n state to another state with principal
quantum number equal to 4. Then the
1
(3) Tn ∝ , r ∝n number of spectral lines in the emission
n n
spectra will be :
1
(4) Tn ∝ , r ∝ n2 (1) 6 (2) 2
n n
(3) 3 (4) 5

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 39

 Exercise – III
For Questions (1 to 9) 5. Assertion: In photoelectric effect, on
Read the Assertion and Reason carefully increasing the intensity of light, both the
and mark the correct options. number of electrons emitted and kinetic
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true energy of each of them get increased
and Reason is the correct but photoelectric current remains
explanation of Assertion. unchanged.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true Reason: The photoelectric current
but Reason is not correct depends only on wavelength of light.
explanation of Assertion.
(1) A (2) B
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(3) C (4) D
(D) Assertion and Reason are false.

6. Assertion: Photons do not carry

1. A photon and an electron both have
momentum
energy 50 eV.
Reason: A photon is a material particle.
Assertion: Both have different
(1) A (2) B
wavelengths.
Reason: Wavelength depends on energy (3) C (4) D
and not on mass.
(1) A (2) B 7. Assertion: Photo electric effect
(3) C (4) D demonstrates the wave nature of light.
Reason: The number of photoelectrons
2. Assertion: The stopping potential is proportional to the frequency of light.
increases, when frequency of incident (1) A (2) B
rays are increased. (3) C (4) D
Reason: Stopping potential is directly
proportional to the frequency of incident 8. Assertion: In photoelectric effect, the
radiation. number of photoelectrons emitted is
(1) A (2) B always equal to number of photons
(3) C (4) D incident.
Reason: All the photons falling on the
3. Assertion: Charge of a photon is zero.
surface will eject photoelectrons.
Reason: Rest mass of a photon is zero.
(1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

9. Assertion: Wavelength of Lyman scries

4. Assertion: In photo electric effect, photo
is less than of Balmer series.
electrons come out from inner orbits of
Reason: In hydrogen spectrum Balmer
atom.
Reason: Free electrons of the metal can scries belongs to visible spectrum.
not absorb energy of a photon. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

40 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

10. Match the Column: 12. For hydrogen spectral series, Match the
columns.
Column I Column II
Photoelectric h
a. i. λ= Column I Column II
equation mv
Brackett Ultraviolet
de Broglie a. i.
b. ii. Kmax= hv − φ0 series region
wavelength
Balmer
Slope of b. ii. Infrared region
series
stopping
Kmax Lyman
c. Potential vs. iii. = Vstopping c. iii. Visible region
e series
frequency
Paschen
graph d.
series
Stopping
d. iv. h/e
potential
(1) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iii
(1) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv (2) a-ii, b-i, c-iv, d-iii
(2) a-ii, b-iii, c-i, d-ii
(3) a-iii, b-iv, c-i, d-ii (4) a-i, b-ii, c-iii, d-iv
(3) a-i, b-ii, c-ii, d-iii
11. For spectral series of hydrogen atom, (4) a-iii, b-i, c-ii, d-ii
match the columns.

Column I Column II
1  1 1  Brackett
a. = R  2 − 2  i.
λ  1 n  series
1  1 1  Lyman
b.= R  2 − 2  ii.
λ 2 n  series
1  1 1 
c.= R  2 − 2  iii. Pfund series
λ 4 n 
1  1 1  Balmer
d.= R  2 − 2  iv.
λ 5 n  series

(1) a-iv, b-iii, c-ii, d-i (2) a-iii, b-ii, c-i, d-iv

(3) a-ii, b-iv, c-i, d-iii (4) a-ii, b-i, c-iii, d-iv

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 41

 Exercise – IV (Previous year Questions)
1. For photoelectric emission from certain 6.
+
Consider 3rd orbit of He (Helium), using
metal the cutoff frequency is ν. If non-relativistic approach, the speed of
radiation of frequency 2ν impinges on electron in this orbit will be:
the metal plate the maximum possible 9
[Given : K = 9 × 10 constant, Z = 2 and
velocity of the emitted electron will be h (Planck's Constant) = 6.6 ×10
–34
J s]
(m is the electron mass): [NEET_2013] [AIPMT_2015]
(1) hν / m (2) 2hν / m (1) 1.46 ×10 m/s
6
(2) 0.73 ×10 m/s
6

8 6
(3) 2 hν / m (4) hν / (2m) (3) 3.0 ×10 m/s (4) 2.92 ×10 m/s

2. The wavelength λe of an electron and λP 7. Which of the following figures represent

the variation of particle momentum and
of a photon of same energy E are related
the associated de-Broglie wavelength ?
by: [NEET_2013]
[AIPMT_2015]
(1) λP ∝ λe (2) λP ∝ λe P P
1 2
(3) λP ∝ (4) λP ∝ λe (1) (2)
λe λ
λ
P P
3. When the energy of the incident radiation
(3) (4)
is increased by 20%, the kinetic energy
λ λ
of the photoelectrons emitted from a
metal surface increases from 0.5 eV to
8. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident
0.8 eV. The work function of the metal
on a metal with work function 2.28 eV.
is: [AIPMT_2014]
The de Broglie wavelength of the
(1) 0.65 eV (2) 1.0 eV
emitted electron is: [AIPMT_2015]
(3) 1.3 eV (4) 1.5 eV –12 –10
(1) ≤ 2.8 × 10 m (2) < 2.8 × 10 m
–9 –9
(3) < 2.8 × 10 m (4) ≥ 2.8 × 10 m
4. If the kinetic energy of the particle is
increased to 16 times its previous value,
9. A photoelectric surface is illuminated
the percentage change in the de-Broglie
successively by monochromatic light of
wavelength of the particle is:
wavelength λ and λ/2. If the maximum
[AIPMT_2014]
kinetic energy of the emitted
(1) 25 (2) 75
photoelectrons in the second case is 3
(3) 60 (4) 50 times than in the first case, the work
function of the surface of the material is
5. Hydrogen atom in ground state is excited (h = Plank's constant, c = speed of light)
by a monochromatic radiation of λ = 975 Å. [AIPMT_2015]
Number of spectral lines in the resulting hc hc
(1) (2)
spectrum emitted will be [AIPMT_2014] 3λ 2λ
(1) 3 (2) 2 hc 2hc
(3) (4)
(3) 6 (4) 10 λ λ

42 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

10. In the spectrum of hydrogen, the ratio of 14. When a metallic surface is illuminated
the longest wavelength in the Lyman with radiation of wavelength λ, the
series to the longest wavelength in the stopping potential is V. If the same
Balmer series is: [AIPMT_2015] surface is illuminated with radiation of
5 4 wavelength 2λ, the stopping potential is
(1) (2)
27 9 V
. The threshold wavelength for the
9 27 4
(3) (4)
4 5 metallic surface is: [NEET_2016]
(1) 3λ (2) 4λ
11. Given the value of Rydberg constant is 5
(3) 5λ (4) λ
7 –1
10 m , the wave number of the last line 2
of the Balmer series in hydrogen spectrum
will be: [NEET_2016] 15. The photoelectric threshold wavelength
–10
(1) 0.025 × 10 m
4 –1
(2) 0.5 × 10 m
7 –1 of silver is 3250 × 10 m. The velocity of
7 –1 7 –1 the electron ejected from a silver surface
(3) 0.25 × 10 m (4) 2.5 × 10 m
by ultraviolet light of wavelength
–10
12. When an α-particle of mass 'm' moving 2536 × 10 m is: [NEET_2017]
–15
with velocity 'v' bombards on a heavy (Given : h = 4.14 × 10 eVs and
8 –1
nucleus of charge 'Ze', its distance of c = 3 × 10 ms )
closest approach from the nucleus (1) ≈ 6 × 10 ms
5 –1

depends on m as: [NEET_2016] (2) ≈ 0.6 × 10 ms

6 –1

1 1 (3) ≈ 61 × 10 ms
3 –1
(1) (2)
m m 6 –1
(4) ≈ 0.3 × 10 ms
1
(3) (4) m
m2
16. The ratio of wavelengths of the last line
of Balmer series and the last line of
13. An electron of mass m and a photon
Lyman series is: [NEET_2017]
have same energy E. The ratio of de-
(1) 2 (2) 1
Broglie wavelengths associated with
(3) 4 (4) 0.5
them is: [NEET_2016]
1
1  E 2 17. The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron
(1)  
c  2m  in thermal equilibrium with heavy water
1
 E  2 at a temperature T (Kelvin) and mass m,
(2)  
 2m  is: [NEET_2017]

(3) c(2mE)
1/2
(1) h / 3mkT
1
1  2m  2 (2) 2h / 3mkT
(4)  
c E  (3) 2h / mkT
(c is velocity of light) (4) h / mkT

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 43

18. When the light of frequency 2ν0 (where 22. An LED is constructed from a p-n
ν0 is threshold frequency), is incident on junction diode using GaAsP. The energy

a metal plate, the maximum velocity of gap is 1.9 eV. The wavelength of the light

electrons emitted is v1 . When the emitted will be equal to:

[NEET_2019]
frequency of the incident radiation is
–26
increased to 5ν0, the maximum velocity (1) 10.4 × 10 m (2) 654 nm
–11
of electrons emitted from the same plate (3) 654 Å (4) 654 × 10 m

is v2. The ratio of v1 to v2 is:

23. The work function of a photosensitive
[NEET_2018]
material is 4.0 eV. This longest
(1) 1 : 2 (2) 1 : 4
wavelength of light that can cause
(3) 4 : 1 (4) 2 : 1
photon emission from the substance is
(approximately) [NEET_2019]
19. An electron of mass ‘m’ with an initial
 (1) 3100 nm (2) 966 nm
velocity v = v 0ˆi (v0 > 0) enters an electric
 (3) 31 nm (4) 310 nm
field E = −E0ˆi (E0 = constant > 0) at
t = 0. If λ0 is its de-Broglie wavelength 24. A proton and an α-particle are
initially, then its de-Broglie wavelength accelerated from rest to the same
at time t is: [NEET_2018] energy. The de Broglie wavelengths
λ0  eE0  λp and λα are in the ratio: [NEET_2019]
(1) (2) λ0  1 + t 
 eE0   mv 0  (1) 2 : 1 (2) 1 : 1
 1 + t 
 mv 0  (3) 2:1 (4) 4 : 1
(3) λ0 t (4) λ0

25. Light of frequency 1.5 times the

20. An electron is accelerated through a threshold frequency is incident on a
potential difference of 10,000 V. Its de photosensitive material. What will be
Broglie wavelength is (nearly): the photoelectric current if the
–31
(me = 9 × 10 kg) [NEET_2019] frequency is halved and intensity is

(1) 12.2 × 10
–14
m (2) 12.2 nm doubled ? [NEET_2020]
–13 –12 (1) one-fourth
(3) 12.2 × 10 m (4) 12.2 × 10 m
(2) zero
(3) doubled
21. The total energy of an electron in an
(4) four times
atom in an orbit is –3.4 eV. Its kinetic
and potential energies are respectively :
26. The energy required to break one bond
[NEET_2019]
–20
(1) 3.4 eV, –6.8 eV in DNA is 10 J. This value in eV is

(2) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV nearly: [NEET_2020]

(3) –3.4 eV, –3.4 eV (1) 0.06 (2) 0.006

(4) –3.4 eV, –6.8 eV (3) 6 (4) 0.6

44 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

27. Light with an average flux of 20 W/cm
2
32. The graph which show the variation of the
falls on a non-reflecting surface at de-Broglie wavelength (λ) of a particle and its
normal incidence having surface area 20 associated momentum (p) is:
2
cm . The energy received by the surface [NEET_2022]
during time span of 1 minute is:
[NEET_2020]
(1) 24 × 10 J
3
(2) 48 × 10 J
3 λ
3 3
(1)
(3) 10 × 10 J (4) 12 × 10 J

p
28. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron
moving with kinetic energy of 144 eV is
nearly: [NEET_2020(Covid)] λ
2 –3 2 –4
(1) 10 × 10 nm (2) 10 × 10 nm (2)
2 –5 2 –2
(3) 10 × 10 nm (4) 10 × 10 nm
p

29. The wave nature of electrons was

experimentally verified by:
λ
[NEET_2020(Covid)]
(3)
(1) de Broglie
(2) Hertz
p
(3) Einstein
(4) Davisson and Germer

λ
30. The number of photons per second on (4)
an average emitted by the source of
monochromatic light of wavelength 600 p
nm, when it delivers the power of
–3
3.3 × 10 watt will be : 33. The minimum wavelength of X-rays
(h = 6.6 × 10
–34
Js) [NEET_2021] produced by an electron accelerated

(1) 10
18
(2) 10
17 through a potential difference of V volts

(3) 10
16
(4) 10
15 is proportional to:
[NEET_2023]

31. Let T1 and T2 be the energy of an electron (1) V

in the first and second excited states of 1

(2)
V
hydrogen atom, respectively. According
1
to the Bohr's model of an atom, the ratio (3)
V
T1 : T2 is: [NEET_2022]
2
(4) V
(1) 1 : 4 (2) 4 : 1
(3) 4 : 9 (4) 9 : 4

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 45

34. The work function of Cesium (Cs) 36. The radius of inner most orbit of
Potassium (K) and sodium (Na) are 2.14 hydrogen atom is 5.3 × 10–11 m. What is
eV, 2.30 eV and 2.75 eV respectively. If the radius of third allowed orbit of
incident electromagnetic radiation has hydrogen atom? [NEET_2023]
an incident energy of 2.20 eV, which of (1) 0.53 Å (2) 1.06 Å
these photosensitive surfaces may emit (3) 1.59 Å (4) 4.77 Å
photoelectrons?
[NEET_2023] 37. The de Broglie wavelength associated
(1) Cs only with an electron, accelerated by a
(2) Both Na and K potential difference of 81 V is given by:
[NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(3) K only
(1) 13.6 nm (2) 136 nm
(4) Na only
(3) 1.36 nm (4) 0.136 nm

35. In hydrogen spectrum, the shortest 38. The maximum kinetic energy of the
wavelength in the Balmer series is λ. The emitted photoelectrons in photoelectric
shortest wavelength in the Bracket effect is independent of:
series is: [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) work function of material
[NEET_2023]
(2) intensity of incident radiation
(1) 2λ (2) 4λ
(3) frequency of incident radiation
(3) 9λ (4) 16 λ (4) wavelength of incident radiation

46 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom

 ANSWER KEY

Exercise-I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 1 1 4 1 4 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 1 1 1 2 3 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 2 1 2 1 4 3 3 1 3 2 3 2 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 2 3 1 3 2 1 4 2 1 2 3 3 2 4 2 3 2 3 3 1
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
Ans. 2 4 4 3 1 4 2 4 3

Exercise-II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 3 2 3 1 2 4 2 3 3 3 4 2 4 1 2 4 4 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 3 1 3 2 1 1 2 2 4 3
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
Ans. 3 1 3 2 2 1 1

Exercise-III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. 3 3 1 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 3 2

Exercise-IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 4 2 2 3 1 2 4 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
Ans. 1 2 4 1 2 1 1 1 4 3 4 4 2 1 2 4 4 2

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter, Atom 47

 4 Nuclei
• Discovery: Ernest Rutherford → Protons
J.J. Thomson → electron
James Chadwick → Neutrons
• Constituents of Nucleus: neutrons (n) and protons (p) [collectively known as nucleons]
(i) Neutron: It is a neutral particle. It was discovered by J. Chadwick.
–27
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.6749286 × 10 kg.
(ii) Proton: It has a charge equal to +e. It was discovered by Goldstein The discovery of the
proton is credited to Ernest Rutherford, who proved that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom (i.e.,
a Proton) is present in the nuclei of all other atoms in the year 191.
Based on the conclusion drawn from the gold-foil experiment, Rutherford is also credited with
the discovery of the atomic nucleus.
–27
Mass of proton, mp = 1.6726231 × 10 kg
• Representation:
A A
Z X or Z
X
where : X ⇒ symbol of the atom, Z ⇒ Atomic number = number of protons,
A ⇒ Atomic mass number = total number of nucleons. = no. of protons + no. of neutrons.
–15
• Size of nucleus : Order of 10 m (fermi)
1/3 –15
Radius of nucleus : R = R0A ; where R0 = 1.1 × 10 m (which is an empirical constant)
A = Atomic mass number of atom.
• Density of Nucleus:
mass Amp Amp 3mp 3 × 1.67 × 10–27 17 3
density = ≅ = = = = 3 × 10 kg/m
volume 4 3 4 4πR 3
4 × 3.14 × (1.1 × 10–15 3
)
πR π(R0 A 1/3 )3 0
3 3
Nuclei of almost all atoms have almost same density as nuclear density is independent of the
mass number (A) and atomic number (Z).

Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.):

12 –27
1 a.m.u. = 1/12 [mass of one atom of 6C atom at rest and in ground state] = 1.66 × 10 kg
–27 8 2
Energy equivalence of 1 amu = 1.66 × 10 × (3 × 10 ) J = 931.5 MeV

1. Some Definitions:
(i) Isotopes: The nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
are called isotopes.
(ii) Isotones: Nuclei with the same neutron number but different atomic number(Z) are called
isotones.
(iii) Isobars: The nuclei with the same mass number but different atomic number are called
isobars.
(iv) Isomers: Nuclei with same mass no., same atomic no. but different radioactive properties.

Nuclei 1
Example 1:
70
Calculate the radius of Ge. Nucle.
Solution:
We have,
1/3 1/3
R = R0 A = (1.1 fm) (70) = (1.1 fm) (4.12) = 4.53 fm

2. Mass Defect & Binding Energy

Mass Defect (Δm)
It the difference between atomic mass and sum of its constituent’s masses.
∆m
= ( Am + ( A − Z) m ) − m
p n atom

Binding Energy
It is the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles.
or
Amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus by its constituent particles and
bringing them from infinite separation.
2
Binding Energy (B.E.) = ∆mc
BE = ∆m (in amu) × 931 MeV/amu = ∆m × 931 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon: It’s the average energy required to extract a nucleon from the
nucleus. binding energy nucleon is a measure of stability of a nucleus.
Note : If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus then it is more stable.
For example
 B.E1   B.E2 
If   >  
 A1   A2 
then nucleus 1 would be more stable.

Variation of Binding Energy Per Nucleon with Mass Number

The binding energy per nucleon first increases on an average and reaches a maximum of about
8.8 MeV for A = 56. For still heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon slowly decreases as
A increases.

56
Binding energy per nucleon is maximum for Fe , which is equal to 8.8 MeV. Binding energy
26
2
per nucleon is minimum for deuterium (1H )

2 Nuclei
Example 2:
Following data is available about 3 nuclei P, Q & R. Arrange them in decreasing order of stability
P Q R
Atomic mass 10 5 6
numebr (A)
Binding Energy 100 60 56
(MeV)

Solution:
 B.E.  100
  = = 10
 A P 10

 BE  60
  = = 12
 A Q 5

 B.E.  66
  = = 11
 A R 6
∴ Stability order is Q > R > P.

Example 3:
20 21 22
The three stable isotopes of neon: 10
Ne , 10
Ne and 10
Ne have respective abundances of 90.51%
0.27% and 9.22%. The atomic masses of three isotopes are 19.99 u, 20.99 u and 22.00 u
respectively. Obtain the average atomic mass of neon.
Solution:
90.51 × 19.99 + 0.27 × 20.99 + 9.22 × 22
m= = 20.18 u
100

Example 4:
A nuclear reaction is given as : A + B → C + D
Binding energies of A, B, C and D are given as B1, B2, B3 and B4. Find the energy released in the
reaction
Solution:
(B3 + B4) – (B1 + B2)

Example 5:
Calculate the binding energy of an alpha particle from the following data:
mass of 11H atom = 1.007826 u, mass of neutron = 1.008665 u, mass of 24 H atom = 4.00260 u
2
Take 1 u = 931 MeV/c .
Solution:
The alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. The binding energy is
2 2
B = (2 × 1.007826 u + 2 × 1.008665 u – 4.00260 u)c = (0.03038 u)c = 0.03038 × 931 MeV = 28.4 MeV.

Nuclei 3
Example 6:
56 56 1
Find the binding energy of 26
Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349 u and that of H is 1.00783 u.
Mass of neutron = 1.00867 u.
Solution:
56
The number of protons in 26
Fe = 26 and the number of neutrons = 56 – 26 = 30.
56
The binding energy of 26
Fe is
2
= [26 × 1.00783 u + 30 × 1.00867 u – 55.9349 u] c
2
= (0.52878 u) c = (0.52878 u) (931 MeV/u) = 492 MeV.

