Electrical Utilisation Unit 3

Unit 3: Illumination

What is Illumination?
The luminous flux received by the surface per unit area is known as illumination. It is
denoted by letter 'E' and is measured in Lux. Mathematically, illumination is given by,
E= Luminous flux / Area

DEFINITIONS

1. Plane angle –
A plane angle is subtended at a point and is enclosed by two straight lines lying in the same
plane". A plane angle is expressed in terms of degrees or radian. A radian is the angle
subtended by an arc of a circle whose length equals the radius of the circle.
2. Solid angle –
Consider an area A relative to a point P (Fig. 6.2). If all points on the boundary of the area A
are joined to P, a cone like shape is formed at P and the angle subtended by the area A at P is
known as the solid angle.

Let P represent the centre of a sphere as shown in the Fig. 6.2. There will be a boundary of
intersection where the solid angle subtended by area A passes through the sphere. This area
on the sphere surface and area A are subtending the same solid angle at P
(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 = (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒)2

Solid angle is expressed in steradians.

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3. Luminous flux – it is the rate of energy radiation in the form of light waves and is
𝑄
denoted by ∅ = 𝑡

Q is the radiant energy. Its unit is lumen.

4. Lumen –
One lumen is defined as the luminance flux emitted by a source of one candle power
in a unit solid angle
Lumen = Candle power of source x solid angle.
5. Candle Power
The number of lumens emitted by that source per unit solid angle in a given direction.
6. Mean Horizontal Candle Power
The mean (or average) of candle power of source in all directions in a horizontal plane is
known as mean horizontal candle power (MHCP).
7. Mean Spherical Candle Power
The mean (or average) of candle power in all directions and in all planes from the
source of light is termed as mean spherical candle power (MSCP).
8. Reduction Factor
The ratio of the mean spherical candle power to the mean horizontal candle power
of a source of light is known as reduction factor of the source of light,
Reduction factor=MSCP / MHCP
9. Space to Height Ratio
It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distanced between adjacent lamps to the
height of their mounting.
10. Utilization Factor
The ratio of total number of lumens reaching the working plane to the total number
of lumens emitting from the source is known as utilization factor, i.e.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

11. Maintenance Factor

The ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to the illumination when
everything is clean is known as maintenance factor, i.e.
𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛

Normally, the value of maintenance factor is less than unity and in practice, it will be around
0.8. From the definition, it is clear that the frequent cleaning of the lamp improves the
maintenance factor.
12. Depreciation Factor

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The ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained illumination on the

working plane is known as depreciation factor. Mathematically, it is defined as the
reciprocal of maintenance factor, i.e.
1
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The value of the depreciation factor is always greater than unity.

13. Waste Light Factor
When a surface is illuminated by several number of sources of light, then certain
amount of light is wasted due to overlapping of light waves. The measure of this
wastage of light is termed as waste light factor.
14. Reflection Factor
When the light rays incident on a surface, some of the rays are reflected from the
surface and a portion of the incident light is absorbed by the surface.
Thus, the ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on the
surface is termed as reflection factor and is given as
Reflection factor = Reflected light / Incident light
The reflection factor is also known as coefficient of reflection and its value is always less
than unity.
15. Beam Factor
The ratio of the lumens in a beam of a projector of the lamp to the lumens given out by the
lamp is known as beam factor. The value of beam factor varies from 0.3 to 0.6.
This factor is used to determine the absorption of light by the reflector and front glass of the
projector lamp
16. Luminous Efficacy
Luminous efficacy is defined as the amount of light a lamp produces per unit of electric
power consumed, measured in lumens per watt. It indicates how energy-efficient a lamp is,
and this efficiency varies by type of lamp.
Incandescent lamps have a luminous efficacy of about 10-20 lumens per watt, while
fluorescent lamps range from 60-100 lumens per watt, making them more energy-efficient.
New LED lamps can reach up to 200 lumens per watt.
17. Correlated Colour Temperature
Correlated Colour Temperature (CCT) is defined as the temperature at which a heated black
body emits the same color of light as the lamp.
The Unit of CCT is Kelvin. Suppose the CCT of the fluorescent lamp is 4500K; this means that
if a black body is heated to 4500K, it will emit the same color of radiation or light as that of
the fluorescent lamp.

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Lamps are categorized by CCT into warm white, neutral white, or cool white. Lamps with a
CCT below 3000K emit a yellowish-reddish light, creating a warm ambiance and are called
warm white.
Lamps with a CCT between 3000K and 4000K emit white light and are known as neutral
white.
If the CCT is more than 4000K, the lamp gives a whitish color of light which provides a cool
feeling to its surroundings. So lamps having CCT more than 4000K are termed as cool white.
18. Colour Rendering Index
All objects have a particular color when viewed under natural light. If the same object is
viewed under an artificial light source, the lamp reproduces the color of the object, but the
color may or may not be the same as that under natural light.
Color rendering index (CRI) is the fraction with which the original color of the object is
reproduced by the lamp. CRI of most lamps is less than 100%. Only incandescent lamps and
halogen lamps have a CRI of 100.

Laws of Illumination
1. The Inverse Square Law of Illuminance
This law states that the Illuminance (E) at any point on a plane perpendicular to the line
joining the point and source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the source and plane.

Where, I is the luminous intensity in a given direction.

Imagine a light source with a luminous intensity (I). We measure distances from this source
using radii, making the source the center.

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In the figure, the distances are labelled as r1 and r2. At distance r1, we have an elementary
surface area dA1. Similarly, at distance r2, there is dA2. dA1 and dA2 are within same solid
angle Ω with same distributed luminous flux Φ.
Area dA1 at r1 receives the same amount of luminous flux as area dA2 at r2 as the solid are
the same.

Again solid angle for both elementary surfaces

The Illuminance at distance

The Illuminance at distance

Now, from equation (i) we get,

Now in the equation (iii),

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This indicates the well-known inverse square law relationship for point source.
It is seen that Illuminance varies inversely as the square of the illuminated point from the
source.
If the light source is not a point source, then we can assume this large source as the
summation of many point sources. This relationship can be applied to all light sources.
2. The Cosine Law of Illuminance
The law states that Illuminance at a point on a plane is proportional to the cosine of the
angle of light incident (the angle between the direction of the incident light and the normal
to the plane).

It is the point source Illuminance equation.

Where, Iθ is the luminous intensity of the source in the direction of the illuminated point, Ɵ
is the angle between the normal to the plane containing the illuminated point and the line
joining the source to the illuminated point, and d is the distance to the illuminated point.

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For larger light sources, the cosine law of Illuminance is analysed using luminous flux instead
of luminous intensity.
The Illuminance or the surface density of the light flux received by an elementary area varies
with the distance from the light source and the angle of the elementary area with respect to
the direction of the light flux.
The maximum Illuminance occurs when the element of area receives the light flux normal to
its surface.
When the surface is tilted relative to the light direction, the Illuminance decreases. This
happens because the tilted surface intercepts less light.
The tilted elementary area (δA) cannot intercept all the light flux it previously received and
so the Illuminance falls.

