‭GENERAL‬‭INFORMATION‬

‭HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL‬‭(H-R)‬‭DIAGRAMS‬
‭-A‬‭scatter‬‭graph‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭showing‬‭the‬‭relationship‬‭between‬‭the‬‭stars’‬‭absolute‬‭magnitude‬ ‭or‬
l‭uminosities‬‭versus‬‭their‬‭spectral‬‭types‬‭or‬‭classifications‬‭and‬‭effective‬‭temperatures.‬

‭-Can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭measure‬‭distance‬‭to‬‭a‬‭star‬‭cluster‬‭by‬‭comparing‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude‬‭of‬ ‭stars‬
‭ ith‬‭abs.‬‭magnitudes‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭known‬‭distances‬‭(AKA‬‭model‬‭stars).‬‭Observed‬ ‭group‬
w
‭plotted‬‭and‬‭then‬‭overlapped‬‭via‬‭shift‬‭in‬‭vertical‬‭direction.‬‭Difference‬‭in‬‭magnitude‬ ‭bridge‬‭equals‬
‭distance‬‭modulus.‬‭🡨‬‭Known‬‭as‬‭Spectroscopic‬‭Parallax.‬

‭SPECTRA‬
‭HARVARD‬‭SPECTRAL‬‭CLASSIFICATION‬‭(1-D)‬

‭-Groups‬‭stars‬‭by‬‭surface‬‭atmospheric‬‭temp.‬‭Used‬‭in‬‭H-R‬‭diag.‬‭vs.‬‭Luminosity/Abs.‬‭Mag.‬

‭Blue‬‭Blue‬
‭Class*‬‭Color‬‭Descr.‬‭Actual‬‭Color‬‭Mass‬‭(M‬‭☉‭)‬ ‬‭Radius(R‬‭☉‬‭)‬‭Lumin.(L‬‭☉‭)‬ ‬‭O‬
‭Blue-white‬‭Deep‬‭B-W‬‭2.1-16‬‭1.8-6.6‬‭25-30,000‬ ‭White‬‭Blue-white‬‭1.4-2.1‬‭1.4-1.8‬‭5-25‬
‭B‬ ‭A‬ ‭F‬
‭Yellow-white‬‭White‬‭1.04-1.4‬‭1.15-1.4‬‭1.5-5‬ ‭Yellow‬‭Yellowish-W‬‭0.8-1.04‬‭0.96-1.15‬‭0.6-1.5‬
‭G‬ ‭K‬
‭Orange‬‭Pale‬‭Y-O‬‭0.45-0.8‬‭0.7-0.96‬‭0.08-0.6‬ ‭Red‬‭Lt.‬‭Orange-Red‬‭0.08-0.45‬
‭M‬
‭*‭V
‬ ery‬‭weak‬‭stars‬‭of‬‭classes‬‭L,‬‭T,‬‭and‬‭Y‬‭are‬‭not‬‭included.‬

‭-Classes‬‭are‬‭further‬‭divided‬‭by‬‭Arabic‬‭numerals‬‭(0-9),‬‭and‬‭then‬‭even‬‭further‬‭by‬‭half‬
s‭ ubtypes.‬‭The‬‭lower‬‭the‬‭number,‬‭the‬‭hotter‬‭(e.g.‬‭A0‬‭is‬‭hotter‬‭than‬‭an‬‭A7‬‭star)‬

‭YERKES/MK‬‭SPECTRAL‬‭CLASSIFICATION‬‭(2-D!)‬

‭-Groups‬‭stars‬‭based‬‭on‬‭both‬‭temperature‬‭and‬‭luminosity‬‭based‬‭on‬‭spectral‬‭lines.‬

‭LUMINOSITY‬‭CLASSES‬‭(Also‬‭uses‬‭“OBAFGKM”)‬

‭ ‬‭–‬‭hypergiants‬‭II‬‭–‬‭bright‬‭giants‬‭IV‬‭–‬‭subgiants‬‭VI‬‭–‬‭subdwarfs‬ ‭I‬‭–‬‭supergiants‬‭III‬‭–‬‭normal‬
O
‭giants‬‭V‬‭–‬‭M.S.‬‭(dwarfs)‬‭VII‬‭–white‬‭dwarfs‬

^‭ ‬‭Each‬‭classification‬‭is‬‭further‬‭divided‬‭into‬‭a,‬‭ab,‬‭and‬‭b‬‭types,‬‭representing‬‭luminous‬‭,‬‭intermediate‬‭luminous‬‭,‬ ‭and‬
‭less‬‭luminous‬‭,‬‭respectively.‬‭Supergiants‬‭also‬‭have‬‭Ia-O,‬‭which‬‭stands‬‭for‬‭either‬‭“extremely‬‭luminous‬ ‭supergiant”‬‭or‬
‭“hypergiant.”‬‭“M.S.”‬‭=‬‭main‬‭sequence.‬‭Subdwarves‬‭classified‬‭further‬‭by‬‭sd‬‭and‬‭esd‬‭(subdwarf‬ ‭or‬‭extreme‬‭subdwarf),‬
‭while‬‭VII‬‭class‬‭are‬‭uncommon‬‭and‬‭have‬‭prescripts‬‭of‬‭either‬‭wD‬‭or‬‭WD.‬

‭2025‬

‭YERKES/MK‬‭SPECTRAL‬‭CLASSIFICATION‬‭(CONTINUED)‬

‭-Marginal‬‭symbols‬‭are‬‭used‬‭to‬‭further‬‭distinguish‬‭stars:‬
‭Symbol‬‭Example‬‭Explanation‬
‭G2‬‭I-II‬‭Between‬‭supergiant‬‭and‬‭bright‬‭giant‬
‭-‬
‭O9.5‬‭Ia+‬‭Hypergiant‬‭(one‬‭step‬‭up)‬
‭+‬
‭F2‬‭IV/V‬‭Either‬‭subgiant‬‭or‬‭dwarf‬
‭/‬

‭SPECTRA‬‭IN-DEPTH‬‭(MAIN‬‭SEQUENCE)‬

‭O‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭(hydrogen-burning‬‭core)‬‭star,‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭O‬‭and‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭Very‬‭rare,‬‭very‬‭massive,‬‭with‬‭extremely‬‭short‬‭lifespans‬‭(first‬‭to‬‭leave‬‭main‬‭seq.)‬ ‭-‬
‭0.00003%‬‭of‬‭local‬‭stars‬‭are‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭O.‬
‭-‬‭Most‬‭output‬‭is‬‭in‬‭the‬‭ultraviolet‬‭range‬

‭B‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭star,‬‭spectral‬‭class‬‭B,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭Extremely‬‭luminous,‬‭short‬‭lifespans,‬‭rarely‬‭found‬‭far‬‭from‬‭area‬‭of‬‭formation‬ ‭-‬
‭~0.125%‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭solar‬‭neighborhood‬‭(M-S)‬‭are‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭class‬‭B.‬
‭-‬‭Natural‬‭helium‬‭spectra‬‭with‬‭moderate‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬

‭A‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭star,‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭A,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭More‬‭common‬‭naked-eye‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭higher‬‭tendency‬‭to‬‭have‬‭massive‬‭planets‬ ‭-‬
‭0.625%‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭solar‬‭neighborhood‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭class‬‭A.‬
‭-‬‭Strong‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬‭with‬‭strengthening‬‭Ca‬‭II‬‭lines‬

‭F‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭star,‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭F,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭Technically‬‭a‬‭“dwarf‬‭star,”‬‭so‬‭may‬‭be‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭a‬‭yellow-white‬‭dwarf.‬ ‭-‬
‭~3.03%‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solar‬‭neighborhood‬‭are‬‭class‬‭F‬‭stars.‬
‭-‬‭Weaker‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬‭and‬‭strengthening‬‭lines‬‭of‬‭Ca‬‭II‬

‭G‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭star‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭G,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬ ‭Lifetime‬ ‭of‬ ‭~10bn‬ ‭years‬ ‭until‬ ‭Hydrogen‬ ‭fusion‬ ‭ceases‬ ‭and‬ ‭transitions‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬‭red‬‭giant‬ -‭ ‬
‭~7.5%‬ ‭of‬ ‭local‬ ‭stars‬ ‭are‬ ‭of‬‭class‬‭G,‬‭the‬‭most‬‭well-known‬‭being‬‭the‬‭Sun,‬‭of‬‭class‬‭G2V‬ ‭-‬
‭Yellow‬‭supergiants‬‭are‬‭extremely‬‭rare;‬‭most‬‭supergiants‬‭are‬‭between‬‭O-B‬‭or‬‭K-M‬

‭K‬ ‭-‬‭Main-sequence‬‭star‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭K,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭Due‬‭to‬‭low‬‭mass‬‭and‬‭intermediate‬‭size,‬‭have‬‭longer‬‭lifespans‬‭(15-30bn‬‭years)‬ ‭-‬‭~12%‬
‭of‬‭main-sequence‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭the‬‭solar‬‭neighborhood‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭class‬‭K‬ ‭-‬‭AKA‬‭“orange‬
‭dwarves”‬‭with‬‭mostly‬‭neutral‬‭metals‬‭lines‬‭and‬‭weak‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬
 ‭M‬ ‭-‬‭Very‬‭low-mass,‬‭main-sequence‬‭stars‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭M,‬‭luminosity‬‭class‬‭V‬