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 The masses of neutron and proton are 1.0087 amu and 1.0073 amu respectively. If two neutrons
and two protons combine to form a helium nucleus of mass 4.0015 amu, the B.E. of the helium
nucleus will be:
(1) 28.4 MeV (2) 20.8 MeV (3) 27.1 MeV (4) 14.2 MeV

4
Q.2 The binding energies of the nuclei of 2
He , 37 Li , 12
6
C and 14
7
N are 28, 52, 90 and 98 MeV,
respectively. Which of these are most stable?
(1) 24 He (2) 37 Li (3) 12
6
C (4) 14
7
N

2 4
Q.3 The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron 1H is 1.112 MeV and α-particle 2He is 7.047 MeV.
2 2 4
Then in the relation 1H + 1H → 2He + Q the energy Q released is:
(1) 1 MeV (2) 11.9 MeV (3) 23.8 MeV (4) 931 MeV

Q.4 The nuclei involved in the nuclear reaction A1 + A2 → A3 + A4 have the binding energies E1, E2, E3,
and E4. Find the energy released (Q value) of this reaction.

16 17
Q.5 The binding energy per nucleon of O is 7.97 MeV and that of O is 7.75 MeV. Find the energy
17
(in MeV) required to remove a neutron from O .

Q.6 The Q value of a nuclear reaction A + b → C + d is defined by

Q = [ mA + mb – mC – md]c2
where the masses refer to the respective nuclei. Determine from the given data the Q-value of
the following reactions and state whether the reactions are exothermic or endothermic.
(i) 11H + 31 H → 21 H + 21 H (ii) 12
6
C + 612C → 20
10
Ne + 24He
Atomic masses are given to be
m( 11H) = 1.007825u , m(21 H) = 2.014102u , m(31 H) = 3.016049u , m(612 C) = 12.000000u ,
m(20
10
Ne) = 19.992439u
mass of He atom is 4.0015 amu

Q.7 Calculate the binding energy of 17C135 if mass of 17C135 nucleus is 34.98 amu, mass of neutron is
1.008665 amu and mass of proton is 1.007277 amu.

Q.8 Two nuclei have their mass numbers in ratio 1 : 3. What is the ratio of nuclear densities ?

4 Nuclei
3. Radioactivity
It was discovered by Henry Becquerel.
Spontaneous emission of radiations (α, β, γ) from unstable nucleus is called radioactivity.
Substances which shows radioactivity are known as radioactive substance.
Radioactivity was studied in detail by Rutherford.
In radioactive decay, an unstable nucleus emits α particle or β particle. After emission of α or β
the remaining nucleus may emit γ-particle, and converts into more stable nucleus.

α-Particle
It is a doubly charged helium nucleus. It contains two protons and two neutrons.
4
Mass of α-particle = Mass of 2He atom – 2me  4 mp
Charge of α-particle = + 2 e

β-Particle
–
(a) β (Electron)
Mass = me; Charge = –e
+
(b) β (Positron)
Mass = me; Charge = +e
positron is an antiparticle of electron.

γ-Radiation (Photons)
They are energetic photons of energy of the order of MeV and having rest mass zero.
Antiparticle
A particle is called antiparticle of other if on collision both can annihilate (destroy completely)
and converts into energy. for example: (i) electron (– e, me) and positron (+ e, me) are anti

particles. (ii) neutrino (ν) and antineutrino ( ν ) are anti particles.

Radioactive Decay (Displacement Law)

(i) α-Decay
Nuclides decays by emitting α-particles. α-particles are generally emitted by very heavy
nuclei containing too many nucleons to remain stable.
A A–4 4
Z X → Y
Z–2 + 2He + Q
Q value : Rest mass energy of reactants –Rest mass energy of products
2 2
Q value : [Mx – (My + 2me) – (MHe – 2me)]c = [Mx – My – MHe]c

• Q-value is the energy released in decay. If initial decaying nucleus is at rest, the Q-values given
the total kinetic energy of all the decay products. i.e., Q = KY + KHe

Nuclei 5
 Calculation of Kinetic Energy of Final Products
Momentum of αparticle (mα v) + momentum of daughter nuclei (pD) = 0
Assuming parent nuclei to be at rest initially
 
pα + pD = 0
  2 He 4
| pα | = | pD | recoil

If Q is released energy of Q value of reaction.

A – 4 4
⇒ Kα =   Q ; Similarly, KD = Q
 A  A

Note : Experimental result shows α-particle have different kinetic energies and these energies are
quantised. As all daughter nuclei produced are not in their ground state but some are excited
state and they emit photons to acquire their ground state.

(ii) β Decay
When neutron-proton ratio inside a nucleus is not suitable for it to be stable (either less of
more), then β-decay takes place. Due to a special type of interaction called weak interaction a
neutron gets converted into a proton and electron or a proton gets converted into a neutron
and a positron. Electrons or positrons are emitted from the nucleus just after their creation.
This emission of electron or positron from nucleus is called β-decay.
–
(a) Negative β Decay (β Decay)
Neutrons inside nucleus is transformed into proton, electron and an Antineutrino
–
n→p+e + ν (Antineutrino)
A A
Z X → Z+1 Y + e + ν + energy released
Equation corresponding to nuclear mass
{
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z + 1 Y A  + Me }
Equation corresponding to atomic mass
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z + 1 Y A 
2
energy released E = ∆mc
+
(b) Positive β decay (β Decay)
Proton inside nucleus is transformed into neutron, Positron and a neutrino produced in p
+
p → n + e (positron) + ν (neutrino)
Positron is anti-particle of electron. It is highly reactive.
A A +
Z X → Z–1 Y + e + ν + energy released.
Equation corresponding to nuclear mass
{
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z–1 Y A  + Me }
Equation corresponding to atomic mass
∆m = M  Z X A  – M  Z–1 Y A  − 2Me
Energy released Intensity of
β particles
2
E = ∆mc
Experiments shows that β-particles are emitted with continuous
range of kinetic energy.
K.E.

6 Nuclei
 (c) Electron Capture
Nuclei having an excess of protons may capture an electron from one of the orbits which
immediately combines with a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron. This process is called
electron capture (EC.) The electron is normally captured from innermost orbit (the K- shell),
and, consequently, this process is sometimes called K-capture.
0
p + –1e → n + ν
If X and Y are atoms then reaction is written as :

•
K shell

A A
Z X → Z–1Y + ν + Q + characteristic x-rays of Y.
If X and Y are taken as nucleus, then reaction is written as :
A 0 A
Z X + –1e → Z–1Y + ν

(iii) γ Decay
When α and β-particle are emitted from nucleus then the daughter nucleus in the excited state.
When excited nucleus returns to the ground state then γ-photon is emitted
A
Z
X* → ZA X + γ
n=3

γ1
n=2
γ3
γ2
n=1

Key Points
4
(1) When a nuclide emits one α-particle (2He ), its mass number (A) decreased by 4 units and
atomic number (Z) decreases by two units.
A A–4 4
Z X → Z–2 Y + 2He + Energy
(2) When a nuclide emits a β¯particle, its mass number unchanged but atomic number increases
by one unit.
A A 0
Z X → Z+1 Y + –1e + ν + Energy
( v is antineutrino)
+
(3) When a nuclide emits a β particle, its mass number remains unchanged but atomic number
decreases by one unit
A A 0
Z X → Z–1 Y + +1e + ν + Energy
(ν is neutrino)
(4) When a γ produced, both atomic and mass number remain constant.

Nuclei 7
 Pair Production & Pair Annihilation
Collision of γ-ray photon by a nucleus & production of electron
positron pair is known as pair production. The rest mass of each of the electron & positron is
–31
9.1 × 10 kg. so, the rest mass energy of each of them is
2 –31 8 2
E0 = m0 c = (9.1 × 10 ) (3 × 10 )
–14
= 8.2 × 10 joule
= 0.51 MeV
Hence for pair-production, it is essential that the energy of γ-photon must be at least
2 × 0.51 = 1.02 MeV.
γ − photon γ − photon
+1 β0 β0 β0
+1 –1
hv hv
+ Ze
hv
Nucleus (Before combining) (After combining)
0
–1 β0 +1β
+ –1β
0
= hν + hν
(positron) (electron) ( γ − photon) ( γ − photon)

Pair Production Pair Annihilation

Neutrino and Anti-Neutrino

(1) It has zero electric charge, hence shows no electromagnetic interaction.
(2) Rest mass is possibly zero. Recent experiments show that mass is neutrino is less than
 7 
 2 eV  .
c 
(3) It travels with speed of light.
1 1
(4) It has spin quantum number ± . A spin of ± satisfies the law of conservation of angular
2 2
momentum when applied to β-decay.
(5) It shows very weak interactions with matter.
(6) Whenever a neutron is produced, a neutrino is also produced.
(7) Whenever a neutron is converted into a proton, an antineutrino is produced.

Example 7:
228 212
When Th
90 transforms to Bi , then find number of the emitted α and β-particles.
83

Solution:
A A' = 212
Z=90 Th → Z' = 83 Bi
Number of α-particles emitted
A – A' 228 – 212
nα = = =4
4 4
Number of β-particles emitted
nβ = 2nα – Z + Z’
= 2 × 4 – 90 + 83 = 1.

8 Nuclei
Example 8:
200
A stationary Pb nucleus emits an α-particle with K.E. = 5.77 MeV. Find the recoil velocity of
daughter nucleus. What fraction of the total energy liberated in this decay is accounted for the
recoil energy of the daughter nucleus?
Solution:
The momentum of the α-particle is given by,
Pd = Pα = 2mαK ....(i)
Let the recoil momentum of the daughter nucleus be Pd = md vd, where md and vd are the mass
and velocity of daughter nucleus. Using the principle of conservation of momentum, we get,
Pd = Pα = 2mαK

2mαK
⇒ Vd = .....(ii)
md
1 2× 4×K 2 2K
⇒ Vd = =
196 mP 196 mP
Where mP is the mass of proton,
5
⇒ Vd = 3.39 × 10 m/s
Let the K.E. of the daughter nucleus be K’ then,
K' m
= α
K md
As the momenta are same
K' mα
∴ =
K mα + md
mα 4
⇒ K' = Kt = K
mα + md 196 + 4 t
⇒ K’ = 0.02 Kt
K'
⇒ = 0.02
Kt

Example 9:
Calculate the-
238
(a) energy released in α-decay of U
(b) maximum KE of the emitted α-particle. The atomic A masses of thorium, uranium and α-
particle are 234.04364u, 238.05084u and 4.0026u respectively.
Solution:
The reaction can be given as
238 234
U → Th + α
(X) (Y)
(a) The energy of reaction is
Q = [mX – (mY + mα)] 931.5 meV] = [238.0508 – (234.0436 + 4.0026)] × 931.5 MeV = 4.28 MeV
(b) The KE of the α-particle is
mY 234.0436
Kα = Q= (4.28)MeV = 4.03MeV
mY + mα 234.0438 + 4.0026

Nuclei 9
Example 10:
Neon-23 decays in the following way
23
10
Ne →23
11
0
Na +–1 e+ν
0
Find the minimum and maximum kinetic energy that the beta particle ( –1 e ) can have. The atomic
23 23
masses of Ne and Na are 22.9945 u and 22.9898 u, respectively.
Solution:
Here, atomic masses are given (not the nuclear masses), but still we can use them for
calculating the mass defect because mass of electron get cancelled both sides. Thus, Mass
defect
∆m = (22.9945 – 22.9898) = 0.0047 u
∴ Q = (0.0047 u) (931.5 MeV/u) = 4.4 MeV
Hence, the energy of beta particles can range from 0 to 4.4 MeV

Concept Builder-2

Q.1 A nucleus with mass number 220 initially at rest emits an α-particle. If the Q value of the
reaction is 5.5 MeV. Calculate the kinetic energy of the α-particle.

Q.2 During negative β decay, an antineutrino is also emitted along with the emitted electron. Then:
(1) only linear momentum will be conserved
(2) total linear momentum and total angular momentum but not total energy will be conserved
(3) total linear momentum and total energy but not total angular momentum will be conserved
(4) total linear momentum, total angular momentum and total energy will be conserved
0
+β
Q.3 92
α
U238 → → a
Xb , find a & b.

−β 0 _β 0
α
Q.4 a
Xb → → C Y 215 → 110
Y d Find a, b, c and d.

0
nα ,n' −β
Q.5 92
U238  → 82Pb206 . Find n & n'

Q.6 Thorium isotope 90Th232 emits some α–particles and some β–particles and gets transformed into
lead isotope 82 Pb200. Find the number of α and β particles emitted.

Q.7 A radioactive nucleus undergoes a series of decays according to the following scheme :
β− γ
α α
A → A 1 → A2 → A 3 → A4
If the mass number and atomic number of A are 180 and 72 respectively, what are these
numbers for A4?

Q.8 Write nuclear reaction equations for

(i) α - decay of 226
88
Ra (ii) α - decay of 242
94
Pu
(iii) β− - decay of 32
15
P (iv) β− - decay of 210
83
Bi
(v) β+ - decay of 611C (vi) β+ - decay of 97
43
Tc
(vii) Electron capture of 120
54
Xe

10 Nuclei
 Nuclear Force
• Strong nuclear force is created between nucleons by exchange of particles called mesons.
• It is strongest force within nuclear dimensions
• It is short range force (acts only inside the nucleus)
• It is not due to mass or charge of the particle
• It is not due to interaction of particles with field.
• Nuclear force is not a central force. It does not act along the line joining the particle.
• It is non-conservation in nature.
• If distance between nucleons is smaller than 1 fm then nuclear force is repulsive.
• Strong nuclear force is responsible for binding of nucleus.
• Nuclear force is same for all nucleons at same distance.
FPP = FNN = FNP
• The nuclear force is stronger if spins of nucleons are parallel (i.e both nucleons ms = + 1/2
or – 1/2) and is weaker if the spins are anti-parallel.

Conservation Laws
(1) Conservation of mass & energy: In nuclear reaction, mass and energy are not conserved
separately.
Mass is a form of energy. Total mass and energy will be conserved.
mass + energy → conserved
(2) Conservation of linear momentum: In any nuclear reaction, total linear momentum is always
conserved.
(3) Conservation of angular momentum: In any nuclear reaction, total angular momentum
remains conserved.
(4) Conservation of charge: In any nuclear reaction, total charge is always conserved.
(5) Conservation of mass no.: In any nuclear reaction, sum of no. of neutrons and protons
remains conserved.

Rutherford-Soddy Law (Statistical Law)

The disintegration of a radioactive substance is random and spontaneous.
Radioactive decay is purely a nuclear phenomenon and is independent of any physical and
chemical conditions.
Rate of disintegration is proportional is no. of nuclei present.
Mathematically,
dN
– ∝ N
dt
dN
⇒ = – λN (where λ is called as decay of disintegration constant.)
dt
Let N0 be the number of nuclei at time t = 0, N be the number of nuclei after time t, then
dN N
⇒ = – λdt
N N0
N t
dN
– ∫
N0
N
= ∫ λdt
0

–λt
⇒ N = N0 e t

Nuclei 11
 Half Life (T1/2)
The period in which one-half of the radioactive substance is disintegrated. If N0 be the number
of nuclei at t = 0, then in half-life (T1/2) the number of nuclei decayed will be N0/2
–λt
Nt = N0e ......(i)
N0 –λT
⇒ = N0e ......(ii)
2
From (i) & (ii)
t/T1/2
Nt  1
= 
N0  2 
0.693
The half-life (T1/2) and decay constant (λ) are related as: T1/2 =
λ

Mean Life / Average Life (Tm)

The mean life (Tm) of a radioactive substance is equal to the sum of life times of all atoms
divided by the number of all atoms and is given follows
∞

∫ tλ e
–λt
dt
Tm =
∫ tdN = 0

∫ dN
∞

∫ λe
–λt
dt
0

1
Tm =
λ

4. Nuclear Fission & Fusion

(i) Nuclear Fission
The splitting of heavy nucleus into two or more fragments of comparable masses, with an
enormous release of energy is called nuclear fission.
235
• When slow neutrons are bombarded on U
92 , the fission takes place according to reaction
235 1 141 92 1
U
92 + 0n →56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3(0n ) + 200 MeV
(a) In nuclear fission the sum of masses before reaction is greater than the sum of masses after
reaction, the difference in mass being releases in the form of fission energy.
(b) The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hans and F. Strassmann in 1939
and was explained by N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
(c) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each fission we get same daughter
141 92
nuclides. if uranium breaks in two fragments Ba and Kr are formed but they may be any
stable isotopes of middle weight atoms. The most probable division is into two fragments
containing about 40% and 60% of the original nucleus with the emission of 2 or 3 neutrons per
fission. So, average number of neutrons produced per fission is 2.5.
(d) Most of energy released appears in the kinetic energy of fission fragments.
238
(e) The fission of U takes place by fast neutrons.

12 Nuclei
 Chain Reaction
If on average more than one of the neutrons produced in each fission are capable of causing
further fission, the number of fissions taking placed at successive stages goes increasing at a
rapid rate, giving rise to self-sustained sequence of fission known as chain reaction. the chain
reaction takes place only if the size of the fissionable material is greater than a certain size the
critical size.

Uncontrolled Chain Reaction

In this process the number of fissions in a given interval on the average goes on increasing and
the system will have the explosive tendency. This forms the principle of atom bomb. If a nuclear
3
reaction is uncontrolled then in about 1 µs, energy of order of 2 × 10 J is released.

Controlled Chain Reaction

In this process the number of fissions in a given interval is maintained constant by absorbing a
desired number of neutrons. This forms the principle of nuclear reactor, consisting of the
following parts:
235 233 239
(a) Fuel: The fuel is U or U or Pu
(b) Moderator: A moderator is a suitable material to slow down neutrons produced in the
fission. The best choice as moderator are heavy water (D2O) and graphite (C).
(c) Controller: To maintain the steady rate of fission, the neutron absorbing material known as
controller is used. The control rods are made of cadmium or Boron-steel.
(d) Coolant: To remove the considerable amount of heat produced in the fission process,
suitable cooling fluids known as coolants, are used. The usual coolants are water, carbon-
dioxide, air etc.
(e) Reactor shield: The intense neutrons and gamma radiation produced in nuclear reactors are
harmful for human body. To protect the workers from such radiations, the reactor core is
surrounded by concrete wall, called the reactor shield.
238
(f) U is non - fissile, it cannot support a chain reaction.
By contrast, the binding energy released by uranium-238 absorbing a thermal neutron is less
than the critical energy, so the neutron must possess additional energy for fission to be possible.
Consequently, uranium-238 is fissionable but not fissile.

Critical Mass
If the amount of uranium is too small, then the liberated neutrons have large scope to escape
from the surface and the chain reaction may stop before enough energy is released for
explosion. Therefore, in order for explosion to occur, the mass uranium has to be greater than
some minimum value, called the critical mass.

Reproduction Factor
It is the ratio of the rate of neutron production and the rate at which the neutrons disappear.
Whether a mass of active material will sustain a chain reaction or not is determined by the
reproduction factor (K).
• If K = 1, the chain reaction will be sustained. If K = 1, the mass is said to be critical.

Nuclei 13
 (ii) Nuclear Fusion
The phenomenon of combination of two or more light nuclei to form a heavy nucleus with
release of enormous amount of energy is called the nuclear fusion. The sum of masses before
fusion must be greater than the sum of masses after fusion, the difference in mass appearing
as fusion energy. The fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium is expressed as
2 2 4
1 H + 1H → 2He + 23.8 MeV
It may be pointed out that fusion reaction does not actually occur. Due to huge quantity of
4
energy release, the helium nucleus 2He has got such a large value of excitation energy that it
breaks up by the emission of a proton or a neutron as soon as it is formed, giving rise to the
following reactions.
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1H → 2He + 0n + Q(= 3.26 MeV)
2 2 3 1
1 H + 1H → 1H + 1H + Q(= 4.04 MeV)
The fusion process occurs at extremely high temperature and high pressure just as it takes
7
place at sun where temperature is 10 K. So, fusion reactions are also called Thermo-nuclear
reactions.

• Nuclear fusion has the possibility of being a much better source of energy than fission due to
the following reasons.
(a) In fusion there is no radiation hazard as no radioactive material is used.
(b) The fuel needed for fission (U-235 etc.) is not available easily whereas hydrogen needed for
fusion can be obtained in huge quantity.
(c) The energy released per nucleon is much more in fusion than in fission.
However, the very high temperature and pressure required for fusion cannot be easily created
and maintained and as such it has not been possible as yet to use fusion for power generation.

