In This

s Chapter:
Chapter:

Conditions for Skill Acquisition 254

Starting at a Young Age 254
Providing Sufficient Learning Time 255
Being Taught by Qualified Instructors 255
Following the Right Progression 255
Using Quality Equipment 255

Stages of Learning a Skill 256

Cognitive Stage 256
Associative Stage 256
Autonomous Stage 257

Feedback for Skill Learning 258

Intrinsic Feedback 258
Extrinsic Feedback 261
Motivational Properties of Feedback 262
Minimizing Feedback Dependency 263
Feedback Questions and Answers 264

Transfer in Motor Learning 266

T
Types of Transfer 266
Transfer Strategies 268

Designing Effective Practice 272

Blocked Versus Random Practice 272
Massed Versus Distributed Practice 273

Putting It All Together 274

 CHAPTER
MOTOR LEARNING 12
IN PRACTICE
Skill Acquisition

After completing this chapter you should be able to:

€
explain the skill acquisition process and describe the stages of learning a skill;

€
describe the types of feedback and their roles in skill learning;

€
identify the types of transfer and apply transfer principles to learning a skill;

€
design a learning environment using effective practice methods.

253
 CHAPTER
12 Motor Learning in Practice

D
istinct changes that occur as a skill is learned and developed are
easy to detect because the execution becomes swifter and more
fluid and demands much less attention. Your own experiences
provide an example of how motor skills change and develop. Your first steps
may not have been perfectly executed, but look at you now, walking with
the best of them. Certainly, your early attempts at playing the piano, serving
a tennis ball, or shooting a basketball were not worthy of acclaim; but with
practice and proper guidance, major improvements undoubtedly followed.

Conditions for Skill Acquisition

B efore
f individuals
d d l can become
b skilled
k ll d in any activity, they
h must first
fi
acquire a basic movement repertoire consisting of certain fundamental
movement skills. The important questions to ask here concern the best time
and conditions under which movement intelligence (discussed in Chapter

“ ”
11) may be acquired. Research and practice have identified several factors
Every artist was that affect the development of an individual’s movement intelligence:
øUVWDQDPDWHXU starting at a young age, providing sufficient learning time, being taught
RALPH WALDO EMERSON by qualified instructors, following the right progression, and using quality
equipment. These factors are discussed in more detail in this section.

Starting at a Young Age

The importance of beginning the learning process at a young age was
discussed in Chapter 10. Education involving movement skills should begin
early, even as early as the preschool years. Developing fundamental skills
such as walking, throwing, catching, and climbing early on allows a child to
incorporate these skills (which are the basis for numerous other activities)
effectively into a repertoire of motor skills. Because movement patterns
are still being established in young children, it is important to teach skills
correctly the first time to avoid the development of bad habits early.
cor

Getting started early and providing

sufficient learning time are vital in
developing movement intelligence.

254 Foundations of Kinesiology

 CHAPTER
Motor Learning in Practice 12

Providing Sufficient Learning Time

A large amount of time during the school day is traditionally dedicated to
the acquisition of the more important cognitive skills (e.g., linguistic and
mathematical). Similarly, in order to improve an individual’s motor skill
development, sufficient time must be allotted to participating in physical
activities that enhance movement skills. Without physical experience, skills
cannot be learned effectively and maintained.

Being Taught by Qualified

Instructors
Instructors, physical educators, and coaches must be properly trained
and have experience with teaching physical activity in order to teach
movement skills. But too commonly, unqualified staff are given the
task in schools, community programs, and sports camps. Students
deserve the best level of instruction available.

Following the Right Progression

Choosing the right progression to follow has a direct influence on the
acquisition of movement skills. In other words, the organized action
and the sequence of drills ensure that skills are easier to grasp. For
example, you might introduce children to baseball by playing tee-ball
(which simplifies the game) and slowly incorporating a live pitcher for
batting (slow-pitch first). The skills learned from simpler tasks can then be
effectivelyy transferred to more complex
p tasks.

Using Quality Equipment

The quality of equipment available for teaching movement skills is alsoo
important for effective learning. Safe, appropriate, and well-maintained d
equipment makes learning most effective for students. And since children n
have different needs from teenagers or adults, equipment that is scaled down n
to their size (e.g., lower basketball hoops, smaller basketball and soccer balls,,
smaller soccer nets, lighter baseball bats, and so on) is essential.

Many other factors have an impact

Scaled-down equipment for children
on the teaching and acquisition of motor is a must for proper skill learning.
skills. This chapter will review a number Imagine how you would feel in an
of related topics to provide a broad-based environment where everything was
twice its normal size.
perspective on the skill acquisition process.