If the elementary area (δA) increases, the Illuminance falls.

❖ Polar curves :-
All over discussions so far were based on the assumption that luminous intensity or
the candle power from a source is uniformly distributed over the surrounding surface. But
none of the practical type of lamp gives light uniformly distributed in all directions because
of its unsymmetrical shapes. It is often necessary to know the distribution of light in various
directions to as certain how the candle power of light source varies in different directions.
The luminous intensity in all directions can be represented by polar curves. If the luminous
intensity is a horizontal plane passing through the lamp is plotted against angular position, a
curve known as horizontal polar curve is obtained. If the luminous intensity in a vertical
plane is plotted against the angular position, a curve known as vertical polar curve is
obtained. The typical polar curves for an ordinary filament lamp are shown in the following
fig:

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The polar curves are used to determine the mean horizontal candle power ( M.H.C.P.) and
mean spherical candle power (M.S.C.P.).
These are also used to determine the actual illumination of a surface by employing the
candle power in that particular direction as read from the vertical polar curve in the
illumination calculations. The mean horizontal candle power of a lamp can be determined
from the horizontal polar curve taking the mean value of the candle power in a horizontal
direction.

Rousseau’s construction: The construction is illustrated in the fallowing figure. A semi circle of any
convenient radius is drawn with the pole of the polar diagram as centre. The line CD is drawn equal
and parallel to the vertical diameter YY1 . Now from this line CD ordinate equal to corresponding
radius on the polar curve are set up such as BD = OK, GH= Of and so on. The curve obtained by
joining the ends of these ordinates is known as Rousseau’s curve. The mean ordinate of this curve
gives the m.s.c.p. of the lamp having polar curve given as in the fallowing figure.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶𝑆𝑇𝐺𝐷𝐵𝐻𝐿𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐷

The area under the curve can eighter be determined on the graph paper or found by Simpson’s rule.

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❖ Classification of light fitting & luminaries

1. Tungsten halogen lamps

Can have a number of shapes but they are most often tubular with the filament oriented
axially. Again they are available in both double ended and single ended types. Two types are shown
below.
Two types are shown below.

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Tungsten halogen lamps give correlated color temperature, excellent lumen maintenance
and reasonable life. Tungsten halogen lamps are appropriate to be used in outdoor lighting
application. Particularly they can be used in the sports lighting, theater, studios and television
lighting etc. Their filaments are generally mechanically stable and positioned with higher precision.

Tungsten halogen lamps are being used widely as spotlight, film projectors and scientific
instruments. Types of Tungsten halogen lamps in the market of low voltage tungsten filament lamps
are also available. They are available at 12, 20, 42, 50 and 75 Watts operated between 3000K and
3300K. Their life ranges from 2000 hours to 3500 hours.

The main part of the tungsten halogen lamp is small tungsten halogen capsule. It is
cemented into one piece, all glass reflectors are as the facets for controlling the beam optically.
MR-16 lamp has multifaceted reflector with 2 inch diameter. It has slightly higher luminous efficacy
than standard voltage incandescent lamps. Their size is smaller also and permit compact fixture.

2. Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp:

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A Low-Pressure Sodium Vapour lamp (LPSV lamp) is defined as a type of lamp that combines
features of High-Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps and fluorescent lamps.

An LPSV lamp is defined as a gas discharge lamp that uses excited sodium to produce light.

The constructional features of the LPSV lamp are given below:

The outer envelope is made from borosilicate glass. The inner surface of the outer glass case
is coated with indium oxide. This heat-reflective coating of indium oxide allows visible light to pass
but reflects infra-red radiation back inside the tube as a result of which both light output and
temperature inside the tube increases.

The arc tube of the LPSV lamp is made of glass and bent in the form of a U-shape in order to
increase the length of the arc. The arc tube is supported at both ends. The arc tube contains a
mixture of metallic sodium and inert gases argon and neon.

The operation of an LPSV lamp is similar to other gas discharge lamps. An arc passes through
a tube with metallic vapour and a starting gas, typically a mix of argon and neon. The operation is
explained step by step in details below:

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Electric power is given to the lamp and it is energized.

The electrodes produce an arc and this arc strikes through the conductive gas and the lamp
produces a reddish-pink light, characteristic of neon.

Current flowing through the inert gas mixture of argon and neon generates heat. This heat
vaporises the metallic sodium.With the passage of time, the quantity of sodium in the arc stream
increases and this produces the characteristic monochromatic orange color at a wavelength of 489.6
nm.

LPSV lamps operate best at a pressure of about .005 torr and a temperature range of 250° to
270°.

The luminous efficacy of the LPSV lamp is around 150-200 Lumens/Watt. Its CRI is very
poor as it is monochromatic in nature. Its CCT is less than 2000K and the average life is around 18000
burning hours. LPSV lamps are not instant starting and take almost 5-10 minutes to come to full glow.

Applications of LPSV Lamps

LPSV lamps are economical to use in road lighting and security lighting where the color of the
object is not important. They are most suitable to use during foggy weathers

3. High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp:

A high pressure sodium vapour lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses excited sodium to
produce light. It is highly efficient and has a long lifespan, making it popular for industrial lighting and
outdoor security areas like parking lots and roadways.

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A high pressure sodium vapor lamp is defined as a lamp operating at high pressure (above 1
atm) and temperature (above 1000 °C) within a ceramic arc tube made of polycrystalline alumina
(PCA). This tube contains xenon gas, sodium-mercury amalgam, and electrodes at both ends, all
enclosed in a heat-resistant outer glass bulb.

The lamp operates by applying a high voltage pulse from a ballast and igniter to the
electrodes, ionizing the xenon gas to create an arc. This arc heats the tube and vaporizes the mercury
and sodium. The mercury vapour emits bluish-white light, and the sodium vapour emits yellow light,
combining to produce a golden-white light with a color temperature of about 2000 K and a color
rendering index of 25.

The high pressure sodium vapour lamp has several advantages over other types of lamps, such as:

1. High luminous efficacy: It can produce up to 150 lumens per watt, which is about twice as
much as mercury vapour lamps and five times as much as incandescent lamps.
2. Long lifespan: It can last up to 24,000 hours, which is about four times as long as mercury
vapour lamps and 24 times as long as incandescent lamps.
3. Low maintenance: It does not require frequent replacement or cleaning, which reduces
labour and disposal costs.
4. High reliability: It can withstand voltage fluctuations, vibrations, and extreme temperatures,
which makes it suitable for harsh environments.