Example 11:
235
In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U (235.0439) in 24 hours by slow neutrons
92 141
(1.0087 u). Assume that Kr
35 (91.8973 u) and 56 Ba (140.9139 amu) are produced in all reactions
and no energy is lost.
(i) Write the complete reaction (ii) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour.
Given 1 u = 931 MeV.
Solution:
235 1 141 92 1
The nuclear fission reaction is U
92 + 0n → Ba
56 + 36 Kr + 30n
Mass defect ∆m = [(mu + mn) – (mBa + mKr + 3 mn)] = 236.0526 – 235.8373 = 0.2153 u
Energy released Q = 0.2153 × 931 = 200 MeV.
6.02 × 1023 21
Number of atoms in 1 g = = 2.56 × 10
235
235 21 23
Energy released in fission of 1 g of U is E = 200 × 2.56 × 10 = 5.12 × 10 MeV
23 –13 10
= 5.12 × 10 × 1.6 × 10 = 8.2 × 10 J
10
8.2 × 10 4
= 6
kWh = 2.28 × 10 kWh
3.6 × 10

14 Nuclei
 Concept Builder-3

Q.1 Calculate the energy released by the fission of 2 g of 92U235 in kWh. Given that the energy released
per fission is 200 MeV.

Q.2 If the energy released in the fission of one nucleus is 3.2 × 10–11J, then find number of nuclei
required per second in a power plant of 16 kW.

Q.3 Find out the mass of Uranium required per day to generate 10 MW power from the fission of
92U
235
.

Q.4 The mass defect in a nuclear fusion reaction is 0.3 percent. What amount of energy will be
liberated in one kg fusion reaction ?

Uses of Radioactive isotopes:

(i) In Medicine:
60
• Co for treatment of cancer
24
• Na for circulation of blood
131
• I for thyroid
90
• Sr for treatment of skin & eye
59
• Fe for location of brain tumor
• Radiographs of castings and teeth
(ii) In Industries:
• For detecting leakage in water and oil pipe lines
• For investigation of wear & tear, study of plastics & alloys, thickness measurement.
(iii) In Agriculture:
14
• C to study kinetics of plant photosynthesis.
32
• P to find nature of phosphate which is best for given soil & crop
60
• Co for protecting potato crop from earth worm.
• Sterilization of insects for pest control.
(iv) In Scientific research:
40
• K to find age of meteorites
35
• S in factories
(v) Carbon dating:
• It is used to find age of earth and fossils
14
• The age of earth is found by Uranium disintegration and fossil age by disintegration of C .
9
• The estimated age of earth is about 5 × 10 years.
14
• The half-life of C is 7500 years.
(vi) As Tracers:
• A very small quantity of radio isotope present in any specimen is called tracer.
• This technique is used to study complex biochemical reactions, in detection of cracks,
blockage etc., tracing sewage or silt in sea
(vii) In Geology:
• for dating geological specimens like ancient rocks, lunar rocks using Uranium
14
• for dating archaeological specimens, biological specimens using C .

Nuclei 15
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS
CONCEPT BUILDER-1 8. (i) 226
88
−α
Ra  → 222
86
Rn + 24He
1. (1) 2. (3) 3. (3)
−α
(ii) 242
94
Ra  → 238
92
U + 24He
4. (E3 + E4) – (E1 + E2) 5. 4.23 MeV
−
−β
(iii) 32
15
P → 32
16
S + –10β + υ
6. (i) –4.031 MeV, endothermic
−
−β
(iv) 210
Bo → 210
Po + –10β + υ
(ii) 5.64 MeV, exothermic 83 84

+
−β
7. 278.92 MeV 8. 1:1 (v) 11
6
C → 11
5
B + +01β + υ

−β +
(vi) 97
43
Tc → 97
42
Mo + +01β + υ
CONCEPT BUILDER-2 electroncapture
(vii) 120
54
Xe + −1e0 → 53
120
I + X - Ray + υ
1. 5.4 MeV 2. (4)

3. a = 89, b = 234
CONCEPT BUILDER-3
4. a = 110, b = 219, c = 109, d = 215
4 14
1. 4.55 × 10 kWh. 2. 5 × 10
5. n = 8, n' = 6 6. Nα 8,
= = Nβ 8
14
3. 10.5 g 4. 2.7 × 10 J
7. Mass number = 172 and

Atomic number = 69

16 Nuclei
 Exercise - I
1. The stable nucleus that has a radius 1/3 7. Masses of nucleus, neutron and protons
that of Os
189
is - are M, mn and mp respectively. If nucleus

(1) 3Li
7
(2) 2He
4 has been divided into neutrons and
10 12 protons, then
(3) 5B (4) 6C
(1) M = (A – Z) mn + Zmp
(2) M = Zmn + (A – Z) mp
2. The mass numbers of nuclei A and B are
(3) M < (A – Z) mn + Zmp
respectively 125 and 64. The ratio of their
(4) M > (A – Z)mn + Zmp
radii is:
(1) 1 : 3 (2) 5 : 4
8. As the mass number A increases, the
(3) 27 : 1 (4) 1 : 27 binding energy per nucleon in a nucleus
(1) increases
17
3. If M0 is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O , (2) decreases
Mp and Mn are the masses of a proton and (3) remains the same
(4) varies in a way that depends on the
a neutron, respectively the nuclear binding
actual value of A.
energy of the isotope is
2
(1) (M0 – 8Mp) C
9. A nucleus has mass represented by M(A, Z).
2
(2) (8MP + 9Mn – M0) C If Mp and Mn denote the mass of proton and

(3) M0c
2 neutron respectively and BE the binding
2 energy (in MeV), then:
(4) (M0 – 17 Mn) C 2
(1) BE = [M(A,Z) – ZMp –(A – Z) Mn]c
2
(2) BE = [ZMp +(A – Z) Mn – M (A, Z)]c
4. Two substances have different atomic
2
masses and same atomic number. They are : (3) BE = [ZMp +AMn – M (A,Z)]c

(1) isotopes (2) isobars (4) BE = M (A,Z) – ZMp –(A – Z) Mn

(3) isotones (4) none of these

27
10. If the nucleus 13
Al has a nuclear radius of
5. 1 amu is equivalent to : about 3.6 fm, then 125
52
Te would have its
(1) 931 MeV (2) 0.51eV radius approximately as :
(3) 9.31 MeV (4) 1.02 MeV (1) 6.0 fm (2) 9.6 fm
(3) 12.0 fm (4) 4.8 fm
6. Which one of the following pairs of nuclei
are isotones: 11. Two nuclei have their mass numbers in the
74 71 84 86 ratio of 1 : 3. The ratio of their nuclear
(1) 34 Se ,31Ga (2) 38 Sr ,38sr
densities would be :
92 92 40 32
(3) 42 Mo ,40Zr (4) 20 Ca ,16S (1) 1 : 3 (2) 3 : 1
1/3
(3) (3) :1 (4) 1 : 1

Nuclei 17
12. The mass of a 37 Li nucleus is 0.042 u less 17. If mass of the fissionable material is less

than the sum of the masses of all its than the critical mass, then

nucleons. The binding energy per nucleon (1) fission and chain reactions both are

of 37 Li nucleus is nearly: impossible.

(2) fission is possible but chain reaction is
(1) 46 MeV (2) 5.6 MeV
impossible.
(3) 3.9 MeV (4) 23 MeV
(3) fission is impossible but chain reaction
is possible.
13. Which of the following is a wrong
(4) fission and chain reaction both are
description of binding energy of a nucleus?
possible.
(1) It is the energy required to break a
nucleus into its constituent nucleons.
18. Which of the following materials is used
(2) It is the energy released when free
for controlling the fission?
nucleons combine to from a nucleus.
(1) heavy water (2) graphite
(3) It is the sum of the rest mass energies
(3) cadmium (4) Beryllium oxide
of its nucleons minus the rest mass
energy of the nucleus.
235
(4) It is the sum of the kinetic energy of all 19. U
92 nucleus absorbs a slow neutron and
139 94
the nucleons in the nucleus. undergoes fission into 54 X and 38 Sr
nuclei. The other particles produced in this
7 4
14. The energy of the reaction Li + p → 2 He fission process are
7
is (the binding energy per nucleon in Li (1) 1 β and 1 α (2) 2 β and 1 neutron
4
and He nuclei are 5.60 and 7.06 MeV (3) 2 neutrons (4) 3 neutrons
respectively.)
(1) 17.3 MeV 20. Fusion reaction is possible at high
(2) 1.73 MeV temperature because -
(3) 1.46 MeV (1) atoms are ionised at high temperature
(4) depends on binding energy of proton (2) molecules break-up at high temperature
(3) nuclei break-up at high temperature
15. An α-particle is bombarded on
14
N. As a (4) kinetic energy is high enough to

result, a
17
O nucleus is formed and a overcome repulsion between nuclei.

particle is emitted. This particle is a

21. Let Fpp, Fpn and Fnn denote the magnitudes
(1) neutron (2) proton
of the nuclear force by a proton on a
(3) electron (4) positron
proton, by a proton on a neutron and by a
neutron on a neutron respectively. When
16. A free neutron decays into a proton, an
the separation is 1 fm,
electron and :
(1) Fpp> Fpn = Fnn (2) Fpp= Fpn = Fnn
(1) A neutrino (2) An antineutrino
(3) Fpp> Fpn > Fnn (4) Fpp< Fpn = Fnn
(3) An α-particle (4) A β-particle

18 Nuclei
 −
22. When a β -particle is emitted from a 28. In one α and 2β -emissions :
nucleus, the neutron-proton ratio : (1) mass number reduces by 2
(1) is decreased (2) is increased (2) mass number reduces by 6
(3) remains the same (4) first (1) then (2) (3) atomic number reduces by 2
(4) atomic number remains unchanged

23. A free neutron decays to a proton but a

29. Which ray contain (+Ve) charge particle :-
free proton does not decay to a neutron.
(1) α-rays (2) β-rays
This is because
(3) γ-rays (4) X-rays
(1) neutron is a composite particle made
of a proton and an electron whereas
30. Mn and Mp represent the mass of neutron
proton is fundamental particle.
and proton respectively An element having
(2) neutron is an uncharged particle
mass M has N neutron and Z-protons, then
whereas proton is a charged particle.
the correct relation will be :
(3) neutron has larger rest mass than the
(1) M < {N.mn + Z.Mp} (2) M > {N.mn + Z.Mp}
proton.
(3) M = {N.mn + Z.Mp} (4) M = N {.mn + Mp}
(4) weak forces can operate in a neutron
but not in a proton.
31. Which of the followings is a correct
m
statement?
24. A nucleus X emits one α and two β
n (1) beta rays are same as cathode rays.
particles. The resulting nucleus is : (2) gamma rays are high energy neutrons.
m–4 m–4
(1) nX (2) n –2 y (3) alpha particles are singly-ionized helium
(3) Z
m–4
(4) none of these atoms.
n–4
(4) protons and neutrons have exactly the
same mass.
25. Complete the equation for the following
fission process :
32. A nuclear reaction given by
235 1 90
92U + on → 38Sr + ....... A A 0
z X z+1 Y + –1e + represents
143 1 145
(1) 54 Xe + 3 0n (2) 54 Xe (1) β-decay (2) γ-decay
142 142 1
(3) 57 Xe (4) 54 Xe + 0n (3) fusion (4) fission

14
26. Alpha particles are : 33. An α – particle is bombarded on, 7N As. a
17
(1) 2 free protons result, a 8 O -nucleus is formed and a
(2) helium atoms particle X is emitted. The particle X is :
(3) singly ionized helium atoms (1) neutron (2) proton
(4) doubly ionized helium atoms (3) electron (4) positron

234 222
27. When a proton is accelerated through 1V 34. In the reaction X
92 87Y How many
its kinetic energy will be : α-particles and β-particles are emitted ?
(1) 1540 eV (2) 13.6 eV (1) 3 and 5 (2) 5 and 3
(3) 1 eV (4) zero (3) 3 and 3 (4) 3 and 1

Nuclei 19
35. A nucleus of mass number 232 and z = 90. 38. Half-lives of two radioactive substances A
After many disintegrations of α and and B are respectively 20 min and 40 min.
β radiations, decays into other nucleus Initially the samples of A and B have equal
whose mass number is 220 and atomic number of nuclei. After 80 min the ratio of
number is 86. The numbers of α and β remaining number of A and B nuclei is :
radiations will be : (1) 1 : 16 (2) 4 : 1
(1) 4, 0 (2) 3, 6 (3) 1 : 4 (4) 1 : 1
(3) 3, 2 (4) 2, 1
39. A freshly prepared radioactive source of
36. If N0 is the original mass of the substance of half-life 2 h emits radiation of intensity
half-life period tl/2 = 5 years, then the which is 64 times the permissible safe

amount of substance left after 15 years is : level. The minimum time after which it

(1) N0 / 8 (2) N0 / 16 would be possible to work safely with this

source is :
(3) N0 / 2 (4) N0 / 4
(1) 6 h (2) 12 h
(3) 24 h (4) 128 h
37. A sample of radioactive element containing
16
4 × 10 active nuclei. Half life of element is
40. In one average-life
10 days, then number of decayed nuclei
(1) half the active nuclei decay
after 30 days :
(2) less than half the active nuclei decay
16 16
(1) 0.5 × 10 (2) 2 × 10 (3) more than half the active nuclei decay
16 16
(3) 3.5 × 10 (4) 1 × 10 (4) all the nuclei decay

20 Nuclei
 Exercise - II
1. At a specific instant emission of 6. A nucleus disintegrates into two nuclear
radioactive compound is deflected in a parts which have their velocities in the
magnetic field. The compound can emit- ratio 2 : 1 The ratio of their nuclear sizes
(i) electrons (ii) protons will be:
2+
(iii) He (iv) neutrons (1) 2
1/3
:1 (2) 1 : 3
1/2

The emission at the instant can be- 1/2 1/3

(3) 3 :1 (4) 1 : 2
(1) i, ii, iii (2) i, ii, iii, iv
(3) iv (4) ii, iii
7. The binding energy per nucleon of

238
deuteron ( H) and helium nucleus ( He) is
2
1
4
2
2. When U nucleus originally at rest, decays
1.1 MeV and 7 MeV respectively. If two
by emitting an alpha particle having a
deuteron nuclei react to form a single
speed u, the recoil speed of the residual
nucleus is- helium nucleus, then the energy released is:

4u 4u (1) 13.9 MeV (2) 26.9 MeV

(1) (2) –
238 234 (3) 23.6 MeV (4) 19.2 MeV
4u 4u
(3) (4) –
234 238 8. A nuclear transformation is denoted by
7
X(n, α) → 3 Li . Which of the following is the
3. A nucleus with Z = 92 emits the following
nucleus of element X ?
– – – –
in a sequence : α, α, β , β , α, α, α, α, β , β ,
(1) 12
6
C (2) 10
5
B
+ +
α, β , β , α. The Z of the resulting nucleus
(3) 95 B (4) 11
Be
is- 4

(1) 76 (2) 78
(3) 82 (4) 74 9. The energy spectrum of β-particles
[number N(E) as a function of β-energy E]
4. Which of the following cannot be emitted emitted from a radioactive source is:
by radioactive substances during their
N(E) N(E)
decay ? (1) (2)
(1) Protons (2) Neutrinos E E
E0 E0
(3) Helium nuclei (4) Electrons
N(E) N(E)
(3) (4)
5. In the nuclear fusion reaction, E E
E0 E0
2
1
H + H → He + n given that the repulsive
3
1
4
2

potential energy between the two nuclei is

10. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus
–14
7.7 × 10 J, the temperature at which the
(1) both the neutron number and the
gases must be heated to initiate the
proton number change
reaction is nearly [Boltzmann's constant
–23
(2) there is no change in the proton
k = 1.38 × 10 J/K]
number and the neutron number
7 5
(1) 10 K (2) 10 K (3) only the neutron number changes
3 9
(3) 10 K (4) 10 K (4) only the proton number changes

Nuclei 21
11. This question contains Statement-1 and 13. After absorbing a slowly moving neutron of
Statement-2. Out of the four choices given mass mN (momentum  0) a nucleus of
after the statements, choose the one that mass M breaks into two nuclei of masses
best describes the two statements. m1 and 5m1 (6m1 = M + mN), respectively. If
Statement-1 : Energy is released when
the de Broglie wavelength of the nucleus
heavy nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei
with mass m1 is λ, then de Broglie
undergo fusion.
wavelength of the other nucleus will be:
Statement-2 : For heavy nuclei, binding
(1) 25 λ (2) 5λ
energy per nucleon increases with
λ
increasing Z while for light nuclei it (3) (4) λ
5
decreases with increasing Z.
(1) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is 14. Assume that a neutron breaks into a
true. proton and an electron. The energy
(2) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is released during this process is :
true; Statement-2 is a correct (Mass of neutron = 1.6747 × 10
–27
kg
explanation for Statement-1. –27
Mass of proton = 1.6725 × 10 kg
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is –31
Mass of electron = 9 × 10 kg)
true; Statement-2 is not a correct
(1) 5.4 MeV
explanation for Statement-1.
(2) 0.73 MeV
(4) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is
(3) 7.10 MeV
false.
(4) 6.30 MeV

12. The above is a plot of binding energy per

2 3 4 1
15. In the reaction 1 H + 1 H → H + n. If the
nucleon Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, 2 0

2 3 4
B, C, D, E, F correspond to different nuclei. binding energies of 1H, 1 H and 2 He are

Consider four reactions : respectively a, b and c (in MeV), then the

energy (in MeV released in this reaction is)
(1) a + b + c
D E
Eb B C (2) c + a + b
A F (3) c – (a + b)
(4) a + b + c
M

(i) A + B → C + ε (ii) C → A + B + ε
16. In any fission process the ratio
(iii) D + E → F + ε (iv) F → D + E + ε
mass of fission products
where ε is the energy released ? In which is:
maas of parent nucleus
reactions is ε positive ?
(1) Greater than 1
(1) (ii) and (iv)
(2) Depends on the mass of the parent
(2) (ii) and (iii)
nucleus
(3) (i) and (iv)
(3) Less than 1
(4) (i) and (iii)
(4) equal of 1

22 Nuclei
17. Fission of nuclei is possible because the 18. In the nuclear decay given below
A A −4 A −4
binding energy in nucleon in them: A
Z
X 
→Z + 1 Y  →Z − 1 B ,
→Z − 1 B * 

(1) Decreases with mass number at low the particles emitted in the sequence are
(1) β, α ,γ (2) γ, β ,α
mass numbers
(3) β, γ ,α (4) α, β ,γ
(2) Increases with mass number at low

mass numbers 19. The number of beta particles emitted by a

(3) Decreases with mass number at high radioactive substance is twice the number
of alpha particles emitted by it. The
mass numbers
resulting daughter is an:
(4) Increases with mass number at high
(1) isobar of parent (2) isomer of parent
mass numbers (3) isotone of parent (4) isotope of parent

Nuclei 23
 Exercise – III

For the question (1 to 11) 4. Assertion: The Q value of nuclear process

In the light of the above statements, is Q = total final binding energy – total
choose the most appropriate answer from initial binding energy.
the options given below: Reason: The Q value of nuclear reaction
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
initially appears in form of kinetic energy
Reason is the correct explanation of
of products.
Assertion.
(1) A (2) B
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
(3) C (4) D
Reason is NOT the correct explanation
of Assertion.
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false. 5. Assertion: Nucleus having more binding
(D) Assertion and Reason are false. energy is more stable
Reason: Stability increases with increase in
1. Assertion: Strong nuclear force holds number of nucleons.
protons inside nucleus. (1) A (2) B
Reason: Strong nuclear force is not a (3) C (4) D
fundamental force.
(1) A (2) B 56
6. Assertion: Fe nucleus is more stable than
(3) C (4) D
235
U nucleus.
56
2. Assertion: Consider the following nuclear Reason: Binding energy of Fe nucleus is
14
6 C
235
reaction of an unstable nucleus more than binding energy of U
initially at rest. The decay (1) A (2) B
14
→ 14
6 C 
0
7 N + −1e + v . In a nuclear reaction (3) C (4) D
total energy and momentum is conserved
experiments show that the electrons are 7. Assertion: Radioactive nuclei can emit
emitted with a continuous range of kinetic β-particles.
energies upto some maximum value. Reason: Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
Reason: Remaining energy is released as (1) A (2) B
thermal energy.
(3) C (4) D
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
8. Assertion: Energy released in one fusion
process is less than the energy released in
3. Assertion: On the atomic scale, mass is
measured in atomic mass units (u). a single fission event.
th
Reason: 1u is 1/12 mass of one atom of C
12 Reason: Fusion is a weaker source of

(1u = 1.66 × 10
–27
kg) energy than fission.
(1) A (2) B (1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D (3) C (4) D