Studying
St Human
tudyingg Hum Movement
man Movem nt and
men nd Health
aan Heal
He
eal
alth
th 255
225
 CHAPTER
12 Motor Learning in Practice

Stages of Learning a Skill

R esearch
h and
d practice h
have identified
d fi d three
h generall stages that
h individuals
d d l

“
must go through as they learn and develop motor skills. These three

”
Knowledge advances byy stages (cognitive, associative, and autonomous) are summarized in Table
steps, and not by leaps.. 12.1 and are discussed in more detail in this section. We will outline the
LORD MACAULAY changes that occur as motor learning takes place and the important features
that are unique to each stage.

Cognitive Stage
The cognitive (understanding) stage begins when the task is first introduced
to the learner. As the skill is completely new, the first major goal for the
learner is to determine cognitively the general shape of the particular
skill and the goals to be achieved. Questions concerning what,
skil
when, and how predominate at this early stage as the learner
w
What? How? triesInstruction, to get a feel for the activity.
When? demonstrations, films, videos, and vivid
descriptions serve to convey the general idea of the skill to the
d
llearner. Some learners even verbally guide themselves through
skills by engaging
in self-talk. Giving themselves
some verbal reminders as they
Terminology A!ert
attempt a skill for the first time
offers security and begins to
instill the major ideas associated
with performing the skill.
For example, a beginner in gymnastics may remind herself to tuck her
head on the forward roll or to stay balanced on the beam. However, this
strategy demands concentration and does not allow other information to be
processed simultaneously. But during this initial stage, verbal activity can
give the learner a rough idea of what the skill is all about and even facilitate
rapid learning and considerable improvement.
Although performance at this stage may be slow, jerky, highly variable,
and even awkward at times, it serves as a good foundation on which to build.
DID YOU
Associative Stage
KNOW With some practice, the learner can move to the associative (practice) stage
Learners do not make abrupt shifts of learning. This second stage is focused on performing and refining the
from one stage to the next. In most skill by organizing more appropriate movement patterns. Now that most
learning environments there is a
of the stimuli related to the skill have been identified and defined, a greater
gradual transition or change in the
learner’s performance characteristics
amount of concentration can be directed to refining details.
from stage to stage, which makes For example, the learner can experiment with how timing can be
it difficult to detect which stage a improved by using environmental cues, as well as how movements can
learner is in at any given moment. become more efficient and executed with increased speed. Practice allows
the learner to make certain movements more automatic and controlled. The
motor programs introduced in Chapter 11 can begin to develop and make
skilled movements more fluid and consistent. Variability of performance
from one attempt to another also begins to decrease. As performers discover
what constitutes an effective performance, their confidence increases.
256 Foundations of Kinesiology
 CHAPTER
Motor Learning in Practice 12

Table 12.1 Three-stage model for learning a motor skill.

Cognitive Stage Associative Stage Autonomous Stage

Learners get the general idea or overall Focus on smaller details leads to skill Skill execution is automatic, allowing
concept of the skill refinement focus on other aspects of performance
Performance may be slow, jerky, and Performance is more fluid, controlled, Performance is effortless, relaxed, and
highly variable with many errors and consistent with fewer errors accurate with few errors
Early practice involves demonstrations
Practice helps maintain skills with less
and vivid descriptions with lots of Lots of practice takes place over long
dependency on instruction and more
verbal input from instructors and self- periods of time with expert instruction
self-monitoring
talk by learners
Performance improvements are
Performance serves as a foundation on Rapid performance improvements
relatively slow with less room for
which a learner can build occur with vast potential for growth
improvement

Understand. Practice. Apply.

Performance improves quite rapidly at this stage. Self-talk diminishes

considerably, and anticipation and consistency continue to improve. The
ability of learners to detect some of their own errors in performing various
skills represents an important development at this stage. Generally, the
associative stage lasts longer than the cognitive stage for most individuals.

Autonomous Stage
In the autonomous (application) stage, movements become almost
automatic and very proficient. Attention demands are dramatically reduced,
providing an opportunity to focus on other aspects of performance, such
as creativity and strategy. The ability to analyze environmental stimuli is
enhanced during this advanced stage, and relevant cues are quickly detected
with increased accuracy.
At the peak of their careers, professional hockey players are clearly
operating in the autonomous stage. Their hockey skills are so well developed
from years of practice and experience that they are able to concentrate on
A n increased ability to self-correct and make
minor adjustments to the execution of a skill
is one of the hallmarks of an individual in the
creative plays on the ice that often seem impossible to the average player. autonomous stage.
It is equally remarkable to see a refined pianist play with speed and
fluidity, but also with creative or imaginative flair. Such performances are the
result of a great deal of practice and dedication. Performance improvements
during this stage, however, are relatively slow because the learner has already
reached such a high level of proficiency before the stage begins. This is not
to say that learning stops here, because other less obvious gains (such as a
reduction in anxiety and mental effort required for skill execution and an
improvement in techniques) may result.
Studying Human Movement and Health 257
 CHAPTER
12 Motor Learning in Practice