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However, the high pressure sodium vapour lamp also has some drawbacks, such as:

1. Poor color rendering: It has a low color rendering index, which means it distorts the colors of
the objects it illuminates. This makes it unsuitable for applications where color accuracy is
important, such as retail stores or museums.
2. Glare: It produces a bright and intense light that can cause discomfort or impairment to the
vision of drivers or pedestrians. This can be reduced by using proper shielding or diffusing
devices.
3. Cycling: It can experience cycling or flickering when it reaches the end of its life or when it
operates at low temperatures. This can be prevented by using proper ballast or thermal
insulation.

The following diagram shows the main components of a high pressure sodium vapor lamp:

1. Outer glass bulb: It protects the arc tube from physical damage and thermal shock. It also
filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the arc.
2. Arc tube: It is made of polycrystalline alumina (PCA), which is resistant to corrosion by
sodium vapor. It contains the electrodes, xenon gas, and sodium-mercury amalgam.
3. Electrodes: They are made of tungsten wire with an emissive coating. They are connected to
the ballast and the igniter through metal caps.
4. Xenon gas: It is used as a starting gas because it has a low ionization potential. It also
contributes to the light output by emitting blue light.
5. Sodium-mercury amalgam: It is used as the main light source because it emits yellow light
with high luminous efficacy. It is stored in a reservoir behind one of the electrodes.
6. Ballast: It is an electrical device that regulates the current and voltage to the lamp. It also
provides the high voltage pulse for starting the lamp.
7. Igniter: It is an electronic device that generates the high voltage pulse for starting the lamp
by superimposing it on the supply voltage.

Applications of High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp

The high pressure sodium vapor lamp is mainly used for applications where high brightness,
long lifespan, and low maintenance are required, such as:

1. Street lighting: High-pressure sodium vapor lamps are widely used for lighting public streets,
highways, bridges, tunnels, and other outdoor areas. They provide high brightness, long
lifespan, and low maintenance. They also have a low glare factor and high color stability over
time. However, they have poor color rendering and low visual acuity, which can affect the
safety and comfort of drivers and pedestrians.
2. Industrial lighting: High-pressure sodium vapor lamps are also used for lighting various
industrial applications, such as warehouses, factories, workshops, mines, power plants, and
stadiums. They provide high luminous efficacy, high reliability, and high resistance to harsh
environments. They also have high lumen maintenance and a low depreciation
rate. However, they have poor color rendering and a high warm-up time, which can affect the
productivity and quality of work.
3. Horticultural lighting: High-pressure sodium vapor lamps are also used for lighting indoor
plants and greenhouses. They provide high photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), which
stimulates the growth and flowering of plants. They also have a long lifespan and low energy

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consumption. However, they have a high heat output and a low spectral quality, which can
affect the health and diversity of plants.
4. Advertising lighting: High-pressure sodium vapor lamps are also used for lighting billboards,
signs, monuments, and other outdoor displays. They provide high brightness, long lifespan,
and low maintenance. They also have a high contrast ratio and high visibility at night.
However, they have poor color rendering and a low color temperature, which can affect the
attractiveness and readability of the displays.

Comparison of High-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp with Low-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamp

A low-pressure sodium vapor lamp is another type of gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in
an excited state to produce light. It operates at low pressure (below 0.1 atm) and temperature
(below 300 °C) inside a glass arc tube that contains sodium vapor and neon gas. The arc tube is
enclosed in an outer glass bulb that is filled with inert gas or vacuum.

The lamp works by applying a voltage to the electrodes at both ends of the arc tube, which
ionizes the neon gas and creates an initial arc. The arc heats up the arc tube and vaporizes the
sodium. The sodium vapor emits a monochromatic yellow light with a wavelength of 589 nm.

The low-pressure sodium vapor lamp has some advantages over the high-pressure sodium
vapor lamp, such as:

1. Higher luminous efficacy: It can produce up to 200 lumens per watt, which is
about 30% more than the high-pressure sodium vapor lamp.
2. Longer lifespan: It can last up to 30,000 hours, which is about 25% more than
the high-pressure sodium vapor lamp.
3. Lower cost: It has a lower initial cost and a lower operating cost than the
high-pressure sodium vapor lamp.

However, the low-pressure sodium vapor lamp also has some drawbacks compared to the
high-pressure sodium vapor lamp, such as:

1. Poorer color rendering: It has a very low color rendering index of about 0, which means it
completely distorts the colors of the objects it illuminates.
2. Lower color temperature: It has a very low color temperature of about 1700 K, which means
it produces a very warm and dull light.
3. Larger size: It has a larger size and weight than the high-pressure sodium vapor lamp.
4. Cycling: It can experience cycling or flickering when it reaches the end of its life or when it
operates at low temperatures.

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4. Metal Halide Lamp

A metal halide lamp consists of several components that work together to produce light.
These components are:

1. Glass bulb: This is the outer envelope that encloses the arc tube and protects it from air
and moisture. It also has a coating to filter out the ultraviolet light produced by the arc.
2. Arc tube: This is a small fused quartz or ceramic tube that contains the electrodes and
the gas mixture of vaporized mercury and metal halides. It operates at a high pressure
and temperature.
3. Electrodes: These are two tungsten rods that are sealed into opposite ends of the arc
tube. They create an electric arc between them when current flows through them.
4. Starter electrode: This is an auxiliary electrode that is attached to one of the main
electrodes or to a glass stem near them. It creates an initial discharge between itself and
another electrode to start the lamp. The starter electrode has a high resistance to limit
the current at the initial arc.
5. Glass stem: This is a glass tube that connects the arc tube to the base of the lamp. It also
holds the molybdenum wires that carry the current to the electrodes.
6. Molybdenum wires: These are thin metal wires that are fused into the arc tube and the
glass stem. They are non-magnetic and have a high melting point. They transmit the
current to the electrodes and seal the arc tube from air and moisture.
7. Base: This is the part of the lamp that connects to the socket or lamp holder. It can have
different shapes and sizes depending on the type and wattage of the lamp. Some
common base types are E26, E39, G12, G8.5, GX10, RX7s, and RX7s-24.
8. Gas mixture: This is a combination of argon gas, mercury vapor, and metal halides that
fills the arc tube. The argon gas helps to start the lamp and maintain a low arc voltage.
The mercury vapor provides most of the ultraviolet radiation that excites the metal
atoms. The metal halides add visible radiation and improve the color rendition of the
light.

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Advantages

1. High luminous efficacy: Metal halide lamps can produce more light per watt than
incandescent lamps and most fluorescent lamps. They can reach up to 100 lumens per watt
for some types of lamps.
2. High color rendering index: Metal halide lamps can reproduce colors accurately with a CRI of
65 to 95. They can also produce a range of color temperatures from warm white to daylight
white, depending on the type and wattage of the lamp.
3. Long lifespan: Metal halide lamps can last up to 15,000 hours for some types of lamps, which
is longer than incandescent lamps and comparable to fluorescent lamps.
4. Small size: Metal halide lamps are small compared to incandescent and fluorescent lamps
with the same light output. This makes them suitable for compact and efficient fixtures and
applications.
5. Versatile: Metal halide lamps can be used for various applications both indoors and outdoors,
such as general lighting, security lighting, automotive lighting, stage lighting, photographic
lighting, and grow lighting.