24 Nuclei
9. Assertion: Nuclear forces are charge 12. Match the column -
dependent forces. Table-1 Table-2
(A) Sun (P) Nuclear
Reason: Nuclear forces are attractive
fission
forces.
(B) Nuclear (Q) Nuclear
(1) A (2) B Reactors fusion
(3) C (4) D (C) Total B.E. in (R) Energy is
a process is released
increased
10. Assertion: Order of nuclear binding energy
(D) Total B.E. in (S) Energy is
per nucleon is 94 Be > 37Li > 24He . a process is absorbed
Reason: Binding energy per nucleon decreased
(1) A→P, B→R, C→Q, D→S
increases linearly with difference in
(2) A→R, B→Q, C→P, D→S
number of neutrons and protons. (3) A→Q, B→P, C→R, D→S
(1) A (4) A→Q, B→R, C→Q, D→P
(2) B
13. Match the Column -
(3) C
Column-I Column-II
(4) D
(A) α−decay (P) 15
8
O → 715O + ...
(B) +
β -decay (Q) 238
92
U → 90
234
Th + ...
11. Assertion: Nuclear force is short range
(C) Fission (R) 185
Bi → 82
184
Pb + ...
while gravitation and electric force are 83

universal. (D) Proton (S) 239

94
Pu → 57
140
La + ...
Reason: Nuclear force does not follow emission
inverse square law. A B C D
(1) A (1) Q P S R
(2) B (2) S Q R P
(3) C (3) P Q R S
(4) D (4) S Q P R

Nuclei 25
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)

1. A certain mass of Hydrogen is changed to 6. The energy equivalent of 0.5 g of a

Helium by the process of fusion. The Mass substance is : [NEET_2020]
defect in fusion reaction is 0.02866 u. The (1) 1.5 × 10 J
13
(2) 0.5 × 10 J
13

energy liberated per u is : 16 13

(3) 4.5×10 J (4) 4.5×10 J
(given 1u = 931 MeV) [NEET_2013]
(1) 26.7 MeV (2) 6.675 MeV
(3) 13.35 MeV (4) 2.67 MeV 7. When a uranium isotope 235
92
U is
bombarded with a neutron, it generates t
2. The binding energy per nucleon of 37 Li and 89
36
Kr three neutrons and : [NEET_2020]
4
2
He nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV, (1) 101
36
Kr
respectively. In the nuclear reaction Li + 7
3 (2) 103
U
36
1
1
H → 2 He + Q, the value of energy Q
4
2 (3) 144
Ba
56
released is : [AIPMT_2014]
(4) 91
40
Zr
(1) 19.6 MeV (2) –2.4 MeV
(3) 8.4 MeV (4) 17.3 MeV
8. What happens to the mass number and

3. If radius of the AI nucleus is taken to be RA atomic number of an element when it

emits γ-radiation? [NEET_2020(Covid)]
then the radius of Te nucleus is nearly :
(1) Mass number decreases by four and
[AIPMT_2015]
atomic number decreases by two.
5 3
(1) R (2) R (2) Mass number and atomic number
3 AI 5 AI
 13 
1/3 1/3 remain unchanged.
 53 
(3)   RAI (4)   R AI
 53   13  (3) Mass number remains unchanged while
atomic number decreases by one.
4. When an α-particle of mass ‘m’ moving (4) Mass number increases by four and
with velocity ‘v’ bombards on a heavy atomic number increases by two.
nucleus of charge ‘Ze’ its distance of
closest approach from the nucleus 9. A radioactive nucleus A
X undergoes
Z
depends on m as: [NEET_2016]
spontaneous decay in the sequence
1
(1) m (2) A
X →Z − 1 B →Z −3 C →Z −2 D, where Z is the
m Z

1 1 atomic number of element X. The possible

(3) (4) 2
m m decay particles in the sequence are :
[NEET_2021]
5. α-particle consists of : [NEET_2019] (1) α, β , β − +

(1) 2 electrons and 4 protons only

(2) α, β+ , β−
(2) 2 protons only
(3) β+ , α, β−
(3) 2 protons and 2 neutrons only
(4) 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons (4) β− , α, β+

26 Nuclei
10. A nucleus with mass number 240 breaks 11. In the given nuclear reaction, the element
into two fragments each of mass number X is: 22
11
Na → x + e+ + ν [NEET_2022]
120, the binding energy per nucleon of 23
(1) 11 Na
unfragmented nuclei is 7.6 MeV while that
23
of fragments is 8.5 MeV. The total gain in (2) 10 Ne
the Binding Energy in the process is : 22
(3) 10 Ne
[NEET_2021]
22
(1) 0.9 MeV (2) 9.4 MeV (4) 12 Mg

(3) 804 MeV (4) 216 MeV

Nuclei 27
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise - I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 4 2 1 4 2 4 1 2 2 2 3 4 4
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 1 3 1 1 4 3 4 1 1 2 1 2 4 3 1 3 3 2 3

Exercise - II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ans. 1 3 2 1 4 4 3 2 3 2 4 3 4 2 3 3 3 1 4

Exercise - III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ans. 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 3 4 4 2 3 1

Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ans. 1 4 1 2 3 4 3 2 3 4 3

28 Nuclei
 5 Semiconductor Electronics
Introduction
The word "electronics' is derived from electron + dynamics which means the study of the
behaviour of an electron under different conditions of externally applied fields. Electronics is
field of science which deals with electron devices and their utilization.

1. Energy Bands in Solids

(i) In solids, the group of closely lying energy levels is known as energy band.
(ii) In solids the energy bands are analogous to energy levels in an atom.
(iii) In solids the atoms are arranged very close to each other. In these atoms there are discrete
energy levels of electrons. For the formation of crystal these atoms come close together,
then due to nucleus-nucleus, electron-electron and electron-nucleus interactions the
discrete energy levels of atom distort and consequently each energy level splits into a large
number of closely lying energy levels.
(iv) The number of split energy levels is proportional to the number of atoms interacting with
each other. If two atoms interact then each energy level splits into two out of which one
will be somewhat above and another will be somewhat below the main energy level. In
23
solids the number of atoms is very large (≈ 10 ). Hence each energy level splits into large
number of closely lying energy levels. Being very close to each other these energy levels
assume the shape of a band.
23 –23
(v) In an energy band there are 10 energy levels with energy difference of 10 eV.
(vi) The are three types of energy bands in a solid.
(a) Valence energy band
(b) Conduction energy band
(c) Forbidden energy gap.
(vii) The conduction band is also known as first permitted energy band or first band.
(viii) Difference between valence and conduction energy bands are given below:-

Valence Energy Band Conduction Energy Band

In this band there are valence electrons. In this band there are free electrons.
This band may be partially or completely This band either empty or partially filled with
filled with electrons. electrons.
In this band the electrons are not capable of Electrons are capable of gaining energy form
gaining energy form external electric field. external electric field.
The electrons in this band do not contribute Electrons in this band contribute to electric
to electric current. current.
In this band there are electrons of outermost In this band there are electrons which are
orbit of atom which contribute in band obtained on breaking the covalent bands.
formation.
This is the band of maximum energy in which This is the band of minimum energy which is
the electrons are always present. empty.
This band can never be empty. This band can be empty.

Semiconductor Electronics 1
 (ix) Forbidden Energy Band
• No electrons are found in this band
• This band is completely empty.

(x) Forbidden energy gap or Band gap (∆Eg):

The minimum energy which is necessary for shifting electrons from valence band to
conduction band is defined as band gap (∆Eg) or forbidden energy gap i.e. ∆Eg = Ec – Ev.
There are three specific energy bands for the electrons in the crystal formed by these atoms
as shown in the figure.

Ec
Conduction band
band
energy forbidden
(eV) energy gap

EV Valence band

(xi) Completely filled energy bands: The energy band, in which maximum possible number of
electrons are present according to capacity is known as completely filled band.
(xii) Partially filled energy bands: The energy band, in which number of electrons present is less
than the capacity of the band, is known as partially filled energy band.
(xiii) Electric conduction is possible only in those solids which have partially filled energy band.

Study of Solids
Various Types of Solids
On the basis of band structure of crystals, solids are divided in three categories.
(a) Insulators (b) Conductors (c) Semi-conductors

(a) Insulators
In some solids energy gap is large (∆Eg > 3 eV).
So in conduction band there are no electrons and so no electrical conduction is possible.
Here energy gap is so large that electrons cannot be easily excited from the valence band
to conduction band by any external energy (electrical, thermal or optical).
Such materials are called as "insulator".
(b) Conductors
In some solids conduction band and valence band are overlapping or almost overlapping. So
there is no band gap between them, it means ∆ Eg = 0. Such materials are called conductors.
For example gold, silver, copper etc.
(c) Semi-conductors
In some solids, a finite but small band gap exists (∆Eg < 3eV).
Due to this small band gap some electrons can be thermally excited to "conduction band".
These thermally excited electrons can move in conduction band and can conduct current.
Example silicon, germanium etc.

2 Semiconductor Electronics
2. Detail Study of Semiconductor
Properties of Semiconductor
• Negative temperature coefficient (α), with increase in temperature resistance decreases.
Rt = R0 (1 + α ∆t) here α has negative value.
• At absolute zero kelvin temperature covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free
electrons and semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator. With increase in temperature
some covalent bonds are broken and few valence electrons jump to conduction band and
hence it behaves as poor conductor.
• Crystalline structure with covalent bonding [Face centered cubic (FCC)]
• Conduction properties may change by adding small impurities
• Place in periodic table → IV group (Generally)
• Forbidden energy gap (0.1 to 3 eV)
• Charge carriers : electron and hole
• There are many semiconductors but few of them have practical application in electronics
like
32 14
Ge : 2, 8, 18, 4 Si : 2, 8, 4

CB CB
0.7 eV 1.1eV
VB VB
band band
energy rd energy
(eV) 3 band (eV) 2nd band

2nd band 1st band

∆Eg
3/2 –
• Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band n = A T e 2kT

-23
where k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 J/K, T = absolute temperature, A = constant
∆Eg = energy gap between conduction band and valence band
• In semiconductors, Ohm's law is approximately obeyed only for low electric field (less than
6 –1
10 Vm ). Above this field, the current becomes almost independent of applied field.
• Difference between Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators :-

S. Property Conductors Semi-conductors Insulators

No.
1. Electrical conductivity 2 8
Very high 10 – 10 mho/m Between those of Negligible 10
–19

and its value conductors and – 10

–11
mho/m
–6
insulators i.e. 10
5
mho/m to 10 mho/m
2. Resistivity and its value Negligible Less than 10
–8
– Between those of Very high more
10
–2
Ω-m conductors and than 10 Ω-m
5

-5
insulators i.e. 10 Ω-
6
m to 10 Ω-m

Semiconductor Electronics 3
3. Band structure C.B. Completely
unoccupied
V.B. C.B. C.B.
1eV 6eV
∆Eg less ∆Eg max imum
∆Eg =
0
V.B. V.B.
Completely Completely
Overlapped bands filled valence filled valence
band band
4. Energy gap and its Zero or very small More that in Very large e.g. in
value conductors but less Diamond
than that in ∆Eg = 7 eV
insulators e.g. in Ge,
∆Eg = 0.72 eV is Si,
∆Eg = 1.1 eV in Ga As
∆Eg = 1.3 eV
5. Current carriers and Due to free electrons and Due to free electrons Due to free
current flow very high and holes more than electrons but
that in insulators negligible.
6. Number of current Very high very low negligible
carriers (electrons or
holes) at ordinary
temperature
7. Condition of valence The valence and CB → partially filled CB → Completely
band and conduction conduction bands are VB → partially empty empty
band at room completely filled or VB → Completely
temperature conduction band is some filled
what empty (e.g. in Na)
8. Behaviour at 0 K Behaves like a Behaves like an Behaves like an
superconductor insulator insulator
9. Temperature coefficient Positive Negative Negative
of resistance (α)
10. Effects of increasing Conductivity decreases Conductivity Conductivity
temperature on increases increases
conductivity
11. On increasing Decreases Increases Increases
temperature, the
number of current
carriers
12. On mixing impurities Increases Decreases Remains
their resistance unchanged
13. Current flow in these Easily Very slow Does not take
takes place place
14. Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Pt, Hg, etc. Ge, Si, Ga-As etc. Wood, plastic,
mica, diamond,
glass etc.

4 Semiconductor Electronics
 Holes or Cotters
• There are uncharged.
• The deficiency of electrons in covalent bond formation in the valence band is defined as
hole or cotter.
• These are equivalent to positive charge. The value of positive charge on them is equal to
the charge of an electron.
• Their effective mass is greater than that of electrons.
• In an external electric field, holes move in a direction opposite to that of electrons i.e. they
move from positive to negative terminal.
• They contribute to current flow.
• The drift velocities of electrons (vdn) and holes (vdp) are different (vdn > vdp).

• The velocity gained by the charge carriers in an electric field of unit intensity, is defined as
their mobility
Mobility of holes (µp) < Mobility of electrons (µn).

• Holes are produced when covalent bonds in valence band break.

C.B. C.B.
• •

• • • •–   • •
e– e– e– e
V.B. V.B.

3. Type of Semiconductor and Difference Between Them

• The semiconductors are of two types.
(i) Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(ii) Extrinsic or doped semiconductors

(i) Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductors

The semiconductor without mixing impurity in it is intrinsic or pure semiconductors
(a) Number of holes (np) = number of electrons (nn)

(b) Electric conduction takes place via both electrons and holes.
(c) I = Ip + In = ne A (vdn + vdp), here A is area of cross-section

(d) J = ne (vdn + vdp)

1
(e) Conductivity σi = = eni (µn + µp), here µn is µp are mobility of electrons and holes
ρi

respectively

Semiconductor Electronics 5
 • Doping: The process of mixing impurities of other elements in pure semiconductors is known
as doping.
• Doping is a method of addition of "desirable" impurity atoms to pure semiconductor to
increase conductivity of semiconductor.
• The concentration of dopant atoms be very low, doping ratio vary from
6 10
impure : pure ⇒ 1 : 10 to 1 : 10
8
In general it is 1 : 10
• There are two main method of doping.
(i) Alloy method
(ii) Diffusion method (The best)
• The size of dopant atom (impurity) should be almost the same as that of crystal atom. So
that crystalline structure of solid remain unchanged.

(ii) Extrinsic or Doped Semiconductors

The semiconductors, in which trivalent and pentavalent elements are mixed as impurities, are
known as extrinsic semiconductors.

• Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

S. No. Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. Pure Ge or Si is known as intrinsic The semiconductor resulting from mixing
semiconductor impurity in it, is known as extrinsic
semiconductors
2. Their conductivity is low (because only one Their conductivity is high
9
electrons in 10 contribute)
3. The number of free electron nn in In these nn ≠ np

conduction band is equal to the number of

holes np in valence band

4. These are not practically used These are practically used

5. In these the energy gap is very small In these the energy gap is less than as in
pure semiconductors.

The extrinsic semiconductors are of two types

(a) N-type semiconductors
(b) P-type semiconductors.

6 Semiconductor Electronics
 (a) N-type Semiconductors

• In these the impurity of some pentavalent element like P, As, Sb, Bi, etc. is mixed.
Si

Penta valent
e– e– impurity atom
e– e–

Si Bi Si

e– e–
–
e

Free electron

Si

• In these, the impurity atom donates one electron, hence these are known as donor type

semiconductors

• In these, the electrons are majority current carriers and holes are minority current carriers.

(i.e. the electron density is more than hole density nn >> np)

• Jn  nne vdn

1
• Conductivity σn = = enn (µn)
ρn

• In these, there is majority of negative particles (electrons) and hence are known as N-type

semiconductors
Electrons

C.B.

V.B.

• In these the donor energy level is close to the conduction band and far away from valence

band.

C.B.
EC
E
n
e Ed
r
g
y
EV
V.B.

Semiconductor Electronics 7
 (b) P-type Semiconductors
• In these, the impurity of some trivalent element like B, Al, In, Ga etc. is mixed.
Si

Trivalent
Impurity atc

Si B Si

Hole
present

Si

• In these, the impurity atom can accept one electron, hence these are known as acceptor
type semiconductors.
• In these, the holes are majority current carriers and electrons are minority current carriers
i.e. np >> nn
• In these there is majority of positive particles (cotters) and hence are known as P-type
semiconductors (np >> nn).
Electrons

C.B.

V.B.

• In these the acceptor energy level is close to the valence band and far away from conduction
band.
C.B.
EC
E
n
e
r
g Ea
y
EV
V.B.

• Jp  npe vdp
1
• Conductivity σp = = enp (µp)
ρp
Mass Action Law
–
In semiconductors due to thermal effect, generation of free e and hole takes place.
Apart from the process of generation, a process of recombination also occurs simultaneously,
–
in which free e further recombine with hole.
At equilibrium rate of generation of charge carriers is equal to rate of recombination of charge
carrier.

8 Semiconductor Electronics
 –
The recombination occurs due to e colliding with a hole, larger the value of nn or np, higher is
the probability of their recombination.
Hence for a given semiconductor rate of recombination ∝ nn × np
so rate of recombination = R nn × np
where R = recombination coefficient,
The value of R remains constant for a solid, according to the law of thermodynamics until
crystalline lattice structure remains same.
For intrinsic semiconductor nn = np = ni
2
so rate of recombination = R ni
2 2
R nn × np = R ni ⇒ ni = nn × np
Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the concentration 'nn' of free electrons and the
concentration np of holes is a constant.
Independent of the amount of doping by acceptor and donor impurities.
2
nn × np = ni

Characteristics Ge Si
Energy gap 0.7 (eV) 1.1(eV)
Potential barrier 0.3 V 0.7 V

Example 1:
A silicon specimen is made into a p-type semiconductor by doping on an average one indium
7
atom per 5 × 10 silicon atoms. If the number density of atoms in the silicon specimen is
28 3
5 × 10 atoms/m ; find the number of acceptor atoms in silicon per cubic centimeter.
Solution:
The doping of one indium atom in silicon semiconductor will produce one acceptor atom in
7
p-type semiconductor. Since one indium atom has been dopped per 5 × 10 silicon atoms, so
number density of acceptor atoms in silicon
5 × 1028 21 3 15 3
= = 10 atom/m = 10 atoms/cm
5 × 10 7

Example 2:
16 –3
Pure Si at 300 K has equal electron (nn) and hole (np) concentrations of 1.5 × 10 m . Doping by
22 –3
indium increases np to 3 × 10 m . Calculate nn in the doped Si.
Solution:
2
For a doped semi-conductor in thermal equilibrium nnnp = ni (Law of mass action)

ni2 (1.5 × 1016 )2 9 –3

nn = = = 7.5 × 10 m
np 3 × 1022

Semiconductor Electronics 9
Example 3:
3
What will be conductance of pure silicon crystal at 300K temp.. If electron hole pairs per cm
10 2 2
is 1.072 x 10 at this temp, µn = 1350 cm / volt sec & µP = 480 cm / volt sec
Solution:
–6
σ = nieµn + nieµp = nie (µn + µp) = 3.14×10 mho/cm

Example 4:
8 3
A semiconductor has equal electron and hole concentration of 6 × 10 /m . On doping with
12 3
certain impurity electron concentration increases to 9 × 10 /m .
(i) Identify the new semiconductor obtained after doping.
(ii) Calculate the new hole concentration.
Solution:
8 3 12 3
ni = 6 × 10 /m and nn = 9 × 10 /m
(i) nn >> ni so it is N-type semiconductor
2
(ii)  ni = nnnp
ni2 36 × 1016 4 3
np = = = 4 × 10 /m
nn 9 × 1012

Example 5:
A P type semiconductor has acceptor level 57 meV above the valence band. What is maximum
wavelength of light required to create a hole?
Solution:
hc
E=
λ
hc 6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
λ= = = 217100 Å
E 57 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19

Concept Builder-1

Q.1 C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure. Why is C insulator while Si and Ge intrinsic
semiconductors?

Q.2 Suppose a pure Si crystal has 5 × 1028 atoms m–3. It is doped by 1 ppm concentration of
pentavalent As. Calculate the number of electrons and holes. Given that ni = 1.5 × 1016 m–3.

Q.3 In an n-type silicon, which of the following statement is true:

(a) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.
(b) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are the dopants.

Q.4 Which of the statements given in Q.3 is true for p-type semiconductors.

10 Semiconductor Electronics
Q.5 Carbon, silicon and germanium have four valence electrons each. These are characterised by
valence and conduction bands separated by energy band gap respectively equal to (Eg)C, (Eg)Si
and (Eg)Ge. Which of the following statements is true?
(a) (Eg)Si < (Eg)Ge < (Eg)C (b) (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge > (Eg)Si
(c) (Eg)C > (Eg)Si > (Eg)Ge (d) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si = (Eg)Ge

4. P - N Junction
The device formed by joining atomically a wafer of P-type semiconductor to the wafer of
N-type semiconductor is known as P-N junction.
Description of P-N Junction Without Applied Voltage
Given diagram shows a P–N junction immediately after it is formed.
P region has mobile majority holes and immobile negatively charged impurity ions.
N region has mobile majority free electrons and immobile positively charged impurity ions.