Feedback for Skill Learning

W h we practice motor skills

hen k ll we are continually
ll receiving information
f
that is related to our movements, both during the performance and as
a result of it. This information constitutes feedback in the true sense, which
Although practice plays a strong role in motivating, reinforcing, and shaping behavior in a
alone does not make
perfect, practice with skill-learning environment. Feedback informs the learner about significant
DSSURSULDWHIHHGEDFNGRHV strengths or weaknesses that may have been detected during a performance.
Without it, practice and, in turn, learning and performance become far less
effective.
There are various types of feedback, and the following sections will
highlight some of the strategies instructors may use when providing
feedback to learners. Feedback is either intrinsic or extrinsic and can be
further subdivided into knowledge of results and knowledge of performance
(Figure 12.1).

Feedback

Intrinsic Feedback Extrinsic Feedback

Knowledge of Knowledge of Knowledge of Knowledge of

Results Performance Results Performance

Examples: Examples: Examples: Examples:

Goal Vision Lap times Instructor/Coach
Service ace Audition Distance jumped Parent/Friend
Bull’s-eye Touch Height jumped Video replay
Score Proprioception Judges’ scores Photographs
Radar gun
Stopwatch

Figure 12.1 Feedback is either intrinsic

or extrinsic and each type can be further
subdivided into knowledge of results and Intrinsic Feedback
knowledge of performance.

Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an

action is considered intrinsic feedback. For example, when you throw a
dart, you can feel your arm extend, you can see the dart fly through the air,
and you can hear it make contact with the board as it hits the bull’s-eye.
These are all examples of intrinsic feedback.

258 Foundations of Kinesiology

 CHAPTER
Motor Learning in Practice 12

Knowledge of Results
When you are practicing free-throw shooting, the success (or failure) of your
shots provides intrinsic feedback. More specifically, this is an example of
knowledge of results (KR) feedback. Other examples of this type of feedback
include seeing the dart hit the bull’s-eye, watching the tennis ball land in the
opponent’s court, or covering an excellent distance in a 12-minute walk/
run test.

Knowledge of Performance “Intrinsic feedback

The feel of your arm extension is related to information about your from the muscles gives
performance and is thus known as knowledge of performance (KP) athletes a feel for their
feedback. This type of feedback involves the use of the senses for obtaining performances.”
more or less direct information. Examples include the fine finger sensations
Muscle sense gives an indication of
felt when playing the piano (feeling of touch), or the crowd noise associated the strength, force, speed, duration,
with college basketball games (audio sensation), or the pull in your shoulders direction, and extent of any movement.
when you are pulling on the oar as part of a rowing crew. These sensations
are related to the muscle sense that athletes experience (see the box The
“Secret” Language of the Muscles).
Particularly in the second learning stage, many of these movements are
relatively easy to detect directly, without the need for verbal instruction
tion
from the instructor or coach.

The “Secret”” Lang

guag
ge off th
he Musclles
Seasoned athletes can tell how good their performance the measurements.
ements. Experienced
was, almost as well as a panel of judges, by instinct alone. athletes “measure”
meas
me asur
ure”
e aand
nd jjudge
udge
ud ge
“On my first try, I knew it was a good jump as far as rhythm the quality of their movements
and takeoff. But the second try was even better. I really using stimuli
uli that are naturallyy
noticed it.” Good long and triple jumpers or even discus present in their bodies during
or javelin throwers can often tell with great accuracy how the execution
on of the movement.
far they have jumped or thrown without even looking at That is muscle
cle sense at work.

Muscle Sense For any activity, hundreds of muscles are normally

involved in a highly specialized interplay to gather information about
the movement and its execution. This muscle sense (or muscle feeling)
can be thought of as the sum of all the sensations that result from every
movement of all the limbs in the body (Table 12.2). Special receptors in the
muscles, tendons, and joints (called “spindles” because of their appearance)
constantly supply information about the position of each joint (i.e., about
fixed body positions and the course of the movements). The stimuli that Terminology A!ert
cause these movements are the result of pressure and tension in the muscles
and tendons. Without a well-developed muscle sense, athletes would have
difficulty performing at their best, and mastering any movement or even
trying to execute movements already learned would be almost impossible
without this important source of intrinsic feedback.
Muscle sense is not alone, however, in gathering information about
movement sequences. Other sensory organ receptors are stimulated
simultaneously with every movement, meaning muscle sense works in close

Studying Human Movement and Health 259