Case task № 4

Formulation of the case-task

Phonological aspect of speech sounds in the English language

I. Try to find out the solutions of the following problems and make use of the tables,
schemes, diagrams etc. if possible.

1)Give some information about phonological aspect of speech sounds.

2)Speak about the types of allophones. Give examples.
3)Give some information of the three aspects of the phoneme: a) material (real and objective);b)
abstractional (generalized); c) functional.
4)Speak about the types of transcriptions.

II. Distribute the following phoneme oppositions into two groups:

a) phonological oppositions; b) phonological correlations.

а) [р - b]; [i: — u: ] ; [f – v ]; [e — ә:] ; [s – z ]; [ͻ: - ͻ]; [ k - g]; [æ – a: ]; [t - d]; [ i:

-i ]; [tʃ - dʒ]; [ u: - u] ; [ә: - ә].

III. Give phonetical analysis of the following sentence:

- Ah, that’s better. I’m sorry to trouble you, Mr. Simonds.

– Never mind.

A) Analyze the following vowel and consonant sounds according to the

principles of vowel and consonant classifications: [i: ], [ ә], [æ:], [ ei], [p ], [l], [d], [ b].
B) Divide the words in the sentence into syllables and define the type of the syllables.
C) Find the cases of modifications of speech sounds in a given sentence and define their
type (i.e. assimilation, accommodation, elision, loss of plosion, lateral plosion etc. /.

ОТВЕТЫ
Task 1.Try to find out the solutions of the following problems and make use of the tables,
schemes, diagrams etc. if possible.

1) Give some information about phonological aspect of speech sounds.

The phonological aspect of speech sounds focuses on their role and behavior in a particular
language system. Phonology is the study of how speech sounds function in a particular language.
It is concerned with the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds and their patterning in the language.
The primary concern of phonology is not just how sounds are produced (articulation) but how
they are organized and interpreted within a language.
Phoneme – the shortest functional unit of a language. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form
of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone of
some phoneme.For example, in English, the words bat and pat differ only in the initial sound /b/
and /p/, making /b/ and /p/ distinct phonemes.
Allophones – variants of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions,
but are said to be in complementary distribution, they are actual speech sounds.For instance, the
English /p/ in pat is aspirated [pʰ], while in spat it is unaspirated [p], but both are considered the
same phoneme /p/.
Minimal Pairs – pairs of words that differ by only one phoneme and thus have different
meanings (e.g., bat and pat, where the difference is the initial consonant /b/ vs. /p/).
Phonemic vs. Phonetic Transcription – phonemic transcription uses slashes (/) to represent the
abstract, phonemic form of a sound (e.g., /p/), while phonetic transcription uses square brackets
([]) to represent the actual, spoken sounds, including all phonetic detail (e.g., [pʰ]).

2) Speak about the types of allophones. Give examples.

Allophones are variations of a single phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word. They
can be categorized into two main types based on their distribution: complementary distribution
and free variation. Below are detailed explanations with specific examples.

1. Free variation: This happens when two allophones can be used in the same position in a word
without changing its meaning. For example, in English, some people pronounce the word
"economics" with a short /e/ sound, while others use a long /i:/ sound. Both pronunciations are
correct, and the meaning of the word does not change.

2. Complementary distribution: This is when two allophones never appear in the same place in
a word. For example, in English, the /p/ in "pat" is aspirated (said with a puff of air), but the /p/
in "spat" is not. You can't switch them because they only appear in specific environments. These
allophones complement each other and follow specific rules.

3) Give some information of the three aspects of the phoneme: a) material (real
and objective);b) abstractional (generalized); c) functional.

The concept of a phoneme can be analyzed from three different aspects: material,
abstractional, and functional. These aspects provide a comprehensive understanding of the
nature of phonemes in language and their role in speech and communication.

1) Material Aspect (Real and Objective)

The material aspect of the phoneme refers to its actual sound. This is how the sound is
physically produced and heard. It is real and objective because it exists in the world as
something you can hear and pronounce.
Example: The sound [pʰ] in pat and [p] in spat are different real sounds (material aspect) that
both represent the same phoneme /p/ in English.

2) Abstractional Aspect (Generalized)

The abstractional aspect is about the idea of the phoneme. It’s how we think of the phoneme in
our minds, without focusing on the actual sounds we hear or produce. This is the mental or
generalized form of the phoneme.
Example: When we think of the phoneme /p/, we understand it as a single sound that can be
pronounced differently (like [pʰ] or [p]), but in our mind, it is still the same sound, regardless of
how it is pronounced.

3) Functional Aspect
The functional aspect refers to how the phoneme helps to distinguish meaning in a language. It
is important because different phonemes change the meaning of words.
Example: The phonemes /p/ and /b/ in pat [pæt] and bat [bæt] are different. Changing one for the
other changes the meaning of the word. This shows the functional role of phonemes in creating
meaning.