–
Due to concentration difference diffusion of holes starts from P to N side and diffusion of e s
starts N to P side.
Due to this a layer of only positive ions (in N side) and negative ions (in P–side) started to form
which generate an electric field (N to P side) which oppose diffusion process. During diffusion
magnitude of electric field increases due to which diffusion gradually decreases and ultimately
stop.
Due to electric field minority charge carriers (electrons in p-type & holes in n-type) starts
drifting & constitute a drift current opposite to direction of diffusion current.
The layer of immobile positive and negative ions, which have no free electrons and holes called
as depletion layer as shown in diagram.
-6
• Width of Depletion Layer  10 m
(a) As doping increases depletion layer decreases
(b) As temperature is increased width of depletion layer also increases.
(c) P-N junction → Non-ohmic, due to nonlinear relation between I and V.
• Potential Barrier or Contact Potential
for Ge → 0.3 V, for Si → 0.7 V
5
• Electric field, produce due to potential barrier ⇒ E  10 V/m
This field prevents the respective majority carrier from crossing barrier region

Semiconductor Electronics 11
4.1 Diffusion and Drift Current
(1) Diffusion current : P to N side
(2) Drift current : N to P side
If there is no biasing then diffusion current = drift current
So total current is zero
– +
p n
    • • •
– – – – – – – + + + + + + • + •
    • •
– – – – – – – + + + + • + + • + •
    • • • • •
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +
    • • • • •
– – – – – – – + + + + + + +

holes free electron

depletion layer
charge
density

+
dis tance

electric
potential

V0

dis tance

4.2 Behaviour of P–N Junction with an External Voltage Applied or Bias

• Forward Bias
If we apply a voltage "V" such that P–side is positive and N–side is V
VB
negative as shown in diagram.
The applied voltage is opposite to the junction barrier potential.
P N
Due to this effective potential barrier decreases, junction width also
decreases, so more majority carriers will be allowed to flow across
junction. It means the current flow is principally due to majority
charge carries which is large (mA) and biasing is called as forward Bias.

• Reverse Bias
If we apply a voltage "V" such that P–side is negative and N–side is V
positive as shown in diagram. VB
The applied voltage is same side of to the junction barrier potential.
P N
Due to this effective potential barrier increases & junction width also
increases, so no majority carriers will be allowed to flow across
junction.
Only minority carriers will be drifted. It means the current flow is
principally due to minority charge carries which is very small (µA) and
biasing is called as reversed Bias.

12 Semiconductor Electronics
 Points to Remember
• Zener Breakdown: In reverse bias, if doping is large and the reverse bias is increased further
beyond a certain limit, above particular high voltage, breakdown of depletion layer starts by
itself.
Breakdown due to covalent breaking of depletion layer, termed as Zener breakdown (After
the discovery, C. Zener) and such a diode is Zener diode.
Zener diodes with different breakdown voltages (for regulations of different voltages) can
obtained by changing the doping concentration of its p–and n–sides. For high doping
breakdown is low and vice' versa. In this type of P-n junction depletion layer is thin and
diode does not damage permanently.
• Avalanche Breakdown: If the doping concentrations of p–and n–sides are not as high as for
the case of zener diode. Such diodes will have relatively wider junction widths. At very high
reverse bias, already existing electrons and holes are accelerated in the junction field and
may undergo many collisions (like nuclear chain reaction) with the atoms in the crystal.
These new electron-hole pairs created by impact ionisation also get accelerated in the
junction field and collide further with the crystal atoms giving an increasing number of new
electrons and holes. This phenomenon is known as Avalanche breakdown and the device is
referred to as Avalanche diode. In this type of breakdown p-n junctions get damage
permanently due to heating effect due to abruptly increment of minorities during repetitive
collisions.
• In junction diode the current flow is unidirectional as in vacuum diode.
• Current flows in the semiconductor diode when it is forward biased.
• Its P-part behaves like an anode and N-apart behaves like a cathode.

Important Terms
(a) Static Forward Resistance (Rf)
The ratio of the forward voltage (Vf) and forward current (Ιf) at any point on the static
forward characteristic is defined as static forward resistance of junction diode.
Vf
i.e. Rf =
Ιf
(b) Static Reverse Resistance (Rr)
The ratio of reverse voltage (Vr) and reverse current (Ιr) at any point on static reverse
characteristic is defined as the static reverse resistance of junction diode.
Vr
i.e. Rr =
Ιr
(c) Dynamic Forward Resistance (Vr)
The ratio of small change in forward voltage to the corresponding small change in forward
current on static forward characteristic is defined as the dynamic forward resistance of
junction diode (rf)
∆Vf Vf – Vf
rf = = 2 1

∆Ι f Ιf – Ιf
2 1

Semiconductor Electronics 13
 (d) Dynamic Reverse Resistance (rr)

The ratio of the small change in reverse voltage to the corresponding small change in reverse

current on the static reverse characteristics is defined as the dynamic reverse resistance of

junction diode.

∆Vr Vr – Vr
rr = = 2 1

∆Ιr Ιr – Ιr
2 1

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

P → positive P → negative
N → negative N → positive

P N P N
 •  •
 •  •

V V
+ – – +

Potential Barrier reduces Potential Barrier increases

Width of depletion layer decrease Width of depletion layer increases

P-N Junction provide very small resistance P-N Junction provide high resistance

Forward current flow in circuit Very small reverse current

Order of forward current in milli amp. Order of current in micro amp. (Ge) or nano

amp. (Si)

Current flows mainly due to majority charge Current flows mainly due to minority charge

carriers carriers

Forward characteristic curves Reverse characteristic curves

VR (volt)
Ι0
Ip
(mA) knee
voltage break down ΙR
voltage (A)
0
0.7 1.4 2.1
V(volt)

Forward resistance Reverse resistance

∆Vf ∆VB 6
Rf =  100Ω RB = 10 Ω
∆l f ∆lB

Knee or cut in voltage Breakdown voltage

Ge → 0.3V, Si → 0.7 Ge → 25V, Si → 35V

14 Semiconductor Electronics
4.3 Characteristic Curve of P-N Junction Diode
A K A K
P N
symbol

(0 − 1) V (0 − 10) V
+ – + –
mA µA
+ – + –
D D
+
–
Rh
R +
–
Rh
R
Forward bias Re verse bias

Breakdown Forward
voltage Ι f (mA) bias
VB O A
•
C V → Volt
Ιr (µA) Knee
Re verse voltage
saturation
D current

In forward bias when voltage is increased from OV in steps and corresponding value of current
is measured, the curve comes as OB of figure. We may note that current increases very sharply
after a certain voltage known as knee voltage. At this voltage, barrier potential is completely
eliminated and diode offers a low resistance.
In reverse bias a microammeter has been used as current is very small. When reverse voltage
is increased from 0V and corresponding values of current measured the plot comes as OCD. We
may note that reverse current is almost constant hence called reverse saturation current. It
implies that diode resistance is very high. As reverse voltage reaches value VB, called breakdown
voltage, current increases very sharply.
For Ideal Diode
in forward bias in reverse bias
•• •
•
on switch off switch
R f = 0Ω Rr = ∞Ω

Example 6:
A p-n junction forms part of a rectifier circuit. A voltage waveform as shown in figure is applied
to the circuit. If the diode is ideal except for a drop of 0.7 V in the forward biased condition,
(a) Plot the current through the resistor as function of time. What is the maximum current?
(b) Calculate the average heat lost in the resistance over a single cycle.

+10V
+
VS 1KΩ
– t
0.1s
–10V

Semiconductor Electronics 15
Solution:
(a) In forward bias, the potential drop across the diode is 0.7 V, and the rest of the p.d. is
10 – 0.7
dropped across the resistance R (=1k Ω) The current (maximum) = = 9.3 mA
1000
(b) The average heat lost in the resistance over a single cycle is
2 –3 2 3 –1 –3
i R∆ t = (9.3 × 10 ) ×10 ×10 J = 8.65 ×10 J
i

9.3mA

t
0.1s

Example 7:
–7
A potential barrier of 0.5 V exists across a p-n junction (i) If the depletion region is 5 × 10 m
wide. What is the intensity of the electric field in this region? (ii) An electron with speed
5
5 × 10 m/s approaches the p-n junction from the n-side with what speed will it enter the
p-side.
Solution:
–7
(i) Width of depletion layer ∆L = 5 × 10 m V
E=
V 0.5V 6 L
E= = = 10 volt/m
∆L 5 × 10–7

P N
1 1 •
(ii) Work energy theorem Mvi2 = eV + Mv 2f
2 2
Mvl2 – 2eV 5
vf = = 2.7 × 10 m/s
M
Example 8:
Figure shows a diode connected to an external resistance and an e.m.f. Assuming that the
barrier potential developed in diode is 0.5 V. Obtain the value of current in the circuit in
milliampere.
Solution:
100Ω
E = 4.5 V, R = 100 Ω, voltage drop across
p-n junction = 0.5 V effective voltage in the
circuit V = 4.5 – 0.5 = 4.0 V 4.5V
V 4.0
current in the circuit I = = = 0.04 A = 0.04 × 1000 mA = 40 mA
R 100
Example 9:
What is the value of current I in given circuits.
Solution:
20
I= = 1A
10 + 10

Ι
10Ω
20V

10Ω 10Ω

16 Semiconductor Electronics
Example 10:
What is the value of current I in given circuits.
Solution:
2.7 – 0.7
I= = 2mA
1 × 103
0.7V
Si
0.3V

Ι Ge
1kΩ

2.7V

Example 11:
In the given circuit. If P-N junction is ideal, then calculate current flowing through it.

200Ω

1V 3V

Solution: 200Ω 200Ω

In the given condition Ι
1V 3V ≡
2V
⇒I= = 0.01A
200 2V

Example 12:
When the reverse potential in a semiconductor diode are 10V and 20V, then the corresponding
reverse currents are 25µ A and 50µ A respectively. The reverse resistance of junction diode will
be:
5 –5
(1) 40 Ω (2) 4 × 10 (3) 40 KΩ (4) 4 × 10
Solution:
Vr – Vr 20 – 10 5
rr = 2 1
= = 4 × 10 Ω
Ιr – Ιr (50 – 25) × 10–6
2 1

Example 13:
The depletion layer in a silicon diode is 1µm wide and its knee potential is 0.6V, then the electric
field in the depletion layer will be:
4 5
(1) 0.6 V/m (2) 6 × 10 V/m (3) 6 × 10 V/m (4) Zero
Solution:
dV 0.6 5
E= = = 6 × 10 V/m
dr 10–6

Semiconductor Electronics 17
Example 14:
A semiconductor P-N junction is to be forward biased with a battery of e.m.f. 1.5 Volt. If a
potential difference of 0.5V appears on the junction which does not depend on current and on
passing 10 mA current through the junction there occurs huge Joule loss, then to use the
junction at 5 mA current, the resistance required to be connected in series will be:
1.5V
+ – (·)

(1) 3 KΩ (2) 300 Ω (3) 300 KΩ (4) 200 Ω

Solution: VR = (1.5 – 0.5) = 1V = IR
1
∴R= = 200Ω
5 × 10–3

5. Some Special Diodes

• Zener Diode
A properly doped crystal diode which has sharp break down voltage is known as Zener diode.
symbol of
Zener diode• •

In reverse bias of zener diode after the breakdown voltage VZ, a large change in the current
can be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In other words
zener voltage remains constant, even though current through the zener diode varies over a
wide range. This property of the zener diode is used for regulating voltage.
Zener
voltage V Re verse
Z bias

Re verse
current

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

It is always connected in reverse biased condition manner. Used as a voltage regulation. The
unregulated dc voltage (filtered output of a rectifier) is connected to the zener diode through
a series resistance RS such that the zener diode is reverse biased. On increasing the input
voltage, voltage across RS increasing,
+
RS ΙZ ΙL

+  Fluctuating regulated
– input RL output
VZ

–

without any change in the voltage across the zener diode. This is because in the breakdown
region, zener voltage remains constant even though the current through the zener diode
changes. Similarly, if the input voltage decreases, the current through RS and zener diode
also decreases.

18 Semiconductor Electronics
 The voltage drop across RS decreases without any change in the voltage across the zener
diode. Thus any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/decrease of the
voltage drop across RS without any change in voltage across the zener diode. Thus, the zener
diode acts as a voltage regulator.
In forward biased it works as a simple diode.

Example 15:
A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal to 15V, is used in a voltage a regulator circuit
shown. The current through the zener diode is.
250Ω
+
RS

15V 1 KΩ
20V

–

Solution:
15
IL = = 15 mA Is 250Ω ΙL
1000 +
RS ΙZ
st 20 – 15 5
⇒ In loop 1 → IS = =
250 250 20V 1 15V 1 KΩ
1
IS = = 20 mA
50
–
∴ IS = IZ + IL ⇒ IZ = IS – IL = 20 – 15 = 5mA

• Photodiode
A junction diode made from “light or photo sensitive semiconductor” is called a “photo

diode” its symbol . When light of energy "hν'' falls on the photodiode (Here
hν > energy gap) more electrons move from valence band, to conduction band, due to this
current in circuit of photodiode in "Reverse bias", increases. As light intensity is increased,
the current goes on increases so photo diode is used, "to detect light intensity" for example
it is used in "Video camera".
Ι(mA)

hv
Re verse bias
Dark current V(Volt) →
Ι1
Ι2 Ι(µ A)
µA Ι3
P − side N − side Ι1 < Ι 2 < Ι 3 ↓
(Order of intensities)
(a) (b)

Figure (a) An illuminated photodiode, under reverse bias

(b) I-V characteristics of a photodiode for different illumination intensity Ι3 > Ι2 > Ι1

Semiconductor Electronics 19
 • Light Emitting Diode (L.E.D)
When a junction diode is “forward biased” energy is released at junction in the form of light
due to recombination of electrons and holes. In case of Si or Ge diodes, the energy released
is in infra-red region.
In the junction diode made of GaAs, InP etc. energy is released in visible region such a
junction diode is called "light emitting diode" (LED) Its

symbol

The I-V characteristics of an Led is

(R)(Y)(G) (B)
Ι

O V

• Solar Cell
Solar cell is a device for converting solar energy into electrical energy. A junction diode in
which one of the P or N sections is made very thin (So that the light energy falling on diode
is not greatly absorbed before reaching the junction) can be used to convert light energy

into electric energy such diode called as solar cell. Its symbol

(i) It is operated into photo voltaic mode i.e., generation of voltage due to the bombardment
of optical photon.
(ii) No external bias is applied.
(iii) Active junction area is kept large, because we are interested in more power. Materials most
commonly used for solar cell is Si, As, Cds, CdTe, CdSe, etc.

Ι
VOC (open circuit
ΙL voltage)

P n V

Depletion Ι SC
Short circuit
region current
A − typical illuminated
p - n junction solar cell l − V characteristic
(a) of a solar cell
(b)

20 Semiconductor Electronics
 Concept Builder-2

Q.1 In the below given arrangement determine the ammeter reading, if each diodes have a forward
resistance of 50 Ω and infinite backward resistance.
150Ω

150Ω

6V 100Ω
A

Q.2 Current in the circuit will be?

20Ω

30Ω

20Ω 5V

Q.3 The diode used in the circuit shown in the figure has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V at all
currents and a maximum power rating of 100 milliwatts. What should be the value of the resistor
R connected in series with the diode for obtaining maximum current?
R 0.5V

5V

Q.4 In the circuit given the current through the zener diode is:

R1 500Ω

20V

V2 = 10V
1500Ω R2

Q.5 In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region to n-region because
(a) free electrons in the n-region attract them.
(b) they move across the junction by the potential difference.
(c) hole concentration in p-region is more as compared to n-region.
(d) All the above.

Q.6 When a forward bias is applied to a p-n junction, it

(a) raises the potential barrier.
(b) reduces the majority carrier current to zero.
(c) lowers the potential barrier.
(d) None of the above.

Semiconductor Electronics 21
Q.7 Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to another n-type
semiconductor to get p-n junction?

Q.8 The V-I characteristic of a silicon diode is shown in the Figure. Calculate the resistance of the
diode at (a) ID = 15 mA and (b) VD = –10 V.

6. Rectifier
It is device which is used for converting alternating current into direct current.
(a) Half Wave Rectifier
•• •
•
+ –
  A
S1 D + A S1 D
RL RL
S2 – S2
 B  B
– +
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle

Input

Output

During the first half (positive) of the input signal. Let S1 is at positive and S2 is at negative

potential. So, the PN junction diode D is forward biased. The current flows through the load
resistance RL and output voltage is obtained.

During the second half (negative) of the input signal, S1 and S2 would be negative and positive

respectively. The PN junction diode will be reversed biased. In this case, practically no
current would flow through the load resistance. So, there will be no output voltage.
Thus, corresponding to an alternating input signal, we get a unidirectional pulsating output.

22 Semiconductor Electronics
 (b) Full Wave Rectifier

When the diode rectifies the whole of the AC wave, it is called full wave rectifier. Figure

shows the experimental arrangement for using diode as full wave rectifier. The alternating

signal is fed to the primary of transformer. The output signal appears across the load

resistance RL.

+ D1 D1
–
 
S1 S1
B A B A
• • • •
– RL + – +
RL
 S2  S2
– +
D2 D2
For positive half cycle For negative half cycle

Input

D1 D2 D1 D2 D1 D2 D1

Output

For both positive and negative

cycle output signal

• During the positive half of the input signal:

Let S1 positive and S2 negative.

In this case diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. So only D1 conducts and

hence the flow of current in the load resistance RL is from A to B.

• During the negative half of the input signal:

Now S1 is negative and S2 is positive. So D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward biased. So

only D2 conducts and hence the current flows through the load resistance RL from A to B.

It is clear that whether the input signal is positive or negative, the current always flows

through the load resistance in the same direction and full wave rectification is obtained.

(c) Bridge Rectifier

D1 D2 +
+
RL


D3 D4 –


–

Semiconductor Electronics 23
 During positive half cycle
D1 and D4 are forward biased → on switch
D2 and D3 are reverse biased → off switch

During negative half cycle

D2 and D3 are forward biased → on switch
D1 and D4 are reverse biased → off switch
Rectifier Efficiency
Pdc I2dcRL
η= =
Pac Irms
2
(RF + RL )

Full wave rectifier or

Half wave rectifier
bridge wave rectifier
0.406 0.812
η= η=
R R R R
1 + f if f << 1 1 + f If f << 1
RL RL RL RL
η = 81.2%
η = 40.6% If Rf = RL
Special Note η = 40.6%
If Rf = RL Note : In bridge full wave
η = 20.3 rectifier Rf is two times of
resistance of P - N in FB

Ripple Frequency
(i) For Half Wave Rectifier

Input frequency = 50 Hz Ripple frequency = 50 Hz

(ii) For Full Wave Rectifier

output
input
Input frequency = 50 Hz Ripple frequency = 100 Hz

Pulse
(i) For Half Wave Rectifier

output
input
number of pulse = 100 number of pulse = 50

(ii) For full wave rectifier

output
input
number of pulse = 100 number of pulse = 100

24 Semiconductor Electronics
 DC current Irms current of half wave rectifier

(IDC or Iavg for half wave rectifier)

–
1 T
T ∫0
I= Idt Irms = < I2 >

–
1  T/2 1 T2
Idt + ∫ Idt 
T

T ∫0
I =
T  ∫0
< I2 > = I dt
T/2 
T/2 T
1 T/2 1
=
T ∫0 0
I sin ωtdt + 0 =
T ∫
0
I20 sin2 ωtdt +
T/2
∫ 0.dt
T/2
I  –cos ωt  I20
∫ ( 1 – cos 2ωt ) dt + 0
T/2
= 0  =
T ω 0 2T 0

T  T  I20  T  I0
2

= –cos ω + cos 0 = =  – 0 
ωt  2  2T  2  4
— I0 I20 I0
I = Irms = =
π 4 2

Comparison Between Average Rectifiers

Full Wave
Half Wave
Centre Tap Bridge
Number of Diodes 1 2 4
Transformer necessary No Yes No
Vin Vin Vin
Peak load current, Im
rd + RL rd + RL 2rd + RL

Im Im Im
RMS current Irms
2 2 2
Im 2Im 2Im
DC current Idc
π π π
Rectification efficiency (Max) 40.60% 81.20% 81.20%

Filter Circuit
To reduce A.C. Components filter circuits are used.
• Capacitor Filter
DC
•
AC + DC •

AC C RL
output of rectifier
•
•

output

Semiconductor Electronics 25
 • L - C Filter
DC + low AC DC
•
•
AC + DC
AC C RL
output of rectifier
•
•

output

• π - Filter (Best Filter)

L
AC + DC • •

Vin C C RL
output of rectifier
• •

output

Example 16:
In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency, if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What
is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency?
Solution:
A half-wave rectifier rectifies once during a cycle. Therefore, frequency of AC output is also the
frequency of AC input i.e. 50 Hz. A full-wave rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the AC
output i.e., it rectifies twice during a cycle.
So, Frequency of AC output = 2 × frequency of AC input = 2 × 50 = 100 Hz.