Disadvantages

1. Warm-up period: Metal halide lamps require several minutes to reach full light output after
being switched on. They also need a cool-down period before they can be restarted. This
makes them unsuitable for applications that require frequent switching or instant brightness.
2. High initial cost: Metal halide lamps are more expensive than incandescent and fluorescent
lamps in terms of initial purchase price. They also require special fixtures and ballasts to
operate safely and efficiently, which adds to the cost.
3. High operating temperature: Metal halide lamps operate at a high temperature of about
1000 K inside the arc tube. This can cause heat damage to the lamp components and
surrounding materials if not properly ventilated or cooled.
4. Ultraviolet radiation: Metal halide lamps produce ultraviolet radiation that can be harmful to
humans, animals, plants, and materials if not filtered out by the glass bulb or a separate

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shield. Ultraviolet radiation can also cause color fading and degradation of some materials
over time.
5. Flickering: Metal halide lamps can flicker due to fluctuations in voltage, current, or frequency.
Flickering can affect the quality and stability of the light output and cause eye strain or
headaches for some people.

❖ Factory lighting design scope and types

A factory is a place where a given product is produced. It is generally composed of production

plant R & D offices, logistics and other ancillary buildings, outdoor cereal plants, stations, yards,
roads, etc.

Factory lighting design scope includes indoor lighting, outdoor installation lighting, station
lighting, underground lighting, road lighting, sanitation lighting, obstacle lighting, etc.

Interior lighting: interior lighting of the production plant, research and development, and office
interior lighting.

Outdoor device lighting: Lighting for various outdoor devices. Such as the shipyard’s open-air
operation site, the kettles, tanks and reaction towers of petrochemical companies, rotary kilns of
building materials companies, belt corridors, blast furnace furnaces, ladders, platforms of
metallurgical companies, gas tanks of power stations, and total pressure reduction Lighting for
outdoor transformer substations and substations, cooling racks (towers) for outdoor pumping
stations, and outdoor ventilation and dust removal equipment.

Station yard lighting: Illumination of stations, railway marshalling stations, parking lots, open storage
yards, outdoor test yards, etc.

Underground lighting: lighting in basements, cable tunnels, integrated pipe corridors and tunnels.

Evacuation lighting: The lighting that is effectively identified and used in the evacuation passages in
the factory buildings.

Guard lighting: Lighting set up along the perimeter of the factory area and around guard areas of key
places.

Obstacle lighting: There are super tall buildings and structures in the factory area, such as chimneys,
etc. According to the regional aviation conditions, the signs need to be installed according to relevant
regulations.

This chapter focuses on the lighting inside the production plant. For other lighting, please
refer to the relevant chapters of this manual.

❖ Characteristics and classification of industrial plants

❖ Industrial plant features

Industrial plants can be divided into single-story and multi-story industrial buildings according to
their architectural structure. The majority of multi-story industrial buildings are found in light

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industry, electronics, instrumentation, communications, medicine and other industries. The floors of
such workshops are generally not very high. Their lighting design is similar to common scientific
research and experimental buildings, and more fluorescent lighting solutions are used.

The production workshops in industries such as machining, automobile, metallurgy, and textile
are generally single-story industrial buildings, and according to production needs, more are
multi-span single-story industrial workshops.

On the basis of meeting the requirements of a certain building modulus, a single-storey factory
building determines its building width (span), length and height depending on the process needs.

The span of the factory building (B) is generally: 6,9,12,15,18,21,24, 27,30,36m …, the length of
the factory building (L): from tens of meters to hundreds of meters. Building height (H): 5 ~ 6m low,
30 ~ 40m high, or even higher.

The span and height of the plant are the main factors considered in the design of the plant
lighting. In addition, according to the needs of industrial production continuity and the
transportation of products between T sections, most industrial plants are equipped with city cattle,
Yangdi, Lili, Xiaoqiancho, 3 ~ 5t, large Jingshi and city (single crane in the machinery industry of the
day before) The lifting weight is up to 8R. Ming Dynasty lamps are generally installed in 100 public
places. Tall space workshops are usually fixed on roof trusses. Factory roof luminaires on metal roofs
can be fixedly installed on tags. Netting-structured factory luminaires can be fixed on grid frames. On,
cast Zhaian, some lamps can be installed on the wall or on the pole.

Classification of industrial plants

According to the characteristics of product production, industrial plants can be roughly divided into
the following types:
(1) General production plant: a plant produced under normal circumstances.
(2)Clean plant: A production plant with clean operating environment requirements.
(3) Explosive hazardous environment: An environment where explosive dangerous substances are
produced or stored.
(4)Fire danger place: A place where flammable substances are produced or stored.
(5) Production workshops in harsh environments: dusty, humid, high-temperature or Yan Yan,
vibration, smoke, acid-base corrosive gases or substances, radiation materials.
(6) Fire and explosive dangerous environment production plant: a plant that normally produces or
stores fire and explosive dangerous substances.
According to the above classification, lighting design should be strictly in accordance with different
production conditions and relevant specifications.
General requirements for factory lighting design

Factory lighting should be designed in accordance with the following general principles.

1. Choice of lighting method

Illumination requirements are high, and the density of working positions is not large. Hybrid
lighting should be used in places where general lighting alone is not reasonable..
2. The illumination requirements for the operation are not high, or when it is not suitable to
install local lighting, or it is not reasonable to use mixed lighting due to production technical
conditions, general lighting should be used alone.

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3. Partial general lighting can be used when different sections of the same space require
different requirements.
4. Local lighting should be added to the working surface where the general lighting cannot
meet the illuminance requirements.
5. Only partial lighting should be installed in the work area.
6. Light source selection
The lighting source should be selected according to the characteristics and
requirements of the production process. It should meet the requirements of the production
process and the environment on color rendering, start-up time, etc., and should be
determined after comprehensive technical and economic analysis and comparison based on
the light source efficiency and life.
7. Control rooms, laboratories, inspection rooms, instruments, electronic components,
numerical control processing, pharmaceuticals, textiles, food, beverages, cigarettes, and
other production sites, as well as production sites with a height of 7 to 8 meters and below,
should be selected with thin tube straight tube three primary colors Fluorescent lamps;
metal halide lamps can be used in high-rise buildings, and high-pressure sodium lamps can
be used without color development requirements.
8. Except for special places with strict requirements for preventing electromagnetic
interference, which cannot be met with other light sources, factories should not use ordinary
incandescent lamps.
9. With the development of LED light sources, it is an inevitable trend for LED lights to enter the
field of factory lighting. This light source has many advantages such as fast starting point,
convenient dimming, high light efficiency and long life.
10. It can be widely used in factory lighting places. The general color rendering index of general
lighting LED lamps should meet the following requirements:
11. Ra should not be lower than 80 for long-term work or stay, and Ra should not be lower than
60 when installed in large-space places with a height greater than 8m;
12. Ra should not be less than 80 when used in places with requirements for distinguishing
colors;
13. Ra should not be lower than 90 for local lighting for color inspection.