4) Speak about the types of transcriptions.

Transcription is a set of symbols representing speech sounds. M.A. Sokolova points out that
there are two types of transcription depending on whether the aim is to indicate the phonemes or
their allophones.
1. Broad transcription, also known as phonemic transcription, is a general
way of writing down the sounds of speech. It shows the basic sounds of a language, using
phonemes (the smallest units of sound that can change meaning). Broad transcription doesn’t
focus on small details like pronunciation variations or accents; it just shows the important sounds
that distinguish words.
Symbols: In broad transcription, we use slanted brackets [ ] and symbols from the IPA
(International Phonetic Alphabet).
Example: The word cat can be transcribed as [kæt] in broad transcription, showing the basic
phonemic sounds.

2. Narrow transcription provides a more detailed representation of speech.It

includes additional information about how sounds are actually pronounced, such as intonation,
stress, or accent. This type of transcription shows small differences in pronunciation, such as if
a sound is pronounced more softly, with a different pitch, or with slight variations (like a sound
being released with extra air or with a specific accent).

Symbols: In narrow transcription, we still use IPA symbols, but we also add extra symbols to
show specific features (such as [ʰ] for aspiration, [ʔ] for a glottal stop, or [ɾ] for a flap).

Example: The word butter might be transcribed as [ˈbʌɾər] in narrow transcription, showing that
the /t/ sound is pronounced as a flap [ɾ] in some accents, like in American English.

Task 2. Distribute the following phoneme oppositions into two groups:

a) phonological oppositions; b) phonological correlations.
[р - b]; [i: — u: ] ; [f – v ]; [e — ә:] ; [s – z ]; [ͻ: - ͻ]; [ k - g]; [æ – a: ]; [t - d]; [ i: -
i ]; [tʃ - dʒ]; [ u: - u] ; [ә: - ә].

Phonological oppositions are pairs of phonemes that contrast with each other and create a
difference in meaning. The sounds in these pairs are distinctive in the language.
Phonological correlations involve pairs of sounds where the difference is not contrastive and
does not create a change in meaning. These often refer to variations in sound due to stress, vowel
length, or accent.

Phonological Oppositions (Contrastive, Meaning-Differentiating):

 [р - b]
 [f - v]
 [s - z]
 [k - g]
 [t - d]
 [tʃ - dʒ]
 [i: - u:]
 [æ - a:]

Phonological Correlations (Non-Contrastive, Variations):

 [e - ә:]
  [ͻ: - ͻ]
 [u: - u]
 [ә: - ә]

Tak 3. Give phonetical analysis of the following sentence:

- Ah, that’s better. I’m sorry to trouble you, Mr. Simonds.

– Never mind.

A) Analyze the following vowel and consonant sounds according to the

principles of vowel and consonant classifications: [i: ], [ ә], [æ:], [ ei], [p ], [l], [d], [ b].

[i:] (as in "I’m")

[i:]: Long, high, front, unrounded.

[ә] (as in "better")

[ә]: Monophthong, central, mid, open.

[æ:] (as in "that’s")

[æ:]: Long, low, front, unrounded.

[ei] (as in "trouble")

[ei]: Diphthong, rising, front, unrounded.

[p] (as in "sorry")

[p]: Voiceless, bilabial, plosive.

[l] (as in "Simonds")

[l]: Voiced, alveolar, lateral approximant.

[d] (as in "mind")

[d]: Voiced, alveolar, plosive.

[b] (as in "better")

[b]: Voiced, bilabial, plosive.

B) Divide the words in the sentence into syllables and define the type of the syllables.

Ah – 1 syllable (open syllable)

that’s – 1 syllable (closed syllable)
better – 2 syllables (open in the second syllable, closed in the first)
I’m – 1 syllable (closed syllable)
sorry – 2 syllables (closed in the first, open in the second)
to – 1 syllable (open syllable)
trouble – 2 syllables (open in the second syllable, closed in the first)
you – 1 syllable (open syllable)
Mr. – 2 syllables (closed in the first, open in the second)
Simonds – 2 syllables (closed in the first, closed in the second)
Never – 2 syllables (closed in the first, open in the second)
mind – 1 syllable (closed syllable)
C) Find the cases of modifications of speech sounds in a given sentence and define their
type (i.e. assimilation, accommodation, elision, loss of plosion, lateral plosion etc. /.

Assimilation: “I’m sorry”: The [m] sound in "I’m" may assimilate to the following [s] sound,
making it more like [n] in rapid speech, due to the influence of the following [s] sound.

Example: [aɪn sɔːri] (in fast speech).

Elision: “better”: The final [ə] may be elided in rapid speech, leaving only [bɛt] or [bɛtə].