Example 17:
In the figure, the input is across the terminals A and C and the output is across B and D. Then
the output is
B

A C

D
(1) zero (2) same as the input
(3) full-wave rectified (4) half-wave rectified
Solution:
During the half cycle when VM > VN, D1 and D3 are forward biased. Hence, B
D1 D2 P
the path of current is MABPQDCNM. In the second half cycle when VN > VM,
RL
A •• C
D2 and D4 are forward biased while D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Hence M N Q
the path of current in NCBPQDAMN. D4 D3
D
Therefore in both half cycles current flows P to Q from load resistance RL.
Or, it is a full-wave rectifier.

26 Semiconductor Electronics
Example 18:
A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt is connected to a diode and resistor R in the circuit
shown so that half wave rectification occurs. It the forward resistance of the diode is negligible
compared to R then find rms voltage (in volt) across R.

 R
E0 = 200volt

Solution:
V0 200
Vrms = = = 100 V
2 2

Concept Builder-3

Q.1 The peak voltage in the output of a half-wave diode rectifier fed with a sinusoidal signal without
filter is 10 V. Find the dc component of the output voltage.

Q.2 If a full wave rectifier circuit is operating from 100 Hz mains, then find fundamental frequency
in the ripple.

Q.3 In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What is
the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency.

7. Logic Gates
7.1 Introduction
• A logic gate is a digital circuit which is based on certain logical relationship between the
input and the output voltage of the circuit.
• The logic gates are built using the semiconductor diodes and transistors.
• A logic gate is also represented by a Boolean algebraic expression. Boolean algebra is a
method of writing logical equations showing how an output depends upon the combination
of inputs. Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole.

7.2 Laws of Boolean Algebra

Basic OR, AND, and NOT operations are given below :

OR AND NOT
A+0=A A·0=0 A+ A =1
A+1=1 A·1=A A· A =0

A+A=A A·A=A A· A = A

Boolean algebra obeys commutative, associative and distributive laws as given below:

Semiconductor Electronics 27
 • Commutative Laws
A+B=B+A;
A.B = B.A

• Associative Laws
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
A. (B . C) = (A. B) . C

• Distributive Laws
A. (B + C) = A.B + A.C

• Some Other Useful Identities

(i) A + AB = A
(ii) A . (A + B) = A
(iii) A + ( A B) = A + B
(iv) A. ( A + B) = A.B
(v) A +(B.C) = (A + B). (A + C)
(vi) ( A + B).(A + C) = A .C + B.A +B.C

• De Morgan's Theorem
First theorem : A + B = A ·B

Second theorem : A.B = A + B

Logic Gates and Truth Table.
Logic Gate : The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of Boolean algebra is called
logic gate or logic circuit.

Truth Table : The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be represented in a table which contains
all possible inputs and their corresponding outputs is called the truth table. To write the truth
table we use binary digits 1 and 0.

7.3 Basic Logic Gates

There are three basic logic gates. They are
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate, and (3) NOT gate

• The OR Gate : The output of an OR gate attains the state 1 if one or more inputs attain the
state 1.
A
Y= A + B
Logic symbol of OR gate
B

28 Semiconductor Electronics
 The Boolean expression of OR gate is Y = A + B, read as Y equals A OR B.
Truth table of a two-input OR gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

• The AND Gate : The output of an AND gate attains the state 1 if and only if all the inputs are
in state 1. Logic symbol of AND gate
A
Y = A ·B
Input
Output
B
The Boolean expression of AND gate is
Y = A.B It is read as Y equals A AND B
Truth table of a two-input AND gate
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

• The NOT Gate : The output of a NOT gate attains the state 1 if and only if the input does not
attain the state 1.
A Y
Logic symbol of NOT gate
The Boolean expression is Y = A , read as Y equals NOT A.
A Y
Truth table of NOT gate 0 1
1 0

7.4 Combination of Gates

The three basis gates (OR, AND and NOT) when connected in various combinations give us logic
gates such as NAND, NOR gates, which are the universal building blocks of digital circuits.
• The NAND Gate
Logic symbol of NAND gate
A
Input Y
Output
B

The Boolean expression of NAND gate is

Y = A ⋅B = A + B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a NAND gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Semiconductor Electronics 29
 • The NOR Gate
Logic symbol of NOR gate
A
Y
B

The Boolean expression of NOR gate is

Y = A +B = A · B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a NOR gate 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

7.5 Universal Gates

The NAND or NOR gate is the universal building block of all digital circuits. Repeated use of
NAND gates (or NOR gates) gives other gates. Therefore, any digital system can be achieved
entirely from NAND or NOR gates. We shall show how the repeated use of NAND (and NOR)
gates will gives us different gates.

• The NOT gate from a NAND gate : When all the inputs of a NAND gate are connected
together, as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate

A A

Truth table of a single

input NAND gate
A =B Y
0 1
1 0

• The AND gate from NAND gates : If a NAND gate is followed by a NOT gate (i.e., a single input
NAND gate), the resulting circuit is an AND gate as shown in figure and truth table given
show how an AND gate has been obtained from NAND gates.
A
Y
Y'
B

Truth Table
A B Y' Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

30 Semiconductor Electronics
 • The OR gate from NAND gates : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the
NAND gate, the resulting circuit is an OR gate.
A
A
Y
B
B

Truth Table
A B A B Y
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1

• The NOT gate from NOR gates : When all the inputs of a NOR gate are connected together
as shown in the figure, we obtain a NOT gate

A Y

• The AND gate from NOR gates : If we invert the inputs A and B and then apply them to the
NOR gate, the resulting circuit is an AND gate.
A
A
Y
B
B

• The OR gate from NOR gate : If a NOR gate is followed by a single input NOR gate (NOT gate),
the resulting circuit is an OR gate.
A
Y

7.6 XOR and XNOR Gates

• The Exclusive - OR Gate (XOR Gate): The output of a two-input XOR gate attains the state
1 if one and only one input attains the state 1.
Logic symbol of XOR gate
A
Y
B
A

Semiconductor Electronics 31
 The Boolean expression of XOR gate is
Y = A.B + A.B or Y = A ⊕ B
A B Y
0 0 0
Truth table of a XOR gate 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
• Exclusive - NOR gate (XNOR gate):- The output is in state 1 when its both inputs are the
same that is, both 0 or both 1.
A
Y
Logic symbol of XNOR gate
B

The Boolean expression of XNOR gate is

=Y A ·B + A ·B or Y = or A  B
A B Y
0 0 1
Truth table of a XNOR gate 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
7.7 Summary of Logic Gates

Names Symbol Boolean expression Truth table Electrical analogue

A B Y
A
A 0 0 0
Y
B
OR B Y=A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

A B Y
A 0 0 0 A B
Y
AND B Y = A. B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

A Y
A Y
A
NOT or inverter Y=A 0 1
1 0

A B Y
A 0 0 1
Y
B
NOR (OR+NOT) B Y= A + B 0 1 0 A

1 0 0
1 1 0

32 Semiconductor Electronics
 A B Y
A 0 0 1
Y Y = A.B A
NAND (AND+NOT) B
0 1 1 B

1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
A
Y= A ⊕ B 0 0 0
Y
XOR (Exclusive OR) B Or 0 1 1
Y A.B + AB
= 1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
Y = A B
A 0 0 1
Y Or
XNOR (Exclusive NOR) B 0 1 0
Y A.B + A.B
=
1 0 0
1 1 1

Example 19:
Construct the truth table for the function X of A and B represented by figure shown here.

A• •X

B•

Solution:
The output X in terms of the input A and B can be written as, X = A.(A + B) = A
Let us make the truth table corresponding to this function.
A B A +B X=
A.(A + B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

Concept Builder-4

Q.1 You are given two circuits. identify the logic operation carried out by the two circuits.
A Y A
B (a) Y
B
(b)

Q.2 Write the truth table for the circuit given in figure consisting of NOR gates. Identify the logic
operations (OR, AND, NOT) performed by the circuits.
A

Semiconductor Electronics 33
8. Experiments
8.1 Characteristics of a p-n junction diode
It exhibits the relation between biasing voltage and current flowing through diode. The V-I
characteristics of a diode can be forward or reverse. The graph exhibiting the relation between
forward bias voltage and forward current is known as the forward characteristics, and that
exhibiting the relation between reverse bias voltage and reverse current is known as the reverse
characteristics.
The nature of forward characteristic of a diode is non-linear. The forward current increases
slowly in the beginning and shows a sudden rise at a certain value of forward voltage. This
voltage is known as the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage. This is because the resistance is
very low in forward biased condition. The current in the reverse bias is due to the flow of
minority carriers. At a certain value of reverse bias voltage there is a sudden increase in the
reverse current. This voltage is termed as the reverse breakdown voltage.

Graph 1
Procedure :

Forward V-I Characteristics :

1. Connections are made as per the connection diagram.

2. The sliding contact of the rheostat is set to minimum after the key is inserted.

34 Semiconductor Electronics
 3. Now, the rheostat contact is adjusted to provide a positive bias voltage.

4. Note the voltmeter and milli ammeter readings.

5. Repeat the process by increasing the forward current in equal steps by changing the rheostat slider.

6. It can be noted that, the current increases slowly in the beginning. For a certain value of

voltage, it shows a sharp increase. The corresponding voltage represents the cut-in voltage of

that diode.

[First quadrant of Graph 1]

Reverse V-I Characteristics :

1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram.

2. Insert the key. Arrange the sliding contact of the rheostat to maximum.

3. Move the sliding contact of the rheostat to provide a reverse bias voltage. Note the voltmeter

and micro ammeter readings.

4. Repeat the process by changing the reverse voltage in equal steps.

5. Initially the current increases slowly and then rapidly when the reverse voltage surpasses a

certain value. This voltage is known as the reverse breakdown voltage. [IIIIrd quadrant of Graph 1]

Concept Builder-5

1. During the formation of P-N junction

(1) Holes diffuse from P-side to N-side (2) Electrons diffuse from P-side to N-side
(3) Holes diffuse from N-side to P-side (4) Both (2) and (3)

2. Which of the following is the correct relation between electrons and hole concentration in an
intrinsic semiconductor? (symbols have usual meanings)
(1) ne = nh = ni (2) ne >>> nh (3) nh >>> he (4) All of these

Semiconductor Electronics 35
3. Choose the correct statement among following.
(1) The current under reverse bias is almost voltage independent upto critical reverse bias voltage.
(2) For diode in reverse bias, the potential barrier increases
(3) For diode in forward bias, the potential barrier reduces
(4) Ali of these

4. Which of the following statement is correct for p-n junction under the forward bias?
(1) The forward current flowing in the circuit is of the order microampere
(2) The P-N junction provides high resistance
(3) After the threshold voltage the forward current increases significantly
(4) The current is due to minority charge carrier

8.2 Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse breakdown voltage.
When the applied reverse bias voltage (V) reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener
diode, there is a large change in the current. After the breakdown voltage Vz, a large change in
the current can be produced by almost insignificant change in the reverse bias voltage. In other
words, zener voltage remains constant, even though current through the zener diode varies over
a wide range.
A Zener diode having zener voltage VZ and power dissipation rating PZ is connected across a
potential divider arrangement with maximum potential VZ across it If the potential drop across
the Zener diode is Vz and the rest drops across the protective resistance then we get V = Vz +
Iz Rp
PZ
Since Iz =
VZ

P 
⇒ V =VZ +  Z  RP
 RZ 

and RP =
(V − V ) V
Z Z

PZ
Procedure :

36 Semiconductor Electronics
 1. Note the least count of the given voltmeter and microammeter.
2. The voltmeter and microammeter should read zero with zero applied voltage. If not, then
correct the initial reading of the meter suitably.
3. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Take care that Zener diode is in reverse
bias mode and the terminal of the microammeter and voltmeter marked positive are
connected to the higher potential side of the power supply.
4. By adjusting the rheostat, voltmeter reading is increased from zero and in each time note
the corresponding reading in milliammeter.
5. The experiment is carried till the milliammeter shows a large deflection while the voltmeter
reading remains constant, indicating the break down voltage.
6. Plot the reverse characteristic curve by taking reverse voltage along -ve X-axis and reverse
current along -ve Y-axis.

Concept Builder-6

1. Choose the correct option about the breakdown voltage in a zener diode.
(1) It has constant value
(2) It destroys the diode
(3) It decreases when electric current increases
(4) It equals the electric current times the resistance

2. A zener diode (Vz = 6V) is used to maintain a constant voltage across a load resistance RL(1000
Ω) by using a series resistance Rs(100 Ω). If the emf of the source is 9V, then the current flowing
through load resistance is
(1) 6 mA (2) 3 mA (3) 5 mA (4) 7 mA

3. A zener diode is specified having a breakdown voltage of 8.1 V with a maximum power
dissipation of 346 mW. The maximum current that diode can handle is
(1) 34 mA (2) 42.7 mA (3) 36.2 mA (4) 52.6 mA

4. Choose the correct statement among the following

(1) Zener diode is used for regulating fluctuating voltage
(2) At small value of reverse bias voltage field ionisation takes place
(3) Zener diode is fabricated by lightly doping both p and n-sides of junction
(4) All of these

Semiconductor Electronics 37
 ANSWER KEY FOR CONCEPT BUILDERS

CONCEPT BUILDER-1 CONCEPT BUILDER-4

1. number of electron in Ge and Si are

1. (a) A·B = A · B AND gate
significant but negligibly small for carbon
[(∆Eg)c > 6 eV] (b) A·B = A + B = OR gate
2. 4.5 × 10 m 9 –3
3. (c)
2. X = A.B. is AND gate
4. (d) 5. (c)

CONCEPT BUILDER-2

1. 20 mA 2. 100 mA CONCEPT BUILDER-5

3. 22.5Ω 4. 13.33 mA 1. (1) 2. (1)

5. (c) 6. (c) 3. (4) 4. (3)

7. No

8. (a) 10 Ω (b) 1.0 × 107 Ω CONCEPT BUILDER-6

CONCEPT BUILDER-3
1. (1) 2. (1)
10
1. V 2. 200
π 3. (2) 4. (1)

3. 50 Hz, 100 Hz

38 Semiconductor Electronics
 Exercise - I
Energy Band Theory 5. Which of the following energy band

diagram shows the N-type semiconductor-

1. In conductors -
Conduction Conduction
(1) conduction band is completely empty
Band Band
but forbidden energy gap is small
(1) Eg =1eV (2) Inpurity level
(2) conduction and valence bands are
1eV
overlapped
Valence Valence
(3) valence band is completely filled but Band Band
the conduction band is completely Valence Valence
empty Band Band

(4) no energy band is present (3) Inpurity level (4) 1eV

Inpurity level
1eV
Conduction Conduction
2. The forbidden energy gap of a germanium
Band Band
semiconductor is 0.75 eV. The minimum
thermal energy of electrons reaching the
6. In insulators -
conduction band from the valence band
should be - (1) valence band is partially filled with

(1) 0.5 eV (2) 0.75 eV electrons

(3) 0.25 eV (4) 1.5eV (2) conduction band is partially filled with

electrons
3. The forbidden energy band gap in (3) conduction band is completely filled
conductors, semiconductors and
with electrons but the valence band is
insulators are EG1, EG2 and EG3
empty
respectively. The relation among them is -
(4) conduction band is empty and valence
(1) EG1 = EG2 = EG3
band is completely filled with electrons
(2) EG1 < EG2 < EG3

(3) EG1 > EG2 > EG3

7. The energy of a photon of sodium light
(4) EG1 < EG2 > EG3
(λ = 5890Å) equals the band gap of a

semiconductor. The minimum energy

4. The atomic bonding is same for which of
required to create an electron-hole pair is-
the following pairs -
(1) Ag and Si (1) 0.026 eV

(2) Ge and Si (2) 0.31 eV

(3) Ne and Ge (3) 2.1eV
(4) NaCl and Ge (4) 6.4 eV

Semiconductor Electronics 39
 Types of Semiconductors 13. GaAs is a -
and their properties (1) elemental semiconductor
(2) compound semiconductor
8. On increasing temperature the specific (3) insulator
resistance of a semiconductor - (4) metallic semiconductor
(1) decreases (2) increases
(3) remains constant (4) becomes zero 14. At absolute zero temperature, pure
germanium and silicon are-
9. Which of the following statements is not (1) conductor
correct? (2) good semiconductors
(1) Resistance of semiconductor decreases (3) ideal insulators
with increase in temperature (4) super conductors
(2) In an electric field, displacement of
holes is opposite to the displacement 15. Which of the following statements is not
of electrons true-
(3) Resistance of a conductor decreases (1) the resistance of intrinsic
with the increase in temperature semiconductor decreases with
(4) n-type semiconductors are neutral increase in temperature
(2) doping of pure Si with trivalent
10. Wires P and Q have the same resistance at impurities gives p-type semiconductor
ordinary (room) temperature. When (3) the majority carriers in n-type
heated, resistance of P increases and that semiconductors are holes
of Q decreases. We conclude that - (4) a p-n junction can act as a

(1) P and Q are conductors of different semiconductor diode

materials
V
(2) P is N-type semiconductor and Q is P- 16. For a metallic wire the ratio : (V =
I
type semiconductor
applied potential, I = current flowing)-
(3) P is semiconductor and Q is conductor
(1) does not depend upon temperature
(4) P is conductor and Q is semiconductor
(2) increases with increase in temperature
(3) decreases with increase in
11. In a good conductor the energy gap
between the conduction band and the temperature

valence band is - (4) increases or decrease by increase in

(1) Infinite (2) Wide temperature as according to nature of
(3) Narrow (4) Zero the metal

12. In a semi conducting material the 17. The resistivity of a semiconductor depends
mobilities of electrons and holes are µe and upon its-
µh respectively. Which of the following is (1) size
true? (2) type of atoms
(1) µe > µh (2) µe < µh (3) length

(3) µe = µh (4) µe < 0; µh > 0 (4) size and type of atom

40 Semiconductor Electronics
18. Those materials in which number of holes 23. Electric conduction in a semiconductor
in valence band is equal to number of takes place due to-
electrons in conduction band are called
(1) electrons only
(1) conductors
(2) holes only
(2) Intrinsic semiconductors
(3) p-type semiconductors (3) both electrons and holes
(4) n-type semiconductors (4) neither electrons nor holes

19. In p-type semiconductor holes move in

24. When phosphorus and antimony are mixed
(1) forbidden region
in germanium, then-
(2) conduction band
(3) valence band (1) p-type semiconductor is formed
(4) all the above regions (2) n-type semiconductor is formed
(3) both (1) and (2)
20. Which of the following statement is
(4) None of these
wrong?
(1) Resistance of extrinsic semiconductors
can be changed as required 25. P-type semiconductor is formed when -
(2) In n-type semiconductor the number A. As impurity is mixed in Si
of electrons increases in valence band B. Al impurity is mixed in Si
(3) In p-type semiconductors the number
C. B impurity is mixed in Ge
of holes increases in valence band
D. P impurity is mixed in Ge
(4) In pure semiconductor fermi band is
situated in between the valence band (1) A and C (2) A and D
and conduction band (3) B and C (4) B and D

21. In extrinsic semiconductors -

26. Platinum and silicon are cooled after
(1) The conduction band and valence band
heating up to 250ºC -
overlap
(2) The gap between conduction band and (1) resistance of platinum will increase
valence band is more than 16 eV and that of silicon decreases
(3) The gap between conduction band and (2) resistance of silicon will increase and
valence band is near about 1 eV
that of platinum decreases
(4) The gap between conduction band and
(3) resistance of both will decrease
valence band will be 100 eV and more
(4) resistance of both increases
22. Which of the following statement is true?
(1) In insulators the conduction band is 27. When a potential difference is applied
completely empty
across, the current passing through-
(2) In conductor the conduction band is
(1) a semiconductor at 0 K is zero
completely empty
(3) In semiconductor the conduction band (2) a metal at 0 K is finite
is partially empty at low temperature (3) a P-N diode at 300 K is finite if it is
(4) In insulators the conduction band is reverse biased
completely filled with electrons
(4) all