❖ Street lighting design

1. Design of street lighting such that people can safely continue their travels on the road.
Street lighting schemes never brings the same appearance of daylight, but provide
sufficient light for people to see important objects required for traversing the road.
Street lighting plays an important role in:
2. Reducing the risk of night-time accidents
3. Assisting in the protection of buildings/property (discouraging vandalism)
4. Discouraging crime
5. Creating a secure environment for habitation

Basic Features of Street Light Luminaires

The basic features of a street lighting luminaires are:

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1. Roadway luminaires are mounted horizontally and thus have fixed vertical aiming.
2. Roadway lighting luminaires have particular intensity distributions which are desired to light
long narrow horizontal stripes on one side of the luminaire, while minimizing the intensities
on the other side of the luminaire.
3. The intensity distributions up and down the narrow strip are generally the same.
4. Any fixed aimed luminaire which does not have this type of intensity distribution is called an
area luminaire.

Main Objectives of Street Lighting Design Scheme-

The main objectives of street lighting design scheme are given below:

1. Perfect visual sensation for safety

2. Illuminated environment for quick movement of the vehicles
3. Clear view of objects for comfortable movement of the road users.

Which Lamps are used in Street Lighting?

Various types of lamps are used in street lighting luminaires. They are

1. High pressure sodium lamp

2. Metal Halide Lamps
3. Low pressure sodium lamps
4. Incandescent Lamp (not recommended)
5. LED
6. CFL (used in Lanes or streets only not widely)

Main Factors in the Street Lighting Design Scheme

1. Luminance Level Should be Proper Luminance affects how well drivers can see objects
against the background. Brighter streets with darker surroundings help drivers adapt better.
According to CIE, areas 5 meters away from the road on both sides should have an
illuminance level at least 50% of that on the road.
2. Luminance Uniformity must be achieved to provide visual comfort to the viewer’s eyes,
enough luminous uniformity is needed. Luminous uniformity means the ratio between
minimum luminance level to average luminance level, i.e.

It is termed as longitudinal uniformity ratio as it is measured along the line passing through
the viewer’s position in the middle of the traffic facing the traffic flow.
3. Degree of Glare Limitation is always taken into Design Scheme Glare causes visual
discomfort due to high luminance. Street lights create two types of glare: disability glare and
discomfort glare. While disability glare is less significant, discomfort glare is common in
poorly planned street lighting schemes.

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4. Lamp Spectra for Visual Sharpness depends on the Proper Luminaries. It is very much
essential to make an object as per its size and dimension.
5. Effectiveness of Visual Guidance is also an important factor. It helps a viewer to guess
how far another object is from his position.

Types of Road to Implement Various Street Lighting Design Schemes

As per CIE 12 roads are broadly classified into five types.

1. Type A of Street Lighting Design

a) Heavy and high speed traffic.
b) The roads are separated with the separators.
c) No crossing is allowed.
d) Controlled access
e) As the example: express ways.
2. Type B of Street Lighting Design
a) Heavy and high speed traffic.
b) Separate road for slow traffic movement or pedestrians.
c) As the example: Trunk road.

3. Type C of Street Lighting Design

a) Heavy mixed traffic with moderate speed.
b) Rural and urban roads.
c) As the examples: Ring Road or Radial Road.
4. Type D of Street Lighting Design
a) Slow traffic and pedestrians’ purpose.
b) Road in the city or shopping center.
c) As the example: Shopping streets.
d) Type E of Street Lighting Design
e) Mixed Traffic with limited speed.
f) Connector road between residential areas.
g) As the example: Local street.

❖ Street Light Luminaire

Intensity distribution of the street light luminaire is measured with mirror
Goniophotometer. And it is graphically represented by polar intensity diagram.
But Intensity distribution of the road light is measured following C-ɣ photometric
convention. In C-ɣ photometry, C is the angle on the road surface plane and ɣ is the angle
created between vertical axis of the luminaire and lumen throwing direction, or in other
word, ɣ is the angle of incidence.
Initially on the surface of the road, point specific Illuminance values are collected.
Then intensity I is calculated from the equation of the Illuminance,

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Where, EP is the Illuminance at point P on the road and h is the vertical height from
the point P to the luminaire. After calculation of the intensity, we put all the intensity values
making a C-ɣ table as per their angular position.

The format of C-ɣ table is shown above. In this above chart C’ is the position of maximum
intensity on the table.

Three basic planes of intensity are considered on the road surface with respect to one
luminaire:
Plane 1: C-0o to C-180o along the road.
Plane 2: C-90o to C-270o across the road.
Plane 3: Principle Plane, through the point of maximum intensity of the light, i.e. C’ to C’ +
180o

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To obtain C’ we have to prepare intensity distribution chart of the road light luminaire on the
road. Where intensity will meet at maximum value this is the degree value of C’. To draw the
principle plane axis we have to add 180o with C’.

Spread and Throw Angle of Street Light Luminaire

The two main terms related to the street light luminaire are:
Spread angle: it is the angle of the luminaire to direct the luminous flux across the road.
Throw angle: it is the angle of the luminaire to direct the luminous flux along the road.

❖ Pole Arrangement Schemes in Street Lighting Design

1. Single Sided
When the width (W) of the road is nearly equal to the pole height (H), i.e. W = H then the
poles are arranged in one side only. Generally pole height is available of 10 meter.
The distance between two poles is equal to the width of the road.

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2. Double Sided
When the width (W) of the road is nearly double the pole height (H), i.e. W = 2H then the
poles are arranged along both sides in opposite to each other manner.
The span between two poles may not be equal to the road width.

3. Staggered Sided or Zigzag Pattern

When the width (W) of the road is nearly 1.5 times of the pole height (H), i.e. W = 1.5 H then
the poles are arranged in both sides in zigzag manner. The span between two poles may not
be equal to the road width.

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4. Central Verge Position

When the width (W) of the road is much greater than the pole height (H), i.e. W>>H then
the poles are arranged in the central verge of the road. The luminaires are made to face
towards both the road surfaces from the central verge. The span between two poles may
not equal to the road width.

❖ What are the Street Light Design Parameters?

Street light design parameter is measured or evaluated or simulated over the span of the
road.
Average maintained luminance level in Lux Over all uniformity (U0) of Illuminance

for entire area (span × width) of the road

Longitudinal Uniformity is measured along the length of the road (centre

length by default)

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Transverse uniformity is measured across the road along a line passing

through the nadir point.
Disability glare is expressed in threshold increment.
Discomfort Glare is expressed in glare control mark.
Unit Power Density is measured for unit length.