-‭ ‬‭Due‬‭to‬‭low‬‭mass‬‭and‬‭low‬‭surface‬‭temperature,‬‭red‬‭dwarves‬‭are‬‭very‬‭dim‬‭stars‬ ‭-‬‭~76%‬‭of‬
‭local‬‭main-sequence‬‭stars‬‭are‬‭class‬‭M‬‭stars,‬‭making‬‭them‬‭very‬‭common‬ ‭-‬‭Have‬‭incredibly‬
‭long‬‭lifespans‬‭due‬‭to‬‭lack‬‭of‬‭buildup‬‭at‬‭core,‬‭lifespans‬‭of‬‭10tn+‬‭years‬

‭2025‬
‭/‬

‭STELLAR‬‭“CHEMISTRY”‬
‭-Stars‬‭are‬‭composed,‬‭by‬‭mass,‬‭mainly‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬‭helium.‬‭Our‬‭sun‬‭is‬‭roughly‬‭71%‬
‭ ydrogen‬‭(H)‬‭and‬‭27%‬‭helium‬‭(He),‬‭with‬‭the‬‭remainder‬‭being‬‭various‬‭heavier‬‭elements.‬ ‭Iron‬
h
‭(Fe)‬‭is‬‭typically‬‭used‬‭as‬‭a‬‭measure‬‭for‬‭the‬‭heavier‬‭elements‬‭as‬‭it‬‭is‬‭relatively‬ ‭common‬‭and‬
‭its‬‭absorption‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭easy‬‭to‬‭measure.‬

‭-The‬‭presence‬‭of‬‭certain‬‭elements‬‭in‬‭stars‬‭can‬‭be‬‭determined‬‭via‬‭interpretation‬‭of‬‭the‬ ‭star’s‬
‭ bsorption‬‭lines‬‭in‬‭its‬‭emission‬‭spectrum.‬‭In‬‭general,‬‭“metals”‬‭are‬‭non‬‭H‬‭and‬‭He.‬
a

‭-The‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭metal‬‭present‬‭in‬‭a‬‭star‬‭gives‬‭hint‬‭to‬‭its‬‭age.‬‭Stars‬‭can‬‭go‬‭into‬‭three‬‭groups:‬

‭Population‬‭Characteristics‬
‭Population‬‭I‬‭stars‬‭have‬‭high‬‭percentages‬‭of‬‭metals.‬‭The‬‭youngest‬‭stars‬
‭b‬‭elong‬‭to‬‭this‬‭group,‬‭and‬‭are‬‭more‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭have‬‭planets,‬‭as‬‭the‬‭accretion‬ ‭I‬
‭ f‬‭heavier‬‭elements‬‭is‬‭thought‬‭to‬‭be‬‭key‬‭in‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭planets.‬‭They‬ ‭are‬
o
‭more‬‭common‬‭in‬‭the‬‭arms‬‭of‬‭the‬‭galaxy.‬
‭Population‬‭II‬‭stars‬‭have‬‭relatively‬‭little‬‭metal.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭older‬‭and‬‭are‬
‭believed‬‭to‬‭have‬‭created‬‭the‬‭other‬‭elements‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Periodic‬‭Table,‬‭with‬ ‭II‬
‭ xception‬‭to‬‭the‬‭more‬‭unstable‬‭ones.‬‭Usually‬‭found‬‭in‬‭globular‬‭clusters‬ ‭and‬
e
‭the‬‭galactic‬‭bulge‬‭and‬‭galactic‬‭halo.‬
‭A‬‭theoretical‬‭class‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭practically‬‭no‬‭metal‬‭content‬‭with‬‭the‬
‭III‬ ‭exception‬
‭of‬‭elements‬‭created‬‭in‬‭the‬‭Big‬‭Bang.‬

‭-Each‬‭stellar‬‭class‬‭also‬‭differs‬‭in‬‭its‬‭absorption‬‭and‬‭emission‬‭lines:‬

‭Class‬‭Characteristics‬
‭Dominant‬‭He‬‭II‬‭absorption‬‭(and‬‭sometimes‬‭emission)‬‭lines‬‭and‬‭prominent‬
‭O‬
i‭onized‬‭(Si‬‭IV,‬‭O‬‭III,‬‭N‬‭III,‬‭C‬‭III)‬‭and‬‭neutral‬‭helium‬‭lines‬‭which‬‭strengthen‬‭from‬
‭O5-O9‬‭with‬‭prominent‬‭hydrogen‬‭Balmer‬‭lines‬
‭ eutral‬‭helium‬‭lines,‬‭most‬‭prominent‬‭at‬‭the‬‭B2‬‭subclass,‬‭with‬‭moderate‬ ‭B‬
N
‭hydrogen‬‭lines.‬‭Balmer‬‭series‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬‭grow‬‭stronger‬‭through‬‭the‬‭B‬
‭class.‬‭Ionized‬‭metals‬‭include‬‭Si‬‭II‬‭and‬‭Mg‬‭II‬
‭ almer‬‭series‬‭lines‬‭peak,‬‭with‬‭strong‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines.‬‭Also‬‭present‬‭are‬‭lines‬‭of‬ ‭A‬
B
‭ionized‬‭metals,‬‭including‬‭Fe‬‭II,‬‭Mg‬‭II,‬‭and‬‭Si‬‭II,‬‭which‬‭are‬‭at‬‭a‬‭maximum‬‭at‬‭A5.‬ ‭Ca‬
‭II‬‭lines‬‭strengthen‬‭at‬‭this‬‭point.‬
 ‭ trengthening‬‭H‬‭and‬‭K‬‭lines‬‭of‬‭Ca‬‭II.‬‭Neutral‬‭metals‬‭Fe‬‭I‬‭and‬‭Cr‬‭I‬‭make‬‭gains‬‭on‬ ‭F‬
S
‭ionized‬‭metals‬‭by‬‭late‬‭F.‬‭Weaker‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines‬‭and‬‭ionized‬‭metals‬
‭characterize‬‭the‬‭class.‬
‭ ery‬‭prominent‬‭H‬‭and‬‭K‬‭lines‬‭of‬‭Ca‬‭II,‬‭peaking‬‭at‬‭G2.‬‭Have‬‭weaker‬‭hydrogen‬ ‭G‬
V
‭lines‬‭than‬‭F.‬‭Along‬‭with‬‭ionized‬‭metals,‬‭neutral‬‭metals‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭present‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭spectra.‬
‭Extremely‬‭weak,‬‭sometimes‬‭nonexistent,‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines.‬‭Mostly‬‭neutral‬‭metals‬
‭‬
K ‭(Mn‬‭I,‬‭Fe‬
‭I,‬‭Si‬‭II).‬

‭2025‬

‭TiO‬‭lines‬‭show‬‭in‬‭addition‬‭to‬‭lines‬‭for‬‭other‬‭oxide‬‭molecules,‬‭in‬‭hthe‬‭visible‬
‭M‬
‭ nd‬‭all‬‭neutral‬‭metals.‬‭Hydrogen‬‭lines‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭absent.‬‭Vanadium‬‭Oxide‬
a
‭appears‬‭by‬‭late‬‭M.‬

‭MAGNITUDES‬‭AND‬‭LUMINOSITY‬
‭-Magnitude‬‭is‬‭the‬‭logarithmic‬‭measure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭brightness‬‭of‬‭an‬‭object.‬‭The‬‭two‬‭specific‬ ‭types‬
‭ istinguished‬‭by‬‭astronomers‬‭are‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude‬‭and‬‭absolute‬‭magnitude‬‭.‬
d

‭-Apparent‬‭magnitude‬‭(m)‬‭is‬‭the‬‭measure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭brightness‬‭of‬‭a‬‭celestial‬‭object,‬‭as‬‭seen‬ ‭from‬
‭ arth.‬‭The‬‭lower‬‭the‬‭value,‬‭the‬‭brighter‬‭the‬‭object.‬‭The‬‭visual‬‭spectrum‬‭is‬‭usually‬ ‭used‬‭as‬‭the‬
E
‭basis‬‭for‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude,‬‭although‬‭the‬‭near-infrared‬‭may‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used.‬‭A‬ ‭light‬‭curve‬‭may‬
‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭plot‬‭an‬‭object’s‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude‬‭versus‬‭time.‬

‭-Absolute‬‭magnitude‬‭(M)‬‭is‬‭the‬‭measure‬‭of‬‭the‬‭brightness‬‭of‬‭a‬‭celestial‬‭object‬‭at‬‭a‬ ‭distance‬‭of‬
‭ 0‬‭parsecs‬‭away‬‭from‬‭the‬‭viewer.‬‭Absolute‬‭magnitude‬‭uses‬‭the‬‭same‬ ‭conventions‬‭as‬‭visual‬
1
‭magnitude,‬‭so‬‭a‬‭change‬‭in‬‭5‬‭magnitudes‬‭corresponds‬‭to‬‭a‬‭factor‬‭of‬ ‭100‬‭times‬‭(e.g.‬‭object‬‭with‬
‭mag.‬‭-16‬‭is‬‭100x‬‭brighter‬‭than‬‭object‬‭with‬‭mag.‬‭-11).‬‭Absolute‬ ‭magnitude‬‭can‬‭be‬‭related‬‭to‬
‭apparent‬‭mag.‬‭and‬‭distance‬‭using‬‭the‬‭distance‬‭modulus,‬‭where‬‭m‬‭is‬‭apparent‬‭mag.‬‭and‬‭d‬‭is‬
‭distance‬‭in‬‭parsecs:‬