“Mr.”: The final [ə] may be elided, making it sound more like [mɪstər] in connected speech.

Loss of Plosion: "trouble": In fast speech, the [p] in "trouble" might lose some of its plosion due
to its position between vowels and the influence of coarticulation. It can sound less explosive.

Linking: “Mr. Simonds”: The final [r] sound in "Mr." can link with the initial [s] sound in
“Simonds”, creating a smoother connection between words. This is an example of linking /r/.

Case № 34

Formulation of the case-task:

The complex sentence and their types (Adverbial clauses).

I. Try to find out the solutions of the following problems and

make use of the use of the tables, schemes, diagrams etc. if possible.

1) Give a full description of Complex sentences and their specific features on the basis
of the given brief information. Make use of the tables, schemes, diagrams etc.
2) Speak about the structural composition of the complex sentences.
3) Give some information about adverbial clauses giving examples.

II. Use suitable conjunction or connectives of adverbial clauses

in the given complete sentences:

1. anything particular occurs, you can write to me at the post office. (Dickens).
2. He
too had moved and was now standing she had been a moment before.(Priestley)
3. Howard puffed his cigarette thoughtfully before speaking, he was still
uncertain about what he should say. ( Caldwell)

III. Point out the clauses of complex sentence and define their types.

1. We must strike while the iron is hot. 2. I looked where she pointed. 3. She kept her back to the
window that he might not see her rising colour. 4. He is so weak physically that he can hardly
move. 5. As he spoke there was a sharp ring at the bell.

ОТВЕТЫ

Task 1.
1) Give a full description of Complex sentences and their specific features on the basis
of the given brief information. Make use of the tables, schemes, diagrams etc.

A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and at least one dependent
(subordinate) clause. The independent clause can stand alone, while the dependent clause cannot.

Features:

Independent Clause: A clause that can stand alone as a complete sentence (e.g., "She went to
the store").

Dependent Clause: A clause that depends on the independent clause for meaning (e.g., "because
she needed groceries").

Subordinating Conjunctions and Relative Pronouns:

Subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, if) introduce dependent clauses.

Relative pronouns (e.g., who, which, that) also introduce dependent clauses.

2) Speak about the structural composition of the complex sentences.

A complex sentence is composed of:

Independent Clause: Contains a subject and predicate; can stand alone.

Dependent Clause: Cannot stand alone and is connected to the independent clause by
subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.

Examples:

"She went to the store because she needed groceries."

Independent Clause: She went to the store

Dependent Clause: because she needed groceries (introduced by "because")

"The book that I read is interesting."

Independent Clause: The book is interesting

Dependent Clause: that I read (introduced by the relative pronoun "that")

3) Give some information about adverbial clauses giving examples.

Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that modify the verb in the independent clause by
providing information about time, reason, condition, manner, place, or purpose.

Examples:

Time: "I will call you when I arrive."

Adverbial Clause: when I arrive (indicating time)

Reason: "She didn’t come because she was sick."

Adverbial Clause: because she was sick (indicating reason)

Condition: "If it rains, we will cancel the picnic."

Adverbial Clause: if it rains (indicating condition)

Place: "We will meet where you told me."

Adverbial Clause: where you told me (indicating place)

Task 2.Use suitable conjunction or connectives of adverbial clauses

in the given complete sentences.

1. If anything particular occurs, you can write to me at the post office. (Dickens)
2. He too had moved and was now standing where she had been a moment before. (Priestley)
3. Howard puffed his cigarette thoughtfully before speaking, since he was still uncertain about
what he should say. (Caldwell)

Task 3. Point out the clauses of complex sentence and define their types.

1. We must strike while the iron is hot.

 Independent Clause: We must strike

 Dependent Clause (Adverbial Clause of Time): while the iron is hot
 Type: Complex sentence (Adverbial Clause of Time: indicates when the action should
happen).

2. I looked where she pointed.

 Independent Clause: I looked

 Dependent Clause (Adverbial Clause of Place): where she pointed
 Type: Complex sentence (Adverbial Clause of Place: tells where the action took place).

3. She kept her back to the window that he might not see her rising colour.

 Independent Clause: She kept her back to the window

 Dependent Clause (Relative Clause): that he might not see her rising colour
 Type: Complex sentence (Relative Clause: gives additional information about
"window").

4. He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.

 Independent Clause: He is so weak physically

 Dependent Clause (Result Clause): that he can hardly move
 Type: Complex sentence (Result Clause: expresses the consequence of the weakness).

5. As he spoke, there was a sharp ring at the bell.

 Independent Clause: there was a sharp ring at the bell
 Dependent Clause (Adverbial Clause of Time): As he spoke
 Type: Complex sentence (Adverbial Clause of Time: tells when the action occurred).