Where,
where no. of the luminaire
(n) = 1 for single sided pole arrangement
= 2 for double sided pole arrangement
= 2 for staggered sides pole arrangement.

❖ How to Compute Average Illuminance on the Road Surface?

Average Illuminance is calculated by Lumen method, where maintenance factor (MF) and
coefficient of utilization (COU) are taken into account.

Where,
ΦL = Lumen of the Luminaire,
Aeff = effective road surface area under Illumination = Span × Width = S × W
N = Number of luminaire
Again,
N = 1 for single sided street lighting design and
N = 2 for double and staggered sided street lighting design,
n = number of lamps used in single luminaire = 1 for street lighting. Coefficient of Utilization
(COU) is the ratio of utilized lumen to the installed lumen. And it is obtained from the COU
graph recommended by CIE.

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Point Specific Luminance (L) on the Road Surface

It is related to the point specific Illuminance I.
It is expressed as, L = q × E,

Where, q is the luminance coefficient in and it is dependent on two angles β and ɣ.

β is the angle between plane of light incidence (plane 1) and plane observation (plane 2).
Ɣ is the angle of incidence in plane 1.
So now,

As r and q both are the function of two angles β and ɣ, we should write the equation as

How to Compute Point Specific Illuminance from Iso-Lux Diagram of the Street Light?

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Iso-Lux diagram is the Illuminance distribution of the street light luminaire on the street or
road surface. The point of maximum Illuminance is called Nadir Point. The Illuminance level
of other points are given in percentage value with respect to the Emax of Nadir point.
Suppose, Emax at nadir is 100 Lux, and at other point Illuminance is 73 Lux, then this point is
marked as 73% of Emax. Thus all points with 73% of Emax are joint together to get Iso-Lux
diagram for 73% of Emax. All Iso-Lux curves are drawn in this way. Making the nadir point
center, two axes along and across the road is drawn.
Suppose, we have the Iso-Lux diagram of the street light.

As per the above sample diagram of Iso-Lux, we have to divide dimension of two axes to
term with respect to the luminaire height (h).

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Suppose at point P, we have to calculate Illuminance, and we have already the luminaire
Iso-Lux diagram.
Now we find out the co-ordinate of this point P with respect to the luminaire position.
Suppose this point P is at h distance from luminaire 1 and at 2h distance from luminaire 2
and at 0.8h distance from the road side of luminaires 1 and 2.
Now we have to calculate Illuminance at point P for each luminaire one by one from the
Iso-Lux diagram.
Let, Illuminance contribution of luminaire 1 at point P is EP,1 = x1%,
Illuminance contribution of luminaire 2 is at point P is EP,2 = x2%,
Illuminance contribution of luminaire 3 is at point P is EP,3 = x3%,
So, ultimate Illuminance at the point P is

Again Emax is calculated from CIE recommended equation, i.e.

The value of Φ is already provided by the luminaire manufacturer. So we can get the value of
Emax and hence EP at the point P.

Glare in Street Lighting

Glare is the visual dis-comfortability of human eyes due to improper level of luminance
distribution of the luminaire to view an object. Glare can be classified into two types,

❖ Disability Glare

❖ Discomfort Glare

Disability Glare
Disability glare makes human eyes disable to see any object for a little while. For an
example, when we look at any bright source for a few seconds and then we look at any
object with low brightness, we become unable to see this object properly, rather we see
black spot for some times. This is one type of momentarily blindness.
Disability glare is measured at threshold increment value. With the aid of the
luminous distribution of a luminaire and using the nomogram the threshold increment of a
luminaire installation can be determined.
Discomfort Glare

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Discomfort glare is not the cause of momentarily blindness like disability glare, but it
is responsible to affect the visibility of the human eyes to an extent for long time. This kind
of glare depends on the luminaire installation. If the luminance is in higher value, the human
eyes cannot observe the object with lower luminance properly beyond this higher
luminance. Discomfort glare is calculated in logarithmic term. If we have the specific
luminaire index (SLI) of a luminaire, we can easily calculate this discomfort glare of that
luminaire. SLI is the luminaire light distribution characteristics.
It is denoted by glare control mark (G). For street lighting, the discomfort glare control mark
is given by:

Where,
SLI = Specific Luminaire Index,
Lavg = average road surface luminance (cd/m2)
h’ = reduced mounting height (m).
p = number of luminaires per ilometre.
SLI is calculated in terms of logarithmic value.

1. Flood Lighting:
Flood lighting is a type of artificial lighting that uses high-intensity, broad-beamed light
sources to illuminate large areas such as outdoor playing fields, stadiums, buildings,
monuments, landscapes, and other architectural features. Flood lighting can create dramatic
effects, enhance visibility, improve safety and security, and provide aesthetic appeal.

2. What is Flood Lighting?

A flood light is defined as a luminaire that covers a wide area with a broad light
beam, up to 120 degrees. Flood lights are mounted on poles, walls, roofs, or other structures
to direct light as needed.
Floodlights use powerful light sources like LEDs or halogen lamps, directed by
reflectors or lenses to focus and control the beam. Some floodlights can adjust the beam
angle and direction.
Flood lights differ from spotlights, which produce narrow, intense beams for
highlighting specific areas. Flood lights illuminate larger, general areas or surfaces.

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What are the Characteristics of Flood Lights?

Floodlights have various characteristics that determine their performance and
suitability for different applications.
Some of the main characteristics are:
1. Peak intensity: This is the maximum intensity of the flood light in the direction of the
intensity axis. It is generally specified in candela per 1000 lumens of the lamp
(cd/klm).
2. Beam spread: This is the angle over which the luminous intensity drops to a stated
percentage (usually 50% or 10%) of its peak value. It is also known as beam width or
beam spread angle.

3. Beam efficiency: This is the ratio of the beam flux to the lamp flux. It is also known as
the light output ratio. It indicates how well the luminaire converts the lamp flux into
useful beam flux.
4. Luminous intensity: This is the amount of light emitted by the flood light in a given
direction. It is measured in candela (cd).
5. Half plane divergence: This is the angular extension in all directions of a beam at
both sides of the intensity axis. It indicates how wide the beam is.

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6. Inner beam: This is the solid angle consisting of an intensity greater than or equal to
50% of the maximum intensity.
7. Outer beam: This is the solid angle containing all directions of luminous intensity
greater than or equal to 10% of the maximum intensity.

❖ What are the Types of Flood Lights?

Flood lights can be classified into different types based on their luminous intensity
distribution, their beam spread angle, and their mounting options. Some of the common
types are:

Rotational symmetry: This type of flood light has a luminous intensity distribution that
remains unchanged through the same beam spread angle considered at both sides of the
intensity axis. For example, if the beam spread angle is 40 degrees, then 20 degrees will be
at both sides of the intensity axis. Through 20 degrees on both sides of the intensity axis, the
intensity is constant.
Symmetry above two planes: This type of flood light has a luminous intensity distribution
that is symmetrical about two planes perpendicular to each other and passing through the
intensity axis. For example, if one plane is horizontal and another plane is vertical, then the
intensity distribution will be symmetrical about both planes.