‭-Luminosity‬‭can‬‭be‬‭interpreted‬‭as‬‭a‬‭measure‬‭of‬‭a‬‭brightness.‬‭In‬‭astronomy,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭used‬‭to‬
‭ easure‬‭the‬‭total‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭energy‬‭emitted‬‭by‬‭a‬‭star‬‭or‬‭other‬‭celestial‬‭object‬‭per‬‭unit‬ ‭time.‬
m
‭This‬‭can‬‭be‬‭expressed‬‭in‬‭SI‬‭units‬‭of‬‭joules‬‭per‬‭second‬‭or‬‭watts.‬‭The‬‭symbol‬‭L‬‭☉‬‭is‬ ‭used‬‭to‬
‭represent‬‭the‬‭luminosity‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Sun,‬‭equal‬‭to‬‭3.846‬‭x‬‭10‬‭26‬‭W.‬

‭LIGHT‬‭CURVES‬
‭-Light‬‭curves‬‭are‬‭the‬‭results‬‭of‬‭timing‬‭experiments‬‭that‬‭track‬‭the‬‭change‬‭in‬‭an‬‭object’s‬
i‭ntensity‬‭over‬‭time.‬‭Information‬‭shown‬‭in‬‭a‬‭plot‬‭of‬‭relative‬‭brightness‬‭versus‬‭time.‬

‭-Can‬‭be‬‭periodic,‬‭like‬‭those‬‭of‬‭Cepheid‬‭variables‬‭and‬‭other‬‭periodic‬‭variables,‬‭or‬‭aperiodic‬ ‭like‬
t‭hose‬‭of‬‭novae,‬‭supernovae,‬‭and‬‭cataclysmic‬‭variable‬‭stars‬‭like‬‭dwarf‬‭novae.‬

‭-Light‬‭used‬‭to‬‭produce‬‭curve‬‭usually‬‭belongs‬‭to‬‭a‬‭certain‬‭frequency‬‭interval‬‭or‬‭band.‬
‭-Can‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭measure‬‭mass‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star‬‭by‬‭observing‬‭binary‬‭systems,‬‭requiring‬ ‭knowledge‬‭of‬
‭ oth‬‭orbital‬‭pd.‬‭and‬‭avg.‬‭orbital‬‭distance‬‭using‬‭Newton’s‬‭version‬‭of‬‭Kepler’s‬ ‭Third‬‭Law.‬
b

‭-Can‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭to‬‭distinguish‬‭supernovae‬‭types‬‭(due‬‭to‬‭various‬‭differences)‬

‭2025‬

‭-By‬‭using‬‭the‬‭Period-Luminosity‬‭relationship‬‭,‬‭one‬‭can‬‭determine‬‭the‬‭average‬‭absolute‬
‭ agnitude‬‭of‬‭certain‬‭variable‬‭stars‬‭and‬‭use‬‭it‬‭to‬‭find‬‭distance‬‭via‬‭the‬‭Distance‬‭Modulus.‬ ‭(Light‬
m
‭curve‬‭gives‬‭information‬‭to‬‭solve‬‭for‬‭average‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude).‬

‭VARIABLE‬‭STARS‬
‭-Stars‬‭that‬‭vary‬‭significantly‬‭in‬‭brightness‬‭with‬‭time,‬‭usually‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭buildup‬‭of‬‭energy‬ ‭via‬
‭ ressure‬‭generated‬‭from‬‭stellar‬‭processes.‬
p

‭-Changes‬‭in‬‭luminosity‬‭can‬‭be‬‭tracked‬‭via‬‭light‬‭curves,‬‭and‬‭periods‬‭may‬‭span‬‭from‬ ‭several‬
‭ ours‬‭to‬‭several‬‭years.‬‭Most‬‭lie‬‭on‬‭a‬‭strip‬‭(the‬‭instability‬‭strip)‬‭on‬‭the‬‭HR‬‭diagram‬ ‭between‬‭the‬
h
‭main-sequence‬‭and‬‭red‬‭giants.‬

‭-Pulsating‬‭Variable‬‭Stars‬‭are‬‭stars‬‭whose‬‭atmospheres‬‭expand‬‭and‬‭contract‬‭periodically.‬

‭-Cepheid‬‭variables‬‭have‬‭high‬‭luminosities‬‭and‬‭short‬‭periods,‬‭with‬‭their‬‭pulsation‬‭periods‬ ‭closely‬
r‭ elated‬‭to‬‭their‬‭luminosities.‬‭Cepheids‬‭are‬‭used‬‭as‬‭standard‬‭candles‬‭to‬‭establish‬‭distances.‬‭They‬
‭inhabit‬‭the‬‭upper‬‭portion‬‭of‬‭the‬‭instability‬‭strip‬‭on‬‭HR‬‭diagram.‬‭They‬‭are‬ ‭based‬‭off‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star‬
‭Delta‬‭Cephei.‬‭There‬‭are‬‭two‬‭classes‬‭of‬‭Cepheids:‬‭Classical‬‭and‬‭Type‬‭II.‬

‭-Mira‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭red‬‭giant‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭the‬‭very‬‭late‬‭stages‬‭of‬‭stellar‬‭evolution.‬‭This‬‭class‬‭of‬
v‭ ariable‬‭stars‬‭have‬‭pulsation‬‭periods‬‭of‬‭longer‬‭than‬‭100‬‭days‬‭with‬‭amplitudes‬‭greater‬ ‭than‬‭1‬
‭magnitude‬‭in‬‭the‬‭infrared‬‭and‬‭2.5‬‭in‬‭the‬‭visible.‬‭Based‬‭off‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star‬‭Mira.‬

‭-RR‬‭Lyrae‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭older,‬‭relatively‬‭low-mass,‬‭metal‬‭poor‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭typical‬‭pulsation‬
‭ eriods‬‭of‬‭less‬‭than‬‭one‬‭day,‬‭possibly‬‭as‬‭short‬‭as‬‭seven‬‭hours.‬‭They‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭a‬‭pulsating‬
p
‭horizontal‬‭branch‬‭on‬‭the‬‭H-R‬‭diagram,‬‭and‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭class‬‭A‬‭or‬‭F‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭masses‬ ‭about‬
‭half‬‭of‬‭that‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Sun.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭more‬‭common‬‭than‬‭Cepheids,‬‭yet‬‭are‬‭less‬ ‭luminous‬‭and‬‭are‬
‭used‬‭as‬‭std.‬‭candles‬‭for‬‭relatively‬‭near‬‭objects‬‭and‬‭studies‬‭of‬‭globular‬ ‭clusters.‬

‭-T‬‭Tauri‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭pre-main‬‭sequence‬‭stars‬‭and‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭F,‬‭G,‬‭K,‬‭and‬‭M‬‭classes.‬‭They‬ ‭are‬
c‭ ontracting‬‭along‬‭the‬‭Hayashi‬‭track‬‭to‬‭the‬‭main‬‭sequence,‬‭and‬‭display‬‭strong‬‭optical‬
‭variability.‬‭Because‬‭of‬‭their‬‭large‬‭radii,‬‭they‬‭are‬‭more‬‭luminous‬‭than‬‭main-sequence‬ ‭stars‬‭of‬
‭similar‬‭mass.‬‭Because‬‭of‬‭their‬‭youth,‬‭they‬‭are‬‭typically‬‭found‬‭near‬‭molecular‬ ‭clouds.‬

‭-S‬‭Doradus‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭extremely‬‭rare,‬‭extremely‬‭massive,‬‭and‬‭extremely‬‭luminous‬
s‭ tars.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭also‬‭known‬‭as‬‭Luminous‬‭Blue‬‭Variables‬‭and‬‭often‬‭show‬‭unpredictable‬ ‭and‬
‭dramatic‬‭variations‬‭in‬‭both‬‭spectra‬‭and‬‭brightness.‬‭Are‬‭unstable‬‭supergiant‬‭or‬ ‭hypergiant‬
‭stars‬‭with‬‭<1M‬‭years‬‭in‬‭the‬‭LBV‬‭phase.‬‭Temperatures‬‭can‬‭range‬‭from‬ ‭~10,000K‬‭to‬
‭ 5,000K‬‭and‬‭luminosities‬‭range‬‭from‬‭250,000-1M‬‭times‬‭that‬‭of‬‭the‬‭Sun.‬ ‭Example‬‭is‬‭Eta‬
2
‭Carinae.‬

‭2025‬

‭ASTRONOMY‬
‭-Dwarf‬‭novae‬‭are‬‭a‬‭class‬‭of‬‭cataclysmic‬‭variable‬‭stars‬‭consisting‬‭of‬‭a‬‭close‬‭binary‬‭system,‬ ‭one‬
‭ f‬‭which‬‭is‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf‬‭accreting‬‭material‬‭from‬‭its‬‭partner.‬‭Collapse‬‭of‬‭accreted‬ ‭material‬
o
‭causes‬‭a‬‭cataclysmic‬‭explosion.‬‭Have‬‭lower‬‭luminosities‬‭than‬‭classical‬‭novae‬ ‭and‬‭recur‬‭on‬
‭scales‬‭from‬‭days‬‭to‬‭decades.‬‭Luminosity‬‭of‬‭outburst‬‭increases‬‭with‬‭interval‬ ‭and‬‭orbital‬‭period.‬
‭Possibly‬‭useful‬‭as‬‭standard‬‭candles.‬