Semiconductor Electronics 41
 Electrical Conduction in Semiconductor 33. A potential difference of 2V is applied
between the opposite faces of a Ge crystal
28. If ne and vd be the number of electrons and
2
drift velocity in a semiconductor. When the plate of area 1 cm and thickness 0.5 mm.
temperature is increased - If the concentration of electrons in Ge is
(1) ne increases and vd decreases 19 3
2 × 10 /m and mobilities of electrons and
(2) ne decreases and vd increases 2
holes are 0.36 m /volt-sec and 0.14 m /volt
2

(3) Both ne and vd increases -sec respectively, then the current flowing
(4) Both ne and vd decreases through the plate will be -
(1) 0.25 A (2) 0.45 A
29. Forbidden energy gap of a silicon
(3) 0.56 A (4) 0.64 A
semiconductor is 1.12 eV. In order to
generate electron-hole pairs in it, the
maximum wavelength of the incident 34. The mean free path of a conduction
photons will be - electron in a metal is 5 × 10
-8
m. The
(1) 11080Å (2) 11250Å
electric field, required to be applied across
(3) 12370Å (4) 14400Å
the conductor so as to impart 1eV energy
30. Let np and ne be the numbers of holes and to the conduction electron, will be -
–7 7
conduction electrons in an extrinsic (1) 1 × 10 V/m (2) 2 × 10 V/m
semiconductor. (3) 3 × 10 V/m
7 7
(4) 4 × 10 V/m
(1) np > ne (2) np = ne
(3) np < ne (4) np ≠ ne
35. A hole diffuses from the p-side to the n-

31. The electron mobility in N-type germanium side in a p-n junction. This means that-
2
is 3900 cm /v.s and its conductivity is 6.24 (1) a bond is broken on the n-side and the
mho/cm, then impurity concentration will electron freed from the bond jumps to
be if the effect of cotters is negligible - the conduction band
15 3 13 3
(1) 10 /cm (2) 10 /cm (2) a conduction electron on the p-side
12 3 16 3
(3) 10 /cm (4) 10 /cm jumps to a broken bond to complete it
(3) a bond is broken on the n-side and the
32. In semiconductor the concentrations of electron free from the bond jumps to a
18 3
electrons and holes are 8 × 10 /m and 5 × broken bond on the p-side to complete it
18 3
10 /m respectively. If the mobilities of (4) a bond is broken on the p-side and the
2
electrons and hole are 2.3 m /volt-sec and electron free from the bond jumps to a
2
0.01m /volt-sec respectively, then
broken bond on the n-side to complete it
semiconductor is -
(1) N-type and its resistivity is 0.34 ohm-
metre 36. Mobility of electrons in N-type Ge is 5000
2
(2) P-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm- cm /volt sec and conductivity 5 mho/cm.
metre If effect of holes is negligible then impurity
(3) N-type and its resistivity is 0.034 ohm- concentration will be-
metre 15 3 14 3
(1) 6.25 × 10 cm (2) 9.25 × 10 cm
(4) P-type and its resistivity is 3.40 ohm-
13 3 13 3
metre (3) 6 × 10 cm (4) 9 × 10 cm

42 Semiconductor Electronics
 P-N Junction 41. The main cause of Zener breakdown is -
(1) the base semiconductor being
37. In a p-n junction- germanium
(1) high potential is at n side and low (2) production of electron-hole pairs due
potential is at p side to thermal excitation
(3) low doping
(2) high potential is at p side and low
(4) high doping
potential is at n side
(3) p and n both are at same potential 42. Which of the following statements is
correct?
(4) undetermined
(1) The depletion region of P-N junction
diode increases with forward biasing
38. If no external voltage is applied across P- (2) The depletion region of P-N junction
N junction, there would be - diode
decreases with reverse biasing
(1) No electric field across the junction
(3) The depletion region of P-N junction
(2) An electric field pointing from N-type diode
to P-type side across the junction does not change with biasing
(3) An electric field pointing from P-type (4) The depletion region of P-N junction
diode decreases with forward biasing
to N-type side across the junction
(4) A temporary electric field during 43. When reverse bias in a junction diode is
formation of P-N junction that would increased, the width of depletion layer -
subsequently disappear (1) increase
(2) decreases
(3) does not change
39. No bias is applied to a P-N junction, then (4) fluctuate
the current -
(1) Is zero because the number of charge 44. A semiconductor device is connected in a
series circuit with a battery and resistance.
carriers flowing on both sides is same
A current is found to pass through the
(2) Is zero because the charge carriers do circuit. If the polarity of the battery is
not move reversed, the current drops almost to zero.
The device may be -
(3) Is non-zero
(1) A P-type semiconductor
(4) None of these
(2) An N-type semiconductor
(3) A PN-junction
40. The main cause of avalanche breakdown (4) An intrinsic semiconductor

is-
45. The approximate ratio of resistances in the
(1) collision ionisation
forward and reverse bias of the PN-
(2) high doping
junction diode is -
(3) recombination of electron and holes 2 –2
(1) 10 : 1 (2) 10 :1
(4) none of these –4 4
(3) 1 : 10 (4) 1 : 10

Semiconductor Electronics 43
46. The dominant mechanisms for motion of 50. Diffusion current in a p-n junction is
charge carriers in forward and reverse greater than the drift current in
biased silicon P-N junctions are - magnitude-
(1) Drift in forward bias, diffusion in (1) if the junction is forward-biased
reverse bias (2) if the junction is reverse-biased
(2) Diffusion in forward bias, drift in (3) if the junction is unbiased
reverse bias (4) in no case
(3) Diffusion in both forward and reverse
bias 51. For a reverse bias p-n junction
(4) Drift in both forward and reverse bias (1) p region is positive and current is due
to electrons

47. The diffusion current in a p-n junction is (2) p region is positive and the current is

from - due to holes

(3) p region is negative and the current is
(1) p-side to n-side
due to electrons
(2) n-side to p-side
(4) p region is negative and the current is
(3) p-side to n-side if the junction is
due to both electron and holes
forward biased and in the opposite
direction if it is reverse biased
52. The p-n junction is a-
(4) n-side to p-side if the junction is
(1) ohmic resistance
forward biased and in the opposite
(2) non ohmic resistance
direction if it is reverse based
(3) positive resistance
(4) negative resistance
48. If the two ends of a p-n junction are joined
by a conducting wire, then - 53. The resistance of a reverse biased pn
(1) there will be no current in the circuit junction diode is of the order of:
(2) there will be steady current from n- (1) 1 ohm
2
(2) 10 ohm
side to p-side 3
(3) 10 ohm
6
(4) 10 ohm
(3) there will be steady current from p-
side to n-side 54. If the forward voltage in a diode is
(4) there will be a steady current in the increased, the width of the depletion
circuit region-
(1) decreases (2) increases
(3) fluctuates (4) does not change
49. The minority current in a p-n junction is-
(1) from the n-side to the p-side
55. On increasing the reverse bias to a large
(2) from the p-side to the n-side
value in p-n junction diode then value of
(3) from the n-side to the p-side if the current-
junction is forward-biased and in the (1) remains fixed
opposite direction if it is reverse biased (2) increases slowly
(4) from the p-side to the n-side if the (3) decreases slowly
junction is forward-biased and in the (4) suddenly increase
opposite direction if it is reverse biased

44 Semiconductor Electronics
56. In a forward biased p-n junction diode, the 59. In a p-n junction the depletion layer of
potential barrier in the depletion region is thickness 10
–6
m has potential across it is
of the form- 0.1 V. The electric field is (V/m) -
V V 7 –6
(1) 10 (2) 10
(1) (2) (3) 10
5
(4) 10
–5

p n p n

V V
Diode
(3) (4)
p n p n 60. Current in the circuit will be -
20Ω

57. A potential barrier of 0.50 V exists across

30Ω
a P-N junction. If the depletion region is 5.0
–7 i
× 10 m wide, the intensity of the electric 20Ω 5V
field in this region is -
5 5
(1) 1.0 × 10 V/m
6 5
(2) 1.0 × 10 V/m (1) A (2) A
40 50
5 6
(3) 2.0 × 10 V/m (4) 2.0 × 10 V/m 5 5
(3) A (4) A
10 20
58. A semiconductor X is made by doping a
germanium crystal with arsenic (Z = 33). A 61. In the following circuits PN-junction diodes
second semiconductor Y is made by doping D1, D2 and D3 are ideal for the following
germanium with indium (Z = 49). The two
potential of A and B, the correct increasing
are joined end to end and connected to a
order of resistance between A and B will
battery as shown. Which of the following
be [if following voltages are applied at A &
statements is correct?
B respectively]-
X Y
D1 R

D2 R

D3 R

A B
(1) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction
(i) – 10 V, – 5 V
is forward biased
(ii) – 5V, – 10 V
(2) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction
(iii) – 4V, – 12 V
is forward biased
(1) (i) < (ii) < (iii)
(3) X is P-type, Y is N-type and the junction
(2) (iii) < (ii) < (i)
is reverse biased
(4) X is N-type, Y is P-type and the junction (3) (ii) = (iii) < (i)

is reverse biased (4) (i) = (iii) < (ii)

Semiconductor Electronics 45
62. The current through an ideal PN junction 66. The diode used in the circuit shown in the
figure has a constant voltage drop of 0.5 V
shown in the following circuit diagram will
at all currents and a maximum power
be - rating of 100 milli watts. What should be
P N 700Ω the value of the resistor R, connected in
series with the diode for obtaining
5V 2V
maximum current -

R 0.5V

(1) 5 mA (2) 10 mA 1.5V

(3) 70 mA (4) 100 mA (1) 1.5 Ω (2) 5 Ω

(3) 6.67 Ω (4) 200 Ω

63. The value of current in the following 67. In the circuit given the current through the
diagram will be – zener diode is :

–4V –1V
PN 300Ω 20 V
–2
(1) 0.10 Ac (2) 10 A

(3) 1 A (4) 0 A (1) 10 mA (2) 6.67 mA

(3) 5 mA (4) 13.33 mA

64. In which of the following figures the 68. A two volts battery forward biases a diode
junction diode is in reverse bias however there is a drop of 0.5 V across the
diode which is independent of current.
N P
–5V Also a current greater than 10 mA produce
–10V
large joule loss and damages diode. If
(1) (2) diode is to be operated at 5 mA, the series
–5V resistance to be put is-
2V
–6V ()
10V

P N
(3) (4)
5V N P
(1) 3 kΩ (2) 300 kΩ
(3) 300 Ω (4) 200 kΩ
65. Find VAB -
69. The current flowing through the zener
diode in figure is-
30V 10R
A 500Ω
I1
10R 10R 5V 1kΩ
B 10V

(1) 10 V (2) 20 V
(1) 20 mA (2) 25 mA
(3) 30 V (4) none (3) 15 mA (4) 5 mA

46 Semiconductor Electronics
 Rectifier 73. In the half-wave rectifier circuit shown.
Which one of the following wave forms is
70. In the diagram, the input is across the
true for VCD, the output across C and D?
terminals A and C and the output is across
the terminals B and D, then the output is - A C
B
~ P Q VCD RL

A C B D

D (1)
(1) zero
(2) same as input
(2)
(3) full wave rectifier
(4) half wave rectifier

71. In a full wave rectifiers input ac current (3)

has a frequency ν. The output frequency of
current is -
(1) ν/2
(4)
(2) ν
(3) 2ν
(4) None of these
74. A full wave rectifier circuit along with the
input and output voltage a cross RL is
72. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 200 volt
shown in the figure.
is connected to a diode and resistor R in
the circuit shown so that half wave
rectification occurs. If the forward
resistance of the diode is negligible
compared to R then rms voltage (in volt)
across R is approximately -

E0 = 200 volt ~ R
The contribution to output voltage from
diode – 2 -
(1) 200
(1) A, C
(2) 100
(2) B, D
200
(3) (3) B, C
2
(4) A, D
(4) 280

Semiconductor Electronics 47
75. The output current versus time curve of a 79. The combination of ‘NAND’ gates shown
rectifier is shown in the figure. The average here under (figure) are equivalent to –

value of the input current in this case is - A

C
Current →

i0 A
B C
Time →
(1) 0 (2) i0/π (1) An OR gate and an AND gate
respectively
(3) 2i0/π (4) i0
(2) An AND gate and a NOT gate
respectively
Logic Gates (3) An AND gate and an OR gate
respectively
76. Boolean algebra is essentially based on- (4) An OR gate and a NOT gate respectively
(1) logic (2) truth
(3) numbers (4) symbol 80. Which of the following gates will have an
output of 1?
77. Given below are four logic gate symbol (1) 1 (2) 0
0 1
(figure). Those for OR, NOR and NAND are
(3) 0 (4) 0
respectively- 1 1
y y
A A
B B 81. This symbol represents -
(a) (b) A
y
y y B
A A
B B (1) NOT gate (2) OR gate
(c) (d) (3) AND gate (4) NOR gate
(1) a, d, c
(2) d, a, b 82. The output of a NAND gate is 0 -
(3) a, c, d (1) If both inputs are 0
(4) d, b, a (2) If one input is 0 and the other input is 1
(3) If both inputs are 1
78. The following truth table corresponds to (4) Either if both inputs are 1 or if one of
the logic gate - the inputs is 1 and the other 0
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1 83. The truth table given below is for-
X 0 1 1 1 A B Y
0 0 1
(1) NAND
0 1 0
(2) OR 1 0 0
(3) AND 1 1 1

(4) XOR (1) OR gate (2) AND gate

(3) XNOR gate (4) XOR gate

48 Semiconductor Electronics
84. Digital circuits can be made by repetitive 92. The truth table shown is of-
use of- A B Y
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate 0 0 0
0 1 1
(3) NOT gate (4) NAND gate 1 0 1
1 1 0
85. Which of the following relation is valid in (1) NAND gate
Boolean algebra - (2) NOR gate
(1) A + A = 0 (2) A + A = 2A (3) XOR gate
(3) A + A = 1 (4) A + A = A (4) XNOR gate

86. When all the inputs of a NAND gate are 93. Which of the following relations is valid for
connected together, the resulting circuit is- Boolean algebra -
(1) a NOT gate (2) an AND gate (1) A + A = A
(3) an OR gate (4) a NOR gate (2) A.A = A
(3) A ⋅ A = 0
87. Which of the following pairs are universal (4) All
gates-
(1) NAND, NOT (2) NAND, AND
94. To get an output 1, the input ABC should
(3) NOR, OR (4) NAND, NOR
be-
A
88. A NAND gate followed by a NOT gate is- B Y
(1) an OR gate (2) an AND gate C
(3) a NOR gate (4) a XOR gate (1) 101
(2) 100
89. The NOR gate is logically equivalent to an (3) 110
OR gate followed by - (4) 010
(1) an inverter (2) a NOR gate
(3) a NAND gate (4) an OR gate 95. The output of 2 input gate is 1 only if its
inputs are equal. It is true for-
90. The output of a two input NOR gate is in (1) NAND
state 1 when- (2) AND
(1) either input terminals is at 0 state (3) EX-NOR
(2) either input terminals is at 1 state (4) EX-OR
(3) both input terminals are at 0 state
(4) both input terminals are at 1 state 96. The circuit-shown here is logically
equivalent to-
91. ‘Output is LOW if and only if all the inputs A
Y
are HIGH’ indicate the logic gate for which
the above statement is true- B

(1) AND (2) OR (1) OR gate (2) AND gate

(3) NOR (4) NAND (3) NOT gate (4) NAND gate

Semiconductor Electronics 49
97. Which of the following will have an output 99. Which of the following relations is valid for
of 1 - Boolean algebra-
1 0 (1) A(B + B) =
A
(a) (b)
1 1 (2) A + AB = A
0 Y (3) A + 0 = A
(c) (d)
1 (4) All
(1) a
(2) b 100. Logic gates are the building blocks of a –
(3) c (1) abacus system (2) analog system
(4) d (3) digital system (4) none of these

98. The truth table for the following 101. How many NOR gates are required to form
combination of gates is- NAND gate-
A Y (1) 1 (2) 3
B (3) 2 (4) 4
A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
102. The logic symbols shown here are logically
(1) 1 0 1 (2) 1 0 0 equivalent to –
1 1 1 1 1 1 A Y A Y
A B Y A B Y B (a) B (b)
0 0 1 0 0 0 (1) ‘a’ AND and ‘b’ OR gate
0 1 1 0 1 1
(3) 1 0 1 (4) 1 0 1 (2) ‘a’ NOR and ‘b’ NAND gate
1 1 0 1 1 0 (3) ‘a’ OR and ‘b’ AND gate
(4) ‘a’ NAND and ‘b’ NOR gate

50 Semiconductor Electronics
 Exercise - II
1. Carbon, silicon and germanium have four 4. If the ratio of the concentration of
valence electrons each. At room temperature electrons to that of holes in a
which one of the following statements is
semiconductor is 7/5 and the ratio of
most appropriate?
currents is 7/4, then what is the ratio of
(1) The number of free conduction
electrons is negligible small in all the their drift velocities?
three. (1) 4/7 (2) 5/8
(2) The number of free electrons for (3) 4/5 (4) 5/4
conduction is significant in all the
three.
5. Mobility of electrons in a semiconductor is
(3) The number of free electrons for
conduction is significant only in Si and defined as the ratio of their drift velocity
Ge but small in C. to the applied electric field. If, for an n-
(4) The number of free conduction type semiconductor, the density of
electrons is significant in C but small 19 –3
electrons is 10 m and their mobility is
in Si and Ge
2
1.6 m (V.s) then the resistivity of the
2. Choose the only false statement from the semiconductor (since it is an n-type
following- semiconductor contribution of holes is
(1) the resistivity of a semiconductor
ignored) is close to :
increases with increase in
temperature (1) 2 Ωm (2) 0.4 Ωm

(2) substances with energy gap of the (3) 4 Ωm (4) 0.2 Ωm

order of 10 eV are insulators
(3) in conductors the valence and
6. In the energy band diagram of a material
conduction bands may overlap
shown below, the open circles and filled
(4) the conductivity of a semiconductor
increases with increases in circles denote holes and electrons

temperature respectively. The material is-

3. Carbon, Silicon and Germanium atoms

have four valence electrons each. Their
valence and conduction bands are
separated by energy band gaps
represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)Si and (Eg)Ge
(1) an n-type semiconductor
respectively. Which one of the following
relationships is true in their case- (2) a p-type semiconductor
(1) (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge (2) (Eg)C > (Eg)Si (3) an insulator
(3) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si (4) (Eg)C < (Eg)Si (4) a metal

Semiconductor Electronics 51
7. Which one of the following statement is 11. In an unbiased n-p junction electrons
FALSE? diffuse from n-region to p-region because:
(1) Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities
(1) holes in p-region attract them
gives a p-type semiconductor
(2) Majority carriers in a n-type (2) electrons travels across the junction
semiconductor are holes due to potential difference
(3) Minority carriers in a p-type (3) electron concentration in n-region is
semiconductor are electrons
more as compared to that in p-region
(4) The resistance of intrinsic
semiconductor decreases with (4) only electrons move from n to p region
increase of temperature and not the vice-versa.