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Symmetry about the single plane: This type of flood light has a luminous intensity
distribution that is symmetrical about one plane passing through the intensity axis. For
example, if the plane is horizontal, then the intensity distribution will be symmetrical about
it.
Asymmetry: This type of flood light has a luminous intensity distribution that is not
symmetrical about any plane passing through the intensity axis. For example, if one side of
the beam has a higher intensity than another side.

Floodlights can also be classified based on their beam spread angle according to NEMA
(National Electrical Manufacturers Association) standards:
Type 1: Beam spread angle ranges from 10 degrees to 18 degrees
Type 2: Beam spread angle ranges from 18 degrees to 29 degrees
Type 3: Beam spread angle ranges from 29 degrees to 45 degrees
Type 4: Beam spread angle ranges from 45 degrees to 70 degrees
Type 5: Beam spread angle ranges from 70 degrees to 100 degrees
Type 6: Beam spread angle ranges from 100 degrees to 130 degrees
Type 7: Beam spread angle ranges beyond 130 degrees

Floodlights can also be classified based on their mounting options:

1. Pole mounted: These flood lights are mounted on poles that can vary in height and
position depending on the application and design requirements.
2. Wall mounted: These flood lights are mounted on walls or other vertical surfaces that
can provide support and stability for them.
3. Roof mounted: These flood lights are mounted on roofs or other horizontal surfaces
that can provide elevation and coverage for them.
4. Ground mounted: These flood lights are mounted on the ground or other low-level
surfaces that can provide access and flexibility for them.

What are the Applications and Benefits of Flood Lighting?

Flood lighting has various applications and benefits in different fields and sectors.
Some of them are:
1. Sports lighting: Flood lighting is widely used to illuminate outdoor sports venues such
as stadiums, arenas, courts, fields, tracks, pools, etc. Flood lighting can provide
adequate illumination for players, spectators, officials, media personnel, etc., during

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low-light conditions or night time events. Flood lighting can also enhance the visual
appeal and atmosphere of sports events by creating dynamic effects and colors.
2. Architectural lighting: Flood lighting is also used to illuminate architectural features
such as buildings, monuments, bridges, fountains, sculptures, etc. Flood lighting can
highlight the shape, texture, color, and details of these features and create aesthetic
effects and impressions. Flood lighting can also create contrast and drama by playing
with shadows and silhouettes.
3. Landscape lighting: Flood lighting is also used to illuminate landscape elements such
as gardens, parks, lawns, trees, plants, flowers, shrubs, rocks, etc. Flood lighting can
create a warm and inviting ambiance for outdoor living spaces and enhance the
natural beauty and colors of the landscape elements.
4. Security lighting: Flood lighting is also used to provide security and deter intruders,
vandals, or trespassers from entering or damaging property. Flood lighting can
illuminate dark or hidden areas and increase the visibility of surveillance cameras or
motion sensors. Flood lighting can also be activated by timers, switches, or sensors to
create a sense of occupancy and alertness.
5. Commercial lighting: Flood lighting is also used to illuminate commercial spaces such
as parking lots, garages, warehouses, factories, malls, offices, etc. Flood lighting can
provide adequate and uniform illumination for customers, employees, vehicles,
equipment, etc., and improve safety and productivity. Flood lighting can also create a
professional and attractive appearance for the business and attract potential
customers.

Some of the benefits of flood lighting are:

1. Energy efficiency: Flood lighting can save energy and reduce electricity costs by using
LED lamps that consume less power and last longer than conventional lamps. LED
lamps also produce less heat and have a higher color rendering index (CRI) than
other lamps, which means they can produce more accurate and natural colors.
2. Durability: Flood lighting can withstand harsh weather conditions such as rain, snow,
wind, dust, etc., and resist corrosion, rust, and impact. Flood lighting can also
operate in a wide range of temperatures and have a long lifespan of up to 50,000
hours or more.
3. Flexibility: Floodlighting can be adjusted and customized to suit different applications
and preferences. Flood lighting can have different colors, brightness levels, beam
angles, mounting options, etc., that can be changed or controlled by remote devices
or smart systems.
4. Aesthetics: Flood lighting can create stunning visual effects and enhance the
appearance and value of a property. Flood lighting can also create different moods
and atmospheres for different occasions and purposes.

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❖ How to Design and Install Flood Lighting Systems?

Floodlighting systems require careful planning and installation to achieve optimal results and
avoid potential problems. Some of the steps and tips to design and install floodlighting
systems are:
1. Assess the site: Before choosing and installing floodlights, it is important to assess
the site and determine the purpose, location, size, shape, features, obstacles, power
sources, etc., of the area to be illuminated. It is also important to consider the
surrounding environment and the impact of the flood lights on the neighbors,
wildlife, traffic, etc.
2. Choose the floodlights: Based on the site assessment, choose the floodlights that
match the application and design requirements. Consider the characteristics, types,
power options, installation options, etc., of the flood lights and compare different
models and brands. Also, consider the budget and maintenance costs of the flood
lights.
3. Calculate the number and position of the floodlights: Based on the chosen
floodlights, calculate how many floodlights are needed and where they should be
positioned to provide adequate and uniform illumination for the area. Consider the
beam spread angle, peak intensity, luminous flux, light loss factor, etc., of the
floodlights and use formulas or tools to calculate the optimal number and position of
the flood lights. For example, one formula to calculate the required number of
floodlights based on recommended foot candles, mounting height, and light
depreciation is:
N = (FC x A x LLF) / (n x I x cosθ)
Where N is the number of floodlights,
FC is the foot candle level,
A is the area to be illuminated,
LLF is the light loss factor,
n is the number of lamps per flood light,
I is the lamp intensity, and θ is the tilt angle.
4. Install the floodlights: Based on the calculated number and position of the
floodlights, install them according to the manufacturer’s instructions and safety
guidelines. Use appropriate hardware and wiring to secure and connect the
floodlights to the power source and control devices. Adjust the tilt angle and
direction of the floodlights to achieve the desired illumination effect and avoid glare
or light pollution.
5. Test and maintain the floodlighting system: After installing the flood lighting system,
test it to ensure that it works properly and meets the design requirements. Check for
any defects, malfunctions, or errors and fix them as soon as possible. Maintain the

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floodlighting system regularly by cleaning, replacing, or repairing any damaged or

worn-out components.