‭STELLAR‬‭EVOLUTION‬

‭THE‬‭BIRTH‬‭OF‬‭A‬‭STAR‬
‭THE‬‭STELLAR‬‭NURSERY‬

‭-Starbirth‬‭is‬‭relatively‬‭common,‬‭and‬‭occurs‬‭in‬‭certain‬‭patches‬‭of‬‭interstellar‬‭medium,‬‭the‬
‭ atches‬‭of‬‭gas‬‭and‬‭dust‬‭between‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭a‬‭galaxy.‬‭The‬‭composition‬‭of‬‭such‬‭medium‬‭is‬ ‭about‬
p
‭the‬‭same‬‭as‬‭that‬‭of‬‭stars:‬‭71%‬‭hydrogen,‬‭27%‬‭helium,‬‭and‬‭2%‬‭heavier‬‭elements.‬

‭-Temperature‬‭and‬‭density‬‭varies‬‭despite‬‭chemical‬‭composition‬‭consistency.‬

‭-Star-forming‬‭clouds‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭be‬‭especially‬‭cold‬‭and‬‭dense,‬‭at‬‭around‬‭10-30‬‭Kelvin‬‭with‬‭a‬
‭ ensity‬‭of‬‭about‬‭300‬‭molecules‬‭per‬‭cubic‬‭centimeter‬‭(dense‬‭for‬‭clouds‬‭of‬‭gas‬‭and‬‭dust).‬
d
‭These‬‭types‬‭of‬‭clouds‬‭are‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭molecular‬‭clouds,‬‭and‬‭also‬‭include‬‭120+‬‭other‬ ‭kinds‬
‭of‬‭molecules‬‭including‬‭CO,‬‭H‭2‬ ‬‭O,‬‭NH‬‭3‬‭(ammonia),‬‭and‬‭C‬‭2‬‭H‭5‬ ‭O
‬ H‬‭(ethyl‬‭alcohol).‬

‭-Majority‬ ‭of‬ ‭atoms‬ ‭heavier‬ ‭than‬ ‭H‬ ‭and‬ ‭He‬ ‭found‬ ‭in‬ ‭interstellar‬ ‭dust.‬ ‭These‬ ‭bits‬ ‭absorb‬
‭ lmost‬‭all‬‭visible‬‭light‬‭and‬‭causes‬‭fringe‬‭stars‬‭to‬‭appear‬‭redder‬‭(by‬‭blocking‬‭photons).‬ ‭They‬
a
‭do‬‭not‬‭shift‬‭spectral‬‭lines.‬

‭-Clouds‬‭glow‬‭due‬‭to‬‭radiation‬‭from‬‭the‬‭infrared‬‭and‬‭microwave‬‭spectrums.‬

‭BEGINNING‬‭THE‬‭PROCESS‬

‭-Process‬‭starts‬‭when‬‭gravity‬‭causes‬‭a‬‭cloud‬‭to‬‭contract‬‭(breaking‬‭hydrostatic‬‭equilibrium)‬

‭-Gravity‬‭overcomes‬‭gas‬‭pressure,‬‭the‬‭balance‬‭of‬‭which‬‭normally‬‭keeps‬‭a‬‭cloud‬‭stable.‬
‭ ravity‬‭has‬‭an‬‭advantage‬‭at‬‭high‬‭densities‬‭and‬‭low‬‭temperatures‬‭(for‬‭temperatures,‬‭it‬‭is‬ ‭due‬
G
‭to‬‭lower‬‭temperatures‬‭resulting‬‭in‬‭lower‬‭gas/thermal‬‭pressures).‬

‭-Degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭also‬‭exists‬‭in‬‭addition‬‭to‬‭temperature-dependent‬‭gas‬‭pressure‬‭as‬
r‭ esistive‬‭forces‬‭against‬‭collapse‬‭along‬‭with‬‭magnetic‬‭forces..‬

‭-Some‬‭sort‬‭of‬‭external‬‭force‬‭(e.g.‬‭shockwave)‬‭can‬‭also‬‭disrupt‬‭equilibrium‬‭and‬‭trigger‬‭a‬
‭ ravitational‬‭collapse.‬
g

‭-Gravity‬‭obeys‬‭the‬‭inverse-square‬‭law‬‭–‬‭as‬‭the‬‭cloud‬‭continues‬‭to‬‭condense‬‭and‬‭break‬‭up,‬
‭ ravity‬‭grows‬‭stronger‬‭in‬‭each‬‭individual‬‭clump.‬
g
‭2025‬

‭-Clouds‬‭clump‬‭up‬‭and‬‭break‬‭apart‬‭due‬‭to‬‭less‬‭mass‬‭needed‬‭for‬‭gravity‬‭to‬‭maintain‬‭an‬
‭ dvantage‬‭over‬‭gas‬‭pressures‬‭and‬‭other‬‭resistive‬‭forces.‬
a

‭-Smaller,‬‭denser‬‭clouds‬‭may‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭collapse,‬‭heating‬‭up‬‭within‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭inability‬ ‭to‬
‭ ffectively‬‭disperse‬‭thermal‬‭energy.‬‭Thermal‬‭energy‬‭comes‬‭from‬‭the‬‭release‬‭of‬ ‭gravitational‬
e
‭potential‬‭energy.‬

‭THE‬‭PROTOSTAR‬

‭-Thermal‬‭energy‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭grow‬‭as‬‭the‬‭cloud‬‭collapses.‬‭Inner‬‭gas‬‭eventually‬‭loses‬ ‭the‬
‭ bility‬‭to‬‭radiate‬‭heat‬‭gained‬‭by‬‭the‬‭release‬‭of‬‭gravitational‬‭potential‬‭energy‬‭(GPE).‬
a

‭-As‬‭the‬‭cloud‬‭collapses,‬‭density‬‭increases,‬‭causing‬‭less‬‭and‬‭less‬‭gas‬‭to‬‭break‬‭off‬
(‭ densities‬‭high‬‭enough‬‭that‬‭the‬‭cloud‬‭becomes‬‭thermally‬‭opaque).‬‭Now‬‭a‬‭Class‬‭O‬
‭Protostar.‬

-‭ At‬‭a‬‭density‬‭of‬‭around‬‭10‬‭-13‬‭grams‬‭per‬‭cubic‬‭centimeter,‬‭the‬‭center‬‭of‬‭the‬‭cloud‬‭becomes‬
‭optically‬‭opaque.‬‭When‬‭collapse‬‭is‬‭essentially‬‭halted,‬‭a‬‭core‬‭region‬‭called‬‭the‬‭First‬ ‭Hydrostatic‬
‭Core‬‭forms.‬‭Meanwhile,‬‭gas‬‭falling‬‭inwards‬‭collides‬‭with‬‭this‬‭region,‬‭creating‬ ‭more‬‭heat‬‭to‬‭heat‬
‭the‬‭core‬‭via‬‭shock‬‭waves.‬

‭-At‬‭core‬‭temp.‬‭2000K,‬‭dissociation‬‭of‬‭H‭2‬ ‬‭molecules‬‭begins‬‭along‬‭with‬‭ionization‬‭of‬‭H‬‭and‬ ‭He‬

‭-Density‬‭of‬‭infalling‬‭material‬‭declines‬‭to‬‭~10‬‭-8‬‭g‬‭per‬‭cubic‬‭centimeter,‬‭becoming‬ ‭transparent‬
‭ nough‬‭to‬‭allow‬‭for‬‭heat‬‭to‬‭escape.‬‭Combined‬‭with‬‭convection‬‭in‬‭the‬‭interior,‬ ‭radiation‬‭of‬‭heat‬
e
‭allows‬‭protostar‬‭to‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭contract.‬

‭-Due‬‭to‬‭rising‬‭temperatures,‬‭gas‬‭in‬‭the‬‭interior‬‭will‬‭be‬‭able‬‭to‬‭exert‬‭enough‬‭pressure‬‭to‬
c‭ ounteract‬‭forces‬‭of‬‭gravity,‬‭preventing‬‭further‬‭collapse.‬‭Reaches‬‭hydrostatic‬‭equilibrium.‬

‭-Accretion‬‭of‬‭material‬‭into‬‭the‬‭star‬‭is‬‭almost‬‭complete,‬‭object‬‭is‬‭a‬‭protostar.‬ ‭-Accretion‬

‭of‬‭material‬‭continues,‬‭albeit‬‭more‬‭slowly,‬‭from‬‭the‬‭circumstellar‬‭disk.‬

‭-At‬‭high‬‭enough‬‭densities‬‭and‬‭temperatures,‬‭deuterium‬‭fusion‬‭begins‬‭with‬‭outward‬
‭ ressure‬‭slowing‬‭down‬‭collapse.‬
p

‭-When‬‭accretion‬‭stops‬‭and‬‭surrounding‬‭material‬‭disperses,‬‭object‬‭has‬‭become‬‭a‬‭pre‬‭main‬
s‭ equence‬‭star.‬