8. In the middle of the depletion layer of

12. A 2 V battery is connected across AB as
reverse biased p-n junction, the
(1) electric field is zero shown in figure. The value of the current
(2) potential is maximum supplied by the battery when in one case
(3) electric field is maximum battery’s positive terminal is connected to
(4) potential is zero
A and in other case when positive terminal

9. The circuit has two oppositely connected of battery is connected to B will

ideal diodes in parallel. What is the respectively be:
current flowing in the circuit? 5Ω

D1

10Ω

D2
(1) 1.33 A (2) 1.71 A
(3) 2.00 A (4) 2.31 A A B

(1) 0.2 A and 0.1 A (2) 0.4 A and 0.2 A

10. Figure shows a circuit in which three
(3) 0.1 A and 0.2 A (4) 0.2 A and 0.4 A
identical dioes are used. Each diode has
forward resistance of 20Ω and infinite
backward resistance. Resistors R1 = R2 = R3 13. The reading of the ammeter for a silicon
= 50Ω. Battery voltage is 6V. The current diode in the given circuit is
through R3 is:
200 Ω

D1 R1
A
D2 D3 R2 + –
+ – 3V
6V R3
(1) 15 mA (2) 11.5 mA
(1) 50 mA (2) 100 mA
(3) 13.5 mA (4) 10 mA
(3) 25 mA (4) 60 mA

52 Semiconductor Electronics
14. Ge and Si diodes start conducting at 0.3 V 17. A zener diode is connected to a battery
and 0.7 V respectively. In the following and a load as shown below: The currents
figure if Ge diode connection are reversed, I, IZ and IL are respectively
the value of V0 changes by : (Assume that R = 4kΩ IL
A
the Ge diode has large breakdown voltage) I
IZ
60 V RL = 2kΩ
10 V = VZ

(1) 15 mA, 5 mA, 10 mA

(2) 15 mA, 7.5 mA, 7.5 mA

(1) 0.6 V (3) 12.5 mA, 5 mA, 7.5 mA

(2) 0.8 V (4) 12.5 mA, 7.5 mA, 5 mA

(3) 0.4 V
(4) 0.2 V 18. In the given circuit the circuit through
zener diode is

15. The circuit shown below contains two

R1 500Ω
ideal diodes, each with a forward
15V
resistance of 50Ω. If the battery voltage is 1500Ω R2 VZ = 10V
6V, the current through the 100 Ω
resistance (in Amperes) is: (1) 3.3 mA
D1 150Ω (2) 2.5 mA
(3) 5.5 mA
75Ω
(4) 6.7 mA
D2
100Ω
6V 19. In the given circuit the current through
(1) 0.027 Zener Diode is close to:
(2) 0.020 (R1 = 500Ω & R2 = 1500Ω)
(3) 0.030
I R1 500Ω
(4) 0.036
Iz I2
12V

I1
R2 1500Ω V
Vz2=10V R2
16. Zener diode is used for-
(1) rectification (1) 6.0 mA

(2) stabilization (2) 4.0 mA

(3) amplification (3) 6.7 mA

(4) producing oscillations in an oscillator (4) 0.0 mA

Semiconductor Electronics 53
20. The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener 23. The electrical conductivity of a
diode is 5.6 V in the given circuit. semiconductor increases when
200 Ω
electromagnetic radiation of wavelength
ΙZ

9V
800 Ω shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it.
The band gap in (eV) for the
The current ΙZ through the Zener is :
semiconductor is
(1) 7 mA (2) 17 mA
(1) 2.5 eV (2) 1.1 eV
(3) 10 mA (4) 15 mA
(3) 0.7 eV (4) 0.5 eV

21. Figure shown a DC voltage regulator

24. A solid which is not transparent to visible
circuit, with a Zener diode of breakdown
voltage = 6V. If the unregulated input light and whose conductivity increases

voltage varies between 10 V to 16 V, then with temperature is formed by

what is the maximum Zener current? (1) Metallic binding
(2) Ionic binding
(3) Covalent binding
(4) Vander Waals binding

25. For LED’s to emit light in visible region of

electromagnetic light, it should have
(1) 2.5 mA (2) 3.5 mA
energy band gas in the range of :
(3) 7.5 mA (4) 1.5 mA
(1) 0.1 eV to 0.4 eV (2) 0.5 eV to 0.8 eV
(3) 0.9 eV to 1.6 eV (4) 1 .7 eV to 3.0 eV
22. A p-n junction (D) shown in the figure can
act as a rectifier. An alternating current
source (V) is connected in the circuit. 26. A photo-cell employs photoelectric effect
to convert-
D
~
R (1) Change in the frequency of light into a
V
change in electric voltage

The current (I) in the resistor (R) can be (2) Change in the intensity of illumination

shown by : into a change in photoelectric current

Ι Ι
(3) Change in the intensity of illumination
(1) (2)
into a change in the work function of
t t
Ι Ι the photocathode
(3) (4)
(4) Change in the frequency of light into a
t t
change in the electric current

54 Semiconductor Electronics
27. A p-n photodiode is made of a material 30. The combination of gates shown below
yields
with a band gap of 2.0 eV. The minimum
A
frequency of the radiation that can be
X
absorbed by the material is nearly- B

(1) 1 × 1014 Hz (2) 20 × 1014 Hz (1) XOR gate

(2) NAND gate
(3) 10 × 1014 Hz (4) 5 × 1014 Hz
(3) OR gate
(4) NOT gate
28. A p-n photodiode is fabricated from a
31. Truth table for system of four NAND gates
semiconductor with a band gap of 2.5 eV.
as shown in figure is
It can detect a signal of wavelength- A
Y
(1) 4000 Å (2) 6000 Å B

(3) 4000 nm (4) 6000 nm A B C A B C

0 0 0 0 0 1
(1) 0 1 0 (2) 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
29. The logic circuit shown below has the 1 1 1 1 1 0
input waveforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown. Pick A B C A B C
0 0 1 0 0 0
out the correct output waveform.
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
A 1 0 0 1 0 1
Y
B 1 1 1 1 1 0

Input A
32. A system of four gates is set up as shown.
The ‘truth table’ corresponding to this
Input B system is :-
A

Output is :

(1)
B
A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 1
(2)
(1) 0 1 0 (2) 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
(3)
A B Y A B Y
1 0 0 0 0 1
(4) (3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1

Semiconductor Electronics 55
33. Identify the gate and match A, B, Y in 36. The following figure shows a logic gate

bracket to check circuit with two inputs A and B and the

A
output C. The voltage waveforms of A, B
AB
and C are as shown below-
B Y
A
logic gate
(1) AND (A =1, B = 1, Y =1) C
circuit
(2) OR (A = 1, B = 1, Y = 0) B
1
(3) NOT (A = 1, B = 1, Y = 1)

(4) XOR (A = 0, B = 0, Y = 0) A t

34. Truth table for the given circuit will be B t

x 1

z C t
The logic circuit gate is-
y
(1) AND gate (2) NAND gate
x y z x y z (3) NOR gate (4) OR gate
0 0 1 0 0 0
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0 37. In the following circuit, the output Y for all
1 0 1 1 0 0 possible inputs A and B is expressed by
1 1 0 1 1 1
the truth table-

x y z x y z A A Y
0 0 1 0 0 0 B B
(3) 0 1 1 (4) 0 1 1 A B Y
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
(1) 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
A B Y
35. To get output ‘1’ at R, for the given logic
0 0 0
gate circuit the input values must be- (2) 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Y
0 0 1
(3) 0 1 1
1 0 1
(1) x = 0, y = 1 1 1 0

(2) x = 1, y = 1 A B Y
0 0 1
(3) x = 0, y = 0 (4) 0 1 0
1 0 0
(4) x = 1, y = 0 1 1 0

56 Semiconductor Electronics
38. The circuit as shown in figure is equivalent 40. The following figure shows a logic gate
to circuit with two inputs A and B the output
Y. The voltage waveforms of A, B and Y are
as given–
(1) NOR gate (2) OR gate
Logic gate
(3) AND gate (4) NAND gate circuit

A1
0
39. To get an output Y = 1 from the circuit
B1
shown below, the input must be – 0
1
A Y
0
B Y
C The logic gate is –

A B C (1) OR gate

(1) 0 1 0 (2) AND gate

(2) 0 0 1 (3) NAND gate

(3) 1 0 1 (4) NOR gate

(4) 1 0 0

Semiconductor Electronics 57
 Exercise - III

For Questions (1 to 11) 4. Assertion: The semiconductor used for

Read the Assertion and Reason carefully fabrication of visible LED must at least
and mark the correct options.
have a band gap of 1.8eV.
(A) Both Assertion and Reason are true and
Reason is the correct explanation of Reason: The spectral range of visible light
Assertion. is from 0.4 eV to 1.8 eV.
(B) Both Assertion and Reason are true but
(1) A (2) B
Reason is not correct explanation of
Assertion. (3) C (4) D
(C) Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(D) Assertion and Reason are false. 5. Assertion: Photodiodes are preferred to be

used in reverse bias.

1. Assertion: In solid each electron will have
a different energy level. Reason: When we are detecting change in

Reason:- In solid crystal each electron has intensity of light based on change in diode

a unique position and no two electrons see current, it is easily detectable in reverse

exactly the same pattern of surrounding bias operation.

charges. (1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

6. Assertion: GaAs is preferred for making

2. Assertion: Current in semiconductor material
solar panels.
is sum of current due to free electron and
Reason: ∆Eg for GaAs is 1.5 eV and sun's
current due to holes.
radiation has highest intensity around this
Reason: When we apply potential difference
energy level.
across semiconductor free electrons and
(1) A (2) B
holes move in same direction.
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D

(3) C (4) D
7. Assertion: In a N-type semiconductor, the

3. Assertion: In a semiconductor, the number of holes get reduced.

conduction electrons have a higher Reason: Rate of recombination of holes
mobility than holes. would increase due to the increase in the
Reason: Mass of electron is less than number of electrons
effective mass of hole.
(1) A (2) B
(1) A (2) B
(3) C (4) D
(3) C (4) D

58 Semiconductor Electronics
8. Assertion: Avalanche breakdown dominates For Questions (12 to 15) Multiple options

when the doping concentration is high and are correct:

depletion layer is thin.

12. In a p – n junction diode not connected to
Reason : Zener breakdown occurs due to
any circuit,
the collision of minority charge carrier.
(1) The potential is the same everywhere
(1) A (2) B (2) The p -type side is at a lower potential
(3) C (4) D than the n type side
(3) There is an electric field at the junction

9. Assertion: The resistivity of a semiconductor directed from the n-type side to the

increases with temperature. p-type side

Reason: The atoms of a semiconductor (4) There is an electric field at the junction

vibrate with larger amplitude at higher directed from the p-type side to the

temperatures thereby increasing its n-type side

resistivity.
(1) A (2) B 13. The impurity atoms with which pure silicon

(3) C (4) D should be doped to make a p-type

semiconductor are those of

10. Assertion: NAND or NOR gates are called
(1) phosphorus (2) boron
digital building blocks.
(3) antimony (4) aluminium
Reason : The repeated use of NAND or NOR
gates can produce all the basic or complex
gates. 14. Holes are charge carriers in

(1) A (2) B (1) intrinsic semiconductors

(3) C (4) D (2) ionic solids

(3) p-type semiconductors

11. Assertion : To get a steady dc output from
(4) metals
the pulsating voltage received from a full
wave rectifier we can connect a capacitor
across the output parallel to the load RL. 15. Which one of the following statements is

Reason : To get a steady dc output from correct in the case of light emitting diodes?
the pulsating voltage received from a full (1) It is a heavily doped p-n junction.
wave rectifier we can connect an inductor (2) It emits light only when it is forward biased.
in series with RL.
(3) It emits light only when it is reverse biased.
(1) A
(4) The energy of the light emitted is equal
(2) B
(3) C to or slightly less than the energy gap

(4) D of the semiconductor used.

Semiconductor Electronics 59
16. Match the statements of column A with 18. Match the statements of Column A with

those of column B. those of Column B.

Column A Column B Column A Column B
(P) Voltage (A) Diode (P) Detecting optical (A) Light

regulation signals emitting

diode
(Q) Rectifier (B) Pentavalent dopant
(Q) Convert electrical (B) Solar cell
(R) Phosphorus (C) Trivalent dopant
energy into light
(S) Indium (D) Zener diode
(R) Convert optical (C) Capacitor
(1) P → D; Q → B; R → C; S → A radiation into
(2) P → D; Q → C; R → B; S → A electricity

(3) P → D; Q → A; R → B; S → C (S) Filter circuit (D) Photo

element diode
(4) P → C; Q → D; R → A; S → B
(1) P → D; Q → B; R → C; S → A
(2) P → D; Q → C; R → B; S → A
17. Match the following
(3) P → D; Q → A; R → B; S → C
(a) p-type (1) Pure
(4) P → C; Q → D; R → A; S → B
semiconductor semiconductor

(b) Intrinsic (2) Doped

semiconductor semiconductor

(c) Extrinsic (3) Majority

semiconductor carriers are

electrons

(d) n-type (4) Majority

semiconductor carriers are

holes

(1) a-3, b-2, c-4, d-1

(2) a-1, b-2, c-4, d-3

(3) a-4, b-1, c-2, d-3

(4) a-2, b-1, c-4, d-3

60 Semiconductor Electronics
 Exercise – IV (Previous Year Questions)
1. In a n-type semiconductor, which of the 4. The barrier potential of a p-n junction
following statement is true: [NEET_2013] depends on: [AIPMT_2014]
(1) Holes are majority carriers and (a) type of semi conductor material
trivalent atoms are dopants. (b) amount of doping
(2) Electrons are majority carriers and (c) temperature
trivalent atoms are dopants. (1) (a) and (b) only
(3) Electron are minority carriers and (2) (b) only
pentavalent atoms are dopants (3) (b) and (c) only
(4) Holes are minority carriers and (4) (a), (b) and (c)
pentavalent atoms are dopants.
5. Which logic gate is represented by the
following combination of logic gates?
2. The output (X) of the logic circuit shown
[AIPMT_2015]
in figure will be- [AIPMT_2013]
Y1
A
X
Y
(1) X = A.B (2) X = A.B
(3) X = A . B (4) X= A + B B
Y2

(1) NAND
3. The given graph represents V-I
(2) AND
characteristic for a semiconductor device.
(3) NOR
[AIPMT_2014]
(4) OR

I
A
6. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The
V
B value of current flowing through AB is:
[AIPMT_2016]
Which of the following statement is correct?
(1) It is V-I characteristic for solar cell
where, point A represents open circuit
voltage and point B short circuit (1) 0 A (2) 10–2 A
current. (3) 10–1 A (4) 10–3 A
(2) It is for a solar cell and the point A and
B represents open circuit voltage and 7. The given electrical network is equivalent
current, respectively. to : [NEET_2017]
(3) It is for photodiode and points A and B
represents open circuit voltage and
current respectively. (1) AND gate
(4) If is for a LED and points A and B (2) OR gate
represents open circuit voltage and
(3) NOR gate
short circuit current, respectively.
(4) NOT gate

Semiconductor Electronics 61
8. Which one of the following represents 12. For a p-type semiconductor, which of the
forward bias diode? [NEET_2017] following statements is true?
0V R –2V [NEET_2019]
(1)
–4V R –3V
(1) Holes are the majority carriers and
(2) pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
–2V R +2V
(2) Electrons are the majority carriers and
(3)
3V R 5V pentavalent atoms are the dopants.
(4) (3) Electrons are the majority carriers and
trivalent atoms are the dopants.
9. In the combination of the following gates (4) Holes are the majority carriers and
the output Y can be written in terms of trivalent atoms are the dopants.
input A and B as [NEET_2018]
A 13. The circuit diagram shown here
B
corresponds to the logic gate.
Y
[NEET_2019]
+6V

(1) A ⋅ B (2) A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B 0 R
A
(3) A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B (4) A + B 1
0
B
1
10. In a P-N junction diode, change in
LED(Y)
temperature due to heating [NEET_2018]
(1) affects only reverse resistance R

(2) affects only forward resistance (1) NOR (2) AND

(3) does not affect resistance of p-n (3) OR (4) NAND
junction
(4) affects the overall V-I characteristics 14. For the logic circuit shown, the truth table
of p-n junction is: [NEET_2020]

A
11. The correct Boolean operation
Y
represented by the circuit diagram drawn
B
is [NEET_2019]
+6V
A B Y A B Y
0 R
0 0 1 0 0 1
A 1
LED (Y) (1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 R
1 1 0 1 1 0
B 1
A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
(1) NAND (2) NOR
1 0 0 1 0 1
(3) AND (4) OR
1 1 1 1 1 1

62 Semiconductor Electronics
15. The solids which have the negative 20. The electron concentration in an n-type
temperature coefficient of resistance are: semiconductor is the same as hole
[NEET_2020] concentration in a p-type semiconductor.
(1) semiconductors only An external field (electric)is applied across
each of them. Compare the currents in
(2) insulators and semiconductors
them. [NEET_2021]
(3) metals
(1) current in n-type = current in p-type
(4) insulators only
(2) current in p-type > current in n-type
(3) current in n-type > current in p-type
16. The increase in the width of the depletion (4) No current will flow in p-type, current
region in a p-n junction diode is due to: will only flow in n-type
[NEET_2019]
(1) both forward bias and reverse bias 21. For the given circuit, the input digital
signals are applied at the terminals A, B
(2) increase in forward current
and C. What would be the output at the
(3) forward bias only
terminal y? [NEET_2021]
(4) reverse bias only
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
5
A
17. Out of the following which is a forward 0
biased diode?
5
[NEET_2020(Covid)] B
–4V 0
(1) –2V

2V
(2) 5V 5
C
–2V 0
(3) +2V
A
0V
(4) –3V

B
18. Which of the following gate is called
y
universal gate?
[NEET_2020(Covid)] C
(1) OR gate (2) AND gate
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
(3) NAND gate (4) NOT gate y
(1) 0V
19. An intrinsic semiconductor is converted 5V
into n-type extrinsic semiconductor by 0V
(2)
doping it with :- [NEET_2020(Covid)] 5V
(3)
(1) Phosphorous (2) Aluminium
(3) Silver (4) Germanium 5V
(4)
0V

Semiconductor Electronics 63
22. Consider the following statements (A) and A
24.
(B) and identify the correct answer. C
(A) A zener diode is connected in reverse
B
bias, when used as a voltage regulator.
The truth table for the given logic circuit
(B) The potential barrier of p-n junction
is: [NEET_2022]
lies between 0.1 V to 0.3 V.
A B C A B C
[NEET_2021]
0 0 0 0 0 1
(1) (A) and (B) both are correct.
(1) 0 1 1 (2) 0 1 0
(2) (A) and (B) both are incorrect. 1 0 1 1 0 0
(3) (A) is correct and (B) is incorrect. 1 1 0 1 1 1

(4) (A) is incorrect but (B) is correct. A B C A B C

0 0 1 0 0 0
(3) 0 1 0 (4) 0 1 1
P N P N 1 0 1 1 0 0
23.
1 1 0 1 1 1

(a)
25. Given below are two statements:
P N N P
Statement I : Photovoltaic devices can

convert optical radiation into electricity.

Statement II : Zener diode is designed to

(b)
operate under reverse bias in breakdown
N P N P
region. [NEET_2023]

In the light of the above statements,

choose the most appropriate answer from

(c)
the options given below:
In the given circuits (a), (b) and (c), the
(1) Both Statement I and Statement II are
potential drop across the two p-n
correct ·
junctions are equal in:
(2) Both Statement I and Statement II are
[NEET_2022]
incorrect.
(1) Circuit (a) only
(3) Statement I is correct but Statement
(2) Circuit (b) only
II is incorrect.
(3) Circuit (c) only
(4) Statement I is incorrect but
(4) Both circuits (a) and (c)
Statement II is correct.

64 Semiconductor Electronics
26. A full wave rectifier circuit consists of two 28. On the basis of electrical conductivity,
p-n junction diodes, a centre-tapped which one of the following material has
transformer, capacitor and a load the smallest resistivity?
resistance. Which of these components [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
remove the ac ripple from the rectified (1) Germanium
output? [NEET_2023] (2) Silver
(1) A centre-tapped transformer (3) Glass
(2) p-n junction diodes (4) Silicon
(3) Capacitor
(4) Load resistance 29. A p-type extrinsic semiconductor is
obtained when Germanium is doped with:
27. For the following logic circuit, the truth [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
table is: [NEET_2023] (1) Antimony
A (2) Phosphorous
(3) Arsenic
Y
(4) Boron
B
A B Y 30. The given circuit is equivalent to:
0 0 1 [NEET_2023(Manipur)]
(1) 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

A B Y
0 0 0
(2) 0 1 1 (1)
1 0 1
1 1 1
(2)
A B Y
0 0 1
(3) 0 1 0 (3)
1 0 1
1 1 0
(4)
A B Y
0 0 0
(4) 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Semiconductor Electronics 65
 ANSWER KEY

Exercise-I
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 1 3 4 4 1 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 2
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 3 1 3 2 3 2 4 1 1 4 4 1 4 2 3 1 1 2 1 1
Que. 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Ans. 4 4 1 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 4 2 4 1 4 4 1 4 3 2
Que. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Ans. 3 2 4 2 1 2 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 2 1 3
Que. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 91 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Ans. 1 3 3 4 3 1 4 2 1 3 4 3 4 1 3 1 3 1 4 3
Que. 101 102
Ans. 4 4

Exercise-II
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 3 1 2 4 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 2 3 2 2 4 1 4 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Ans. 2 3 4 3 4 2 4 1 1 3 4 4 1 3 4 1 1 1 3 3

Exercise-III
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Ans. 1 3 2 3 1 1 1 4 4 1 2 2,3 2,4 1,3 1,2,4 3 3 3

Exercise-IV (Previous Year Questions)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. 4 3 1 4 2 2 3 1 2 4 1 4 1 3 2 4 4 3 1 3
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. 3 3 4 3 1 3 2 2 4 4

66 Semiconductor Electronics