Factors to Consider in Interior Lighting Design

Lamps for Interior Lighting
The interior lighting designer generally chooses the lamps from among the following lamp
types:
1. Incandescent lamp
2. Fluorescent lamp
3. Metal halide lamp
4. High pressure sodium

Each of the above type has its own particular set of strength and weakness.
The factors which designer should consider in choosing a lamp are:
Consideration of luminous efficacy. – Luminous efficacy is ratio of lumen output
from the lamp to the electrical power (in watt) input to the lamp. The required Illuminance
must be provided by the lamp in conjunction with the lighting economically.
Consideration of the life of the lamp must be done by the designers. They should
think what may be the difficulties to replace burned out lamps and whether group
replacement of the lamps is the better choice economically or not.
The lumen maintenance of the lamp is an important factor. Question can arise if it is
important to have a certain minimum level of Illuminance at all time.
Again another important consideration is color, the factor of appearance. Although
all the lamps listed produce “white” light, their CCT and CRIs differ. Designers should
consider the importance of the colors of the seeing task and its surroundings to be faithfully
reproduce.
Auxiliary equipments required along with the lamps make a big question. As we have
seen, all gas discharge light sources require ballast, where as incandescent lamps do not. The
types of ballast used can affect lamp output, life, starting reliability, system efficiency and
occupant comfort.

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Designers should think about what may be the other miscellaneous, i.e. whether any
other factors are present in the particular environment or not, temperature is a problem or
not and whether the area must be free from stroboscopic effects or not, electromagnetic
interference disturb the activities going on in the space, the fumes are present which could
produce corrosion or an explosive atmosphere etc.

Luminous Efficacy Consideration

The comparison of the first three factors for the four common lamp types is shown in
the above table. Let discuss the lamp efficacy first. For incandescent lamps the efficacy
ranges from 12 lm/W for the 40 W standard lamp to 22 lm/W for the 500 W standard lamp.
For the incandescent lamps with the design kept unchanged, the lamp efficacy
increases with the lamp wattage. It happens largely because the thicker filaments of the
higher wattage lamps may be operated at higher temperatures for the same life.
PAR (Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) and R (Reflector) lamps have generally lower
efficacy than the standard lamps of same wattage. This is because PAR and R lamps are
designated to have longer lives.
The fluorescent lamps provide much higher efficacies than the incandescent lamps
inspite of having ballast losses. As an example, the 40 W standard cool white fluorescent
lamp emits 3150 lumen initially and its ballast consumes 12 W.
Thus the efficacy are 3150/40 = 79 lumens /watt initially and including ballast lost
total wattage is 52 W and hence 3150/52 = 61 lumens / watt overall.
This overall efficacy rating is being used for the latter figure in the market. In the
lighting design scheme the Fluorescent lamps are used to be operated in pairs with single
ballast to improve overall efficacy. For example, each of the two fluorescent lamps consumes
40 W and their common ballast consume 12 W, giving an initial efficacy of 68 lumen/W
overall. In case Preheat fluorescent lamps the lamp efficacies are very low. In this modern
age, fluorescent lamp ballast are so designed that they are considered as energy saving
lamps with the highest luminous efficacy.
Metal halide lamps have higher efficacies than the mercury lamps. It is because of
the addition of halide salts into the metal halide lamps. As an example 400W metal halide
lamp emits 34000 lumen initially and its ballast consumes 460 W. It is giving an initial overall
efficacy of 745 lumen/W. So the lower wattage sizes give the lower efficacies.
High-pressure sodium lamps offer high efficacy, but low-pressure sodium lamps are
unsuitable for interior lighting due to poor color rendering. For example, a 400W sodium
lamp emits 50,000 lumens and its ballast consumes 75W, totaling 475W with an efficacy of
105 lumens per watt. A 100W sodium lamp emits 9,500 lumens, consumes 135W, and has
an efficacy of 70 lumens per watt.

Life of the Lamps Consideration

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The second column of the above table shows the life of the lamps in hours. We
always assume that the operations of the lamps are at their rated voltage and normal
temperature. The lives of the lamp depend on the lamp types. The life rating of the standard
incandescent lamps is of 750 or 1000 hours. Again PAR and R lamps are rated at 2000 hours.
For the fluorescent lamp, their life ranges are based on 3 burning hours start whereas
Preheat fluorescent lamps have life ratings at the low end of the range, namely 7500 or 9000
hours. Instant start lamp is durable for 12000 hours. Again the life of rapid start lamp lasts
for 18000 or 20000 hours.
The metal halides lamps life is dependent on the number of burning hours per start.
Their life ratings are for 10 hours per start. As an example the 400 W metal halide lamp has
the longest life i.e. 20000 hours. The 1500 W lamp has shortest life i.e. 3000 h. Again all high
pressure sodium lamps have a life of 24000 hours when they are used with the specially
designed ballasts. High pressure sodium lamps are used in place of mercury lamps due to
less wattage and higher life span. Mercury Lamps has 12000 hours life span.

Percentage Lumen Depreciation Consideration

The percent lumen depreciation of the lamps is shown in the table. In case of
Standard incandescent lamps, it depreciates in lumen output by 10 to 22% during lamp life.
In case of the fluorescent lamps, the 100 hours lumen value is called initial lumens
and the lumen depreciation is calculated from that point onward and is based on 3 hour per
start. The mean lumen factor is the percentage of the initial lumens to be expected at 40%
of rated life. Lamp lumen depreciation factor is the percent of the initial lumens to be
expected at 70% of rated life.
For example, the 40 W standard cool white fluorescent lamp gives 3150 initial
lumens at 100 hours and 2650 lm at 70% of rated life (14000 hours). Thus its lumen
depreciation factor is 0.84 or 16% depreciation in lumen output. High intensity discharge
lamps have their initial lumen ratings at 100 hours. Lumen depreciation for these lamps is
given in terms of mean lumens, which is the lumen output to be expected at about 70% of
rated life. Metal halide lamps show greater lumen depreciation than do high pressure
sodium lamps.

Color of the Lamp Lumens Consideration

Color of the lamp lumen is the fourth factor which is always considered by the
designer. To measure the color, CCT (Correlated Color Temperature) and CRI (Color
Rendering Index) are calculated to provide a suitable color appearance in the lighting design
scheme.
CCT or Correlated Color Temperature means the temperature of the black body at
which this black body radiation color is equivalent to the color of the lamp lumens.

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CRI or Color Rendering Index means degree of closeness of the color of lumens from
the lamps to the standard Lumen color. Standard lamps are, as per CIE recommendation, A,
B, C, D55, D65 and D75. The type A is the tungsten filament lamp at 2856 K and the type B and
C are tungsten filament lamp with some filter. D55, D65 and D75 are the day light type.
There are five types of “white” fluorescent lamps available in the market. The first
three types i.e. warm white, cool white and day light lamps and they are with high efficacy
to provide reasonable color rendition. Next two types are the two deluxe lamps which have
only 70% of the efficacy but they provide improved color rendition. The words warm, cool
and daylight are chosen in the sense that a warm white lamp emits yellowish white light and
makes a space feel warmer. Whereas, a cool white lamp emits a bluish white light and it
tends to create a cooler atmosphere. Again the daylight lamp is a very cool appearing source
and it is a close match CCT to an overcast day.

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