‭T‬‭TAURI‬‭AND‬‭PRE-MAIN‬‭SEQUENCE‬‭STARS‬

‭-PMS‬‭stars’‬‭energy‬‭comes‬‭from‬‭gravitational‬‭contraction‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭hydrogen‬‭fusion‬
‭2025‬

‭-<‬‭3M‬‭☉‬‭stars‬‭follow‬‭the‬‭Hayashi‬‭track,‬‭becoming‬‭T‬‭Tauri‬‭stars‬‭and‬‭gradually‬‭become‬‭less‬ ‭and‬
l‭ess‬‭luminous.‬‭Track‬‭begins‬‭at‬‭a‬‭temperature‬‭of‬‭around‬‭4000K.‬

‭-T‬‭Tauri‬‭stars‬‭fall‬‭almost‬‭vertically‬‭on‬‭the‬‭HR‬‭diagram,‬‭becoming‬‭less‬‭luminous‬‭without‬
‭ ecreasing‬‭much‬‭in‬‭surface‬‭temperature.‬‭The‬‭star‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭contract.‬‭Contraction‬
d
‭continues‬‭until‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭<0.5M‬‭☉‬‭develop‬‭a‬‭radiative‬‭zone.‬‭Stars‬‭of‬‭larger‬‭mass‬‭follow‬‭the‬
‭Henyey‬‭track,‬‭involving‬‭increasing‬‭temperatures‬‭and‬‭luminosities‬‭until‬‭H‬‭fusion‬‭can‬ ‭begin.‬‭They‬
‭have‬‭high‬‭lithium‬‭abundances,‬‭strong‬‭stellar‬‭winds,‬‭and‬‭strong‬‭spectral‬ ‭lines..‬

‭THE‬‭MAIN‬‭SEQUENCE‬
‭PHYSICS‬

‭-In‬‭the‬‭main‬‭sequence,‬‭stars‬‭are‬‭in‬‭equilibrium‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭outward‬‭pressure‬‭generated‬‭by‬
‭ ydrogen‬‭fusion‬‭counteracting‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭in‬‭hydrostatic‬‭equilibrium.‬
h

‭-When‬‭star‬‭leaves‬‭the‬‭main‬‭sequence‬‭depends‬‭on‬‭its‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭and‬‭mass.‬

‭-‬‭>2‬‭solar‬‭mass‬‭stars‬‭undergo‬‭convection‬‭in‬‭core‬‭regions‬‭to‬‭stir‬‭up‬‭recently-produced‬
‭ ydrogen.‬‭Below‬‭this‬‭mass,‬‭stars‬‭have‬‭entirely‬‭radiative‬‭cores‬‭with‬‭convective‬‭areas‬‭near‬ ‭the‬
h
‭surface.‬‭Stars‬‭of‬‭smaller‬‭mass‬‭(<‬‭0.4‬‭solar‬‭masses)‬‭are‬‭fully‬‭convective.‬‭Convection‬ ‭zones‬
‭grow‬‭with‬‭decreasing‬‭stellar‬‭mass.‬

‭-Upper‬‭limit‬‭for‬‭a‬‭main-sequence‬‭star‬‭is‬‭120-200‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬‭The‬‭outward‬‭radiation‬‭of‬
‭ nergy‬‭overcomes‬‭the‬‭gravitational‬‭attraction‬‭and‬‭the‬‭star‬‭cannot‬‭hold‬‭itself‬‭together.‬
e

‭-Lower‬‭limit‬‭is‬‭~0.08‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬‭P-P‬‭chain‬‭cannot‬‭occur‬‭below‬‭this,‬‭and‬‭“stars”‬‭below‬ ‭the‬
l‭imit‬‭cannot‬‭sustain‬‭hydrogen‬‭fusion‬‭and‬‭are‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭“brown‬‭dwarfs.”‬

‭“CHEMISTRY”‬

‭-At‬‭10m‬‭kelvin,‬‭stars‬‭will‬‭begin‬‭hydrogen‬‭fusion‬‭via‬‭the‬‭proton-proton‬‭chain‬‭reaction.‬
‭ ydrogen‬‭is‬‭fused‬‭first‬‭into‬‭deuterium‬‭and‬‭then‬‭to‬‭helium.‬‭P-P‬‭chain‬‭is‬‭primarily‬‭found‬ ‭in‬‭the‬
H
‭lower‬‭main‬‭sequence.‬

‭-Stars‬‭with‬‭masses‬‭slightly‬‭over‬‭1‬‭solar‬‭mass‬‭(~>1.5)‬‭will‬‭generate‬‭a‬‭large‬‭portion‬‭of‬‭their‬
‭ nergy‬‭via‬‭the‬‭Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen‬‭cycle,‬‭or‬‭the‬‭CNO‬‭cycle,‬‭for‬‭short.‬‭This‬‭is‬‭due‬‭to‬ ‭their‬
e
‭ability‬‭to‬‭sustain‬‭higher‬‭temperatures.‬

‭-At‬‭18‬‭million‬‭kelvin‬‭(T‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star‬‭with‬‭1.5+‬‭solar‬‭masses)‬‭the‬‭CNO‬‭cycle‬‭and‬‭PP‬‭chains‬‭are‬
‭ qually‬‭efficient‬‭and‬‭therefore‬‭produce‬‭half‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star’s‬‭net‬‭luminosity‬‭each.‬‭At‬‭1‬‭solar‬ ‭mass‬
e
‭(e.g.‬‭the‬‭Sun),‬‭1.5%‬‭of‬‭all‬‭energy‬‭produced‬‭is‬‭from‬‭the‬‭CNO‬‭cycle.‬‭At‬‭1.8+‬‭solar‬ ‭masses,‬
‭almost‬‭all‬‭energy‬‭is‬‭produced‬‭via‬‭the‬‭CNO‬‭cycle.‬

‭2025‬
‭MATURITY‬‭–‬‭LEAVING‬‭THE‬‭MAIN‬‭SEQUENCE‬
‭-In‬‭general,‬‭the‬‭lower‬‭the‬‭mass,‬‭the‬‭longer‬‭the‬‭lifespan‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star.‬‭The‬‭mass‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star‬‭also‬
‭ etermines‬‭what‬‭happens‬‭when‬‭it‬‭exhausts‬‭its‬‭supply‬‭of‬‭hydrogen.‬‭When‬‭the‬‭hydrogen‬ ‭supply‬
d
‭is‬‭depleted,‬‭the‬‭outward‬‭pressure‬‭generated‬‭by‬‭hydrogen‬‭fusion‬‭is‬‭no‬‭longer‬ ‭sufficient‬‭to‬
‭counteract‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity,‬‭causing‬‭the‬‭star‬‭to‬‭contract.‬

‭LOW-MASS‬‭STARS‬

‭-Stars‬‭of‬‭<0.23‬‭solar‬‭masses‬‭become‬‭white‬‭dwarfs‬‭directly‬‭after‬‭exhausting‬‭their‬‭fuel‬
s‭ ources.‬‭This‬‭is‬‭due‬‭to‬‭them‬‭being‬‭fully‬‭convective‬‭and‬‭never‬‭developing‬‭a‬‭degenerate‬
‭helium‬‭core‬‭with‬‭hydrogen‬‭burning‬‭shells.‬

‭-Slightly‬‭more‬‭massive‬‭stars‬‭can‬‭become‬‭red‬‭giants,‬‭but‬‭never‬‭fully‬‭develop‬‭the‬‭ability‬‭to‬
‭ roperly‬‭fuse‬‭helium‬‭due‬‭to‬‭low‬‭temperatures.‬‭They‬‭move‬‭directly‬‭off‬‭of‬‭the‬‭red‬‭giant‬ ‭branch‬
p
‭and‬‭become‬‭asymptotic‬‭giants‬‭with‬‭lower‬‭luminosities.‬

‭-Stars‬‭above‬‭0.5‬‭solar‬‭mass‬‭will‬‭reach‬‭temperatures‬‭necessary‬‭for‬‭helium‬‭fusion‬‭and‬‭will‬
‭ roceed‬‭along‬‭as‬‭if‬‭they‬‭were‬‭medium-mass‬‭stars.‬
p

‭-EOL‬‭behaviors‬‭of‬‭low-mass‬‭stars‬‭are‬‭not‬‭properly‬‭known‬‭due‬‭to‬‭their‬‭longevity.‬
‭MEDIUM-MASS‬‭STARS‬

‭-Stars‬‭of‬‭roughly‬‭0.5-10‬‭solar‬‭masses‬‭become‬‭red‬‭giants,‬‭which‬‭are‬‭large,‬‭non-main‬
s‭ equence‬‭stars‬‭of‬‭class‬‭K‬‭or‬‭M.‬‭They‬‭have‬‭high‬‭luminosities‬‭and‬‭are‬‭notably,‬‭red.‬

‭-Red‬‭Giants‬‭have‬‭inert‬‭cores‬‭with‬‭hydrogen-burning‬‭shells‬‭fusing‬‭hydrogen‬‭into‬‭helium.‬
‭ ccelerated‬‭fusion‬‭in‬‭H‬‭burning‬‭shell‬‭directly‬‭above‬‭core‬‭causes‬‭star‬‭to‬‭expand,‬‭causing‬ ‭outer‬
A
‭layers‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star‬‭to‬‭cool‬‭and‬‭adopt‬‭the‬‭red‬‭color.‬

‭-The‬‭red-giant-branch‬‭follows‬‭the‬‭main-sequence.‬‭Here,‬‭the‬‭core‬‭is‬‭comprised‬‭of‬‭helium.‬ ‭The‬
i‭nitial‬‭contraction‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star‬‭is‬‭halted‬‭by‬‭electron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure.‬‭The‬ ‭gravitational‬
‭energy‬‭released‬‭during‬‭contraction‬‭maintains‬‭the‬‭fusion‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬ ‭outside‬‭of‬‭the‬‭core.‬
‭Core’s‬‭gravity‬‭accelerates‬‭burning‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬‭and‬‭causes‬‭the‬‭star’s‬ ‭luminosity‬‭to‬‭rise‬
‭significantly.‬

‭-Helium‬‭from‬‭accelerated‬‭H‬‭fusion‬‭is‬‭absorbed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭core,‬‭causing‬‭it‬‭to‬‭contract‬‭further,‬
f‭urther‬‭accelerating‬‭H‬‭fusion.‬‭Temperature‬‭rises‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭helium‬‭fusion‬‭begins‬ ‭via‬‭the‬
‭triple-alpha‬‭process‬‭(@‬‭~‬‭1.0x10‬‭8‬‭K‬‭core‬‭T).‬‭He‬‭fusion‬‭causes‬‭the‬‭core‬‭to‬‭expand,‬ ‭causing‬‭the‬
‭star‬‭to‬‭expand.‬‭The‬‭end‬‭results‬‭depend‬‭on‬‭the‬‭star’s‬‭mass‬‭and‬‭other‬‭features.‬

‭2025‬
 ‭-The‬‭asymptotic‬‭giant-branch‬‭phase‬‭begins‬‭when‬‭the‬‭He‬‭in‬‭the‬‭core‬‭has‬‭been‬‭exhausted,‬
l‭eaving‬‭a‬‭hot‬‭core‬‭of‬‭carbon‬‭and‬‭oxygen.‬‭He‬‭fusion‬‭continues‬‭in‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers.‬‭Mira‬
‭variables‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭this‬‭branch.‬

‭MASSIVE‬‭STARS‬

‭-Helium‬‭ignition‬‭may‬‭occur‬‭before‬‭electron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭can‬‭become‬‭prevalent.‬ ‭This‬
r‭ esults‬‭in‬‭the‬‭unlikelihood‬‭that‬‭they‬‭survive‬‭as‬‭red‬‭supergiants.‬‭Their‬‭lives‬‭will‬‭end‬ ‭in‬‭a‬‭Type‬‭II‬
‭supernova.‬

‭-Extremely‬‭massive‬‭stars‬‭will‬‭rapidly‬‭expel‬‭their‬‭own‬‭envelopes,‬‭allowing‬‭them‬‭to‬‭retain‬ ‭very‬
‭ igh‬‭surface‬‭temperatures‬‭and,‬‭along‬‭with‬‭them,‬‭their‬‭blue-white‬‭color.‬
h

‭-Stars‬‭with‬‭heavier‬‭cores‬‭will‬‭continue‬‭to‬‭heat‬‭up‬‭until‬‭neon‬‭decays‬‭into‬‭oxygen‬‭and‬
‭ elium.‬‭Temperatures‬‭rise,‬‭triggering‬‭the‬‭fusion‬‭and‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭other‬‭elements.‬
h
‭Eventually,‬‭temperatures‬‭will‬‭rise‬‭until‬‭most‬‭nuclei‬‭can‬‭be‬‭partially‬‭broken‬‭down.‬

‭-Red‬‭supergiants‬‭are‬‭formed‬‭following‬‭the‬‭fusion‬‭of‬‭all‬‭hydrogen‬‭in‬‭the‬‭core‬‭of‬‭a‬ ‭supermassive‬
s‭ tar‬‭(usually‬‭around‬‭10‬‭solar‬‭masses).‬‭Their‬‭helium-burning‬‭phase‬‭is‬‭spent‬ ‭as‬‭red‬‭supergiants.‬
‭They‬‭display‬‭variability‬‭and‬‭are‬‭extraordinarily‬‭bright‬‭and‬‭large.‬

‭DEATH‬‭OF‬‭A‬‭STAR‬
‭COLLAPSE!‬

‭-A‬‭massive,‬‭evolved‬‭star‬‭will‬‭finally‬‭collapse‬‭when‬‭nucleosynthesis‬‭reaches‬‭Iron-56.‬‭The‬ ‭fusion‬
‭ rocess‬‭expends‬‭more‬‭energy‬‭than‬‭it‬‭produces.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭mass‬‭of‬‭the‬‭core‬‭exceeds‬ ‭1.44‬‭solar‬
p
‭masses‬‭(the‬‭Chandrasekhar‬‭limit),‬‭the‬‭core‬‭will‬‭undergo‬‭a‬‭sudden,‬‭catastrophic‬ ‭collapse‬‭into‬
‭either‬‭a‬‭neutron‬‭star‬‭or‬‭a‬‭black‬‭hole,‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭mass‬‭lost‬‭and‬‭whether‬‭or‬ ‭not‬‭certain‬‭limits‬
‭are‬‭reached.‬

‭SUPERNOVAE‬

‭-The‬‭catastrophic‬‭and‬‭very‬‭violent‬‭death‬‭of‬‭a‬‭high-mass‬‭star‬‭(with‬‭a‬‭core‬‭mass‬‭exceeding‬ ‭1.44‬
s‭ olar‬‭masses).‬‭Energy‬‭transferred‬‭from‬‭core‬‭collapse‬‭to‬‭rebounding‬‭material‬‭is‬ ‭enough‬‭to‬
‭accelerate‬‭material‬‭to‬‭beyond‬‭escape‬‭velocity.‬‭Alternatively,‬‭the‬‭reignition‬‭of‬ ‭nuclear‬‭fusion‬‭in‬‭a‬
‭degenerate‬‭star‬‭may‬‭cause‬‭a‬‭supernova.‬‭In‬‭any‬‭case,‬‭star‬‭goes‬‭boom!‬

‭TYPE‬‭I‬‭SUPERNOVAE‬

‭-Type‬‭I‬‭supernovae‬‭are‬‭distinguished‬‭from‬‭Type‬‭II‬‭supernovae‬‭by‬‭the‬‭lack‬‭of‬‭hydrogen‬ ‭lines,‬
‭ r‬‭Balmer‬‭lines,‬‭in‬‭the‬‭emission‬‭spectra.‬‭The‬‭presence‬‭of‬‭other‬‭lines‬‭in‬‭the‬‭spectra‬ ‭further‬
o
‭divides‬‭the‬‭type.‬

‭2025‬

‭-Type‬‭Ia‬‭supernovae‬‭occur‬‭in‬‭binary‬‭systems‬‭where‬‭one‬‭star‬‭is‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf‬‭and‬‭the‬ ‭other‬‭is‬
‭ ‬‭star‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭of‬‭giant‬‭mass‬‭to‬‭an‬‭even‬‭smaller‬‭white‬‭dwarf.‬‭Normally‬ ‭restricted‬‭to‬‭less‬
a
t‭han‬‭1.38‬‭solar‬‭masses‬‭(the‬‭Chandrasekhar‬‭mass),‬‭should‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf‬ ‭of‬‭oxygen-carbon‬
‭variety‬‭exceed‬‭it,‬‭nuclear‬‭fusion‬‭may‬‭start‬‭up‬‭again.‬‭The‬‭mass‬‭is‬ ‭obtained‬‭by‬‭the‬‭accretion‬‭of‬
‭material‬‭from‬‭its‬‭binary‬‭companion.‬‭If‬‭accretion‬‭continues‬ ‭for‬‭a‬‭long‬‭enough‬‭period‬‭of‬‭time‬
‭(and‬‭a‬‭nova‬‭or‬‭dwarf‬‭nova‬‭does‬‭not‬‭occur),‬‭the‬‭star‬‭will‬ ‭approach‬‭the‬‭Chandrasekhar‬‭limit.‬
‭However,‬‭~1%‬‭from‬‭the‬‭limit,‬‭rising‬‭temperatures‬

‭ owered‬‭by‬‭carbon‬‭fusion‬‭heats‬‭the‬‭core‬‭up.‬‭Degeneracy‬‭pressure’s‬‭independence‬‭from‬
p
‭temperature‬‭means‬‭that‬‭it‬‭is‬‭unable‬‭to‬‭scale‬‭to‬‭the‬‭rise‬‭in‬‭pressure‬‭to‬‭keep‬‭the‬‭star‬‭stable.‬ ‭The‬
‭uncontrolled‬‭nuclear‬‭reaction‬‭that‬‭follows‬‭releases‬‭enough‬‭energy‬‭to‬‭unbind‬‭the‬‭star‬ ‭from‬‭the‬
‭forces‬‭that‬‭hold‬‭it‬‭together.‬‭Alternatively,‬‭two‬‭white‬‭dwarfs‬‭can‬‭merge.‬

‭-Because‬‭white‬‭dwarfs‬‭are‬‭relatively‬‭consistent‬‭in‬‭terms‬‭of‬‭composition,‬‭size,‬‭and‬‭mass,‬ ‭Type‬
I‭a‬‭supernovae‬‭are‬‭used‬‭as‬‭alternatives‬‭to‬‭Cepheids‬‭and‬‭other‬‭standard‬‭candles‬‭to‬ ‭measure‬
‭cosmological‬‭distances.‬

‭-Type‬‭Ib‬‭and‬‭c‬‭supernovae‬‭are‬‭similar‬‭in‬‭mechanics‬‭to‬‭Type‬‭II‬‭supernovae,‬‭although,‬‭like‬ ‭Type‬
I‭a‬‭supernovae,‬‭they‬‭lack‬‭hydrogen‬‭lines.‬‭They‬‭occur‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭core‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭a‬‭supermassive‬
‭star.‬‭The‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star’s‬‭core‬‭expels‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers.‬‭Type‬‭Ib‬‭and‬‭Ic‬ ‭supernovae‬‭are‬
‭thought‬‭to‬‭have‬‭already‬‭lost‬‭their‬‭outer‬‭hydrogen‬‭shells‬‭and‬‭much‬‭of‬ ‭their‬‭helium‬‭shells.‬‭Type‬‭Ic‬
‭supernovae‬‭happen‬‭to‬‭lack‬‭the‬‭587.6nm‬‭helium‬‭lines‬‭as‬ ‭compared‬‭to‬‭Type‬‭Ib.‬‭Both‬‭show‬‭Ca,‬
‭O,‬‭and‬‭Mg‬‭lines‬‭as‬‭they‬‭age,‬‭while‬‭Type‬‭Ia‬‭supernovae‬ ‭are‬‭eventually‬‭dominated‬‭by‬‭Fe‬‭lines.‬

‭TYPE‬‭II‬‭SUPERNOVAE‬

‭-A‬‭Type‬‭II‬‭supernova‬‭occurs‬‭when‬‭the‬‭inert‬‭core‬‭of‬‭a‬‭supermassive‬‭star‬‭reaches‬‭a‬‭mass‬
‭ eyond‬‭1.44‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬‭Electron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭can‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭counter‬‭gravity,‬
b
‭resulting‬‭in‬‭a‬‭cataclysmic‬‭implosion‬‭that‬‭expels‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star.‬‭Reversed‬
‭beta-decay‬‭from‬‭the‬‭overcoming‬‭of‬‭electron‬‭degeneracy‬‭results‬‭in‬‭the‬‭formation‬‭of‬ ‭neutrons‬
‭and‬‭neutrinos.‬‭It‬‭also‬‭creates‬‭a‬‭devastating‬‭shockwave‬‭that‬‭can‬‭disrupt‬ ‭molecular‬‭clouds‬
‭and‬‭other‬‭systems.‬

‭-Core‬‭collapse‬‭in‬‭a‬‭large‬‭star‬‭occurs‬‭in‬‭steps,‬‭where‬‭collapse‬‭leads‬‭to‬‭increased‬‭pressures‬ ‭and‬
t‭emperatures‬ ‭required‬ ‭to‬ ‭fuse‬ ‭a‬ ‭heavier‬ ‭element.‬ ‭This‬ ‭continues‬ ‭until‬ ‭Fe-56.‬ ‭Collapse‬ ‭is‬
‭eventually‬‭halted‬‭by‬‭strong‬‭forces‬‭and‬‭neutron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure.‬

‭-The‬‭light‬‭curves‬‭of‬‭Type‬‭II‬‭supernovae‬‭normally‬‭display‬‭Balmer‬‭hydrogen‬‭absorption‬ ‭lines.‬
‭ ype‬‭IIP‬‭supernovae‬‭have‬‭a‬‭distinctive‬‭“flat”‬‭section‬‭in‬‭their‬‭light‬‭curves,‬‭while‬ ‭Type‬‭IIL‬
T
‭supernovae‬‭show‬‭a‬‭steady‬‭decline‬‭in‬‭brightness‬‭following‬‭its‬‭peak.‬‭The‬‭result‬ ‭may‬‭be‬‭either‬
‭a‬‭black‬‭hole‬‭or‬‭neutron‬‭star,‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭certain‬‭conditions.‬

‭2025‬

‭-The‬‭light‬‭curves‬‭of‬‭Type‬‭II‬‭supernovae‬‭are‬‭generally‬‭“longer”‬‭than‬‭those‬‭of‬‭Type‬‭I‬
s‭ upernovae‬‭–‬‭that‬‭is,‬‭the‬‭duration‬‭of‬‭the‬‭supernova‬‭is‬‭longer‬‭and‬‭the‬‭decline‬‭in‬
‭brightness‬‭is‬‭flatter.‬‭Type‬‭I‬‭supernovae‬‭are‬‭also‬‭usually‬‭brighter,‬‭but‬‭the‬‭dropoff‬‭is‬
‭quicker.‬
‭REAMNANTS‬
‭WHITE‬‭DWARFS‬

‭-The‬‭remnant‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star‬‭of‬‭less‬‭than‬‭8‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬‭Formed‬‭when‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers‬‭of‬‭a‬‭red‬‭giant‬
c‭ lass‬‭star‬‭are‬‭expelled‬‭due‬‭to‬‭instability‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭helium‬‭fusion‬‭process.‬ ‭Pulsations‬
‭build‬‭up‬‭to‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭the‬‭outer‬‭layers‬‭of‬‭the‬‭star‬‭are‬‭expelled.‬‭The‬‭result‬ ‭at‬‭the‬‭center‬‭is‬‭a‬
‭degenerate‬‭carbon-oxygen‬‭core,‬‭supported‬‭only‬‭by‬‭electron‬‭degen.‬‭press.‬

‭-White‬‭dwarfs‬‭are‬‭extremely‬‭hot‬‭(~100000K‬‭surface‬‭temp.‬‭at‬‭formation),‬‭yet‬‭do‬‭not‬‭release‬
‭ nergy‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result‬‭of‬‭nuclear‬‭fusion‬‭reactions.‬‭Because‬‭the‬‭star‬‭no‬‭longer‬‭undergoes‬ ‭fusion,‬‭it‬
e
‭gradually‬‭cools‬‭off‬‭over‬‭the‬‭years,‬‭becoming‬‭a‬‭black‬‭dwarf‬‭at‬‭the‬‭end.‬‭They‬‭are‬ ‭incredibly‬
‭dense‬‭and‬‭compact,‬‭with‬‭a‬‭maximum‬‭mass‬‭being‬‭around‬‭1.38‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬

‭-It‬‭is‬‭possible‬‭for‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf‬‭to‬‭undergo‬‭nuclear‬‭fusion‬‭again‬‭via‬‭the‬‭accretion‬‭of‬ ‭material‬
f‭rom‬‭a‬‭binary‬‭partner.‬‭The‬‭result‬‭may‬‭be‬‭either‬‭dwarf‬‭novae,‬‭novae,‬‭or‬‭a‬‭Type‬‭Ia‬ ‭supernova,‬
‭depending‬‭on‬‭how‬‭much‬‭mass‬‭is‬‭accumulated‬‭and‬‭how‬‭the‬‭extra‬‭mass‬‭works.‬

‭NEUTRON‬‭STARS‬

‭-The‬‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭core‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭a‬‭supermassive‬‭star‬‭with‬‭a‬‭mass‬‭above‬‭8‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬

‭-Formed‬‭via‬‭reverse‬‭beta-decay‬‭when‬‭electron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭is‬‭overcome‬‭when‬ ‭the‬
‭ ass‬‭of‬‭the‬‭core‬‭exceeds‬‭1.44‬‭solar‬‭masses.‬‭They‬‭resist‬‭further‬‭compression‬‭with‬
m
‭neutron/quantum‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Pauli‬‭Exclusion‬‭Principle,‬‭similar‬‭to,‬‭yet‬
‭stronger‬‭than,‬‭electron‬‭degen.‬

‭-Are‬‭the‬‭smallest‬‭and‬‭densest‬‭stars‬‭known,‬‭with‬‭incredibly‬‭powerful‬‭magnetic‬‭fields.‬

-‭ Conservation‬‭of‬‭momentum‬‭following‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭a‬‭supergiant‬‭star‬‭ensures‬‭that‬‭the‬
‭neutron‬‭star‬‭will‬‭rotate‬‭extremely‬‭rapidly,‬‭slowly‬‭slowing‬‭down‬‭over‬‭time.‬

‭PULSARS‬

‭2025‬

‭-Highly‬‭magnetized,‬‭rotating‬‭neutron‬‭stars‬‭emitting‬‭beams‬‭of‬‭electromagnetic‬‭radiation.‬ ‭Name‬
c‭ omes‬‭from‬‭the‬‭way‬‭of‬‭detecting‬‭the‬‭beams:‬‭when‬‭the‬‭beam‬‭periodically‬‭hits‬‭Earth‬ ‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬
‭star’s‬‭rotation.‬

‭-Short,‬‭regular‬‭rotational‬‭periods‬‭make‬‭pulsars‬‭useful‬‭for‬‭timekeeping‬‭and‬‭scientific‬ ‭studies.‬
‭ ue‬‭to‬‭the‬‭massive‬‭shrinkage‬‭in‬‭radius,‬‭the‬‭speed‬‭of‬‭rotation‬‭is‬‭extremely‬‭quick.‬ ‭Because‬‭of‬‭its‬
D
‭(comparatively)‬‭low‬‭moment‬‭of‬‭inertia,‬‭it‬‭slows‬‭down‬‭very‬‭slowly‬‭over‬‭time.‬
 ‭-Radiation‬‭if‬‭projected‬‭from‬‭pulsars’‬‭magnetic‬‭poles.‬‭The‬‭power‬‭of‬‭a‬‭pulsar‬‭may‬‭come‬‭from‬
i‭ts‬‭rotation,‬‭accretion‬‭of‬‭material‬‭(accounting‬‭for‬‭most‬‭X-ray‬‭pulsars),‬‭or‬‭magnets.‬

‭MAGNETARS‬

‭-Neutron‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭extremely‬‭powerful‬‭magnetic‬‭fields.‬‭Decay‬‭of‬‭the‬‭field‬‭powers‬‭the‬ ‭emission‬
‭ f‬‭strong‬‭beams‬‭of‬‭high-energy‬‭electromagnetic‬‭radiation,‬‭including‬‭X-rays‬‭and‬ ‭gamma‬‭rays.‬
o

‭-Comparatively‬‭slow‬‭in‬‭rotation‬‭compared‬‭to‬‭other‬‭kinds‬‭of‬‭neutron‬‭stars.‬

‭BLACK‬‭HOLES‬

‭-Stellar‬‭mass‬‭black‬‭holes‬‭are‬‭remnants‬‭of‬‭the‬‭gravitational‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭a‬‭supermassive‬ ‭star.‬
‭ KA‬‭collapsars.‬‭They‬‭have‬‭masses‬‭ranging‬‭from‬‭3-10s‬‭of‬‭solar‬‭masses,‬‭and‬‭are‬ ‭formed‬
A
‭when‬‭the‬‭Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff‬‭limit‬‭is‬‭reached‬‭(>3-4‬‭solar‬‭masses).‬

‭-At‬‭the‬‭point‬‭where‬‭a‬‭black‬‭hole‬‭forms,‬‭not‬‭even‬‭neutron‬‭degeneracy‬‭pressure‬‭can‬
‭ ithstand‬‭the‬‭force‬‭of‬‭gravity.‬‭The‬‭formation‬‭of‬‭a‬‭black‬‭hole‬‭is‬‭nearly‬‭guaranteed.‬
w

‭-An‬‭important‬‭part‬‭of‬‭X-ray‬‭binaries.‬‭Light‬‭cannot‬‭escape‬‭the‬‭gravity‬‭of‬‭a‬‭black‬‭hole.‬
‭NEBULAE‬

‭-Planetary‬‭nebulae‬‭are‬‭the‬‭ionized‬‭discharged‬‭gas‬‭layers‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star.‬‭At‬‭the‬‭centers‬‭are‬ ‭often‬
‭ hite‬‭dwarfs‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result‬‭of‬‭the‬‭death‬‭of‬‭mid-sized‬‭stars‬‭whose‬‭cores‬‭failed‬‭to‬ ‭exceed‬‭the‬
w
‭Chandrasekhar‬‭limit.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭usually‬‭about‬‭1‬‭light-year‬‭across‬‭and‬‭get‬‭their‬ ‭color‬‭from‬
‭ionized‬‭particles.‬

‭-Other‬‭nebulae‬‭like‬‭the‬‭Crab‬‭Nebula,‬‭M1,‬‭are‬‭remnants‬‭of‬‭supernovae‬‭explosions‬‭where‬
s‭ tellar‬‭material‬‭is‬‭violently‬‭expelled‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭collapse‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star.‬

‭X-RAY‬‭BINARIES‬

‭2025‬

‭-X-ray‬‭binaries‬‭are‬‭a‬‭class‬‭of‬‭binary‬‭stars‬‭luminous‬‭in‬‭X-rays.‬‭One‬‭member‬‭is‬‭the‬‭donor‬
(‭ usually‬‭a‬‭star)‬‭while‬‭the‬‭other‬‭is‬‭an‬‭accretor‬‭,‬‭usually‬‭a‬‭compact‬‭object‬‭like‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf,‬
‭neutron‬‭star,‬‭or‬‭black‬‭hole.‬

‭-The‬‭infall‬‭of‬‭matter‬‭releases‬‭gravitational‬‭potential‬‭energy‬‭in‬‭the‬‭form‬‭of‬‭X-rays.‬

‭WHAT‬‭ABOUT‬‭VARIABLE‬‭STARS?‬
‭CEPHEID‬‭VARIABLES‬

‭-Classical‬ ‭Cepheids‬ ‭belong‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭class‬ ‭of‬ ‭unstable‬ ‭yellow‬ ‭supergiants‬ ‭of‬ ‭spectral‬ ‭classes‬
‭ 6-K2.‬ ‭They‬ ‭are‬ ‭4-20‬ ‭times‬ ‭more‬ ‭massive‬ ‭than‬ ‭the‬ ‭Sun‬ ‭and‬ ‭may‬ ‭be‬ ‭up‬‭to‬‭100,000‬‭times‬
F
‭more‬‭luminous.‬

‭-Type‬‭II‬‭Cepheids‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭spectral‬‭classes‬‭F6-K2.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭typically‬‭older,‬‭metal-poor‬
s‭ tars.‬‭They‬‭belong‬‭to‬‭the‬‭Population‬‭II‬‭subclass‬‭of‬‭stars‬‭in‬‭terms‬‭of‬‭metal‬‭content.‬

‭RR‬‭LYRAE‬‭VARIABLES‬

‭-A‬‭class‬‭of‬‭periodic‬‭variable‬‭stars‬‭commonly‬‭found‬‭in‬‭globular‬‭clusters.‬‭They‬‭are‬
‭ ulsating‬‭horizontal‬‭branch‬‭stars‬‭of‬‭spectral‬‭class‬‭A‬‭and‬‭sometimes‬‭F.‬‭They‬‭are‬
p
‭relatively‬‭old,‬‭metal-poor‬‭Population‬‭II‬‭stars.‬

‭-RRab‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭the‬‭majority‬‭type‬‭which‬‭display‬‭steep‬‭rises‬‭in‬‭brightness‬‭of‬‭about‬‭91%,‬ ‭RRc‬
‭ ave‬‭shorter‬‭periods‬‭and‬‭var.‬‭of‬‭about‬‭9%,‬‭and‬‭RRd‬‭are‬‭rare,‬‭double-mode‬‭pulsators.‬
h

‭S‬‭DORADUS‬‭VARIABLES‬

‭-AKA‬‭Luminous‬‭Blue‬‭Variables,‬‭S‬‭Doradus‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭unstable‬‭supergiant‬‭or‬ ‭hypergiant‬
s‭ tars.‬‭They‬‭have‬‭very‬‭high‬‭masses‬‭and‬‭are‬‭B-type‬‭stars‬‭with‬‭lifetimes‬‭as‬‭short‬ ‭as‬‭a‬‭few‬‭million‬
‭years.‬‭Because‬‭of‬‭this,‬‭they‬‭are‬‭very‬‭rare.‬‭Several‬‭supernovae‬‭have‬‭been‬ ‭associated‬‭with‬
‭LBVs.‬

‭MIRA‬‭VARIABLES‬

‭-Characterized‬‭by‬‭very‬‭red‬‭colors‬‭and‬‭long‬‭pulsation‬‭periods,‬‭Mira‬‭variables‬‭are‬‭late‬‭stage‬
r‭ ed‬‭giants‬‭in‬‭the‬‭asymptotic‬‭giant‬‭branch.‬‭They‬‭are‬‭old‬‭and‬‭will‬‭become‬‭white‬ ‭dwarfs‬‭and‬
‭planetary‬‭nebulae‬‭in‬‭a‬‭few‬‭million‬‭years.‬

‭-Have‬‭masses‬‭of‬‭less‬‭than‬‭2M‬‭☉‬‭and‬‭have‬‭already‬‭undergone‬‭helium‬‭fusion‬‭in‬‭their‬‭cores.‬
‭SEMIREGULAR‬‭VARIABLES‬

‭-Giants‬‭or‬‭supergiants‬‭of‬‭intermediate‬‭and‬‭late‬‭spectral‬‭type‬‭with‬‭periods‬‭ranging‬‭from‬
‭ 0-2000‬‭days.‬‭Light‬‭curve‬‭shapes‬‭may‬‭be‬‭variable‬‭each‬‭time.‬
2

‭2025‬

‭-SRA‬‭Spectral-type‬‭(M,‬‭C,‬‭S‬‭/‬‭Me,‬‭Ce,‬‭Se)‬‭giants‬‭with‬‭persistent‬‭periodicity‬‭and‬‭usually‬ ‭small‬
‭ mplitude.‬‭Amplitudes‬‭and‬‭light‬‭curves‬‭generally‬‭vary.‬‭Essentially‬‭Mira‬‭variables‬ ‭pulsating‬‭in‬
a
‭an‬‭overtone.‬

‭-SRB‬‭Spectral‬‭type‬‭(M,‬‭C,‬‭S‬‭/‬‭Me,‬‭Ce,‬‭Se)‬‭giants‬‭with‬‭poorly‬‭defined‬‭periodicity‬‭(irregular).‬
‭ ay‬‭sometimes‬‭cease‬‭to‬‭vary‬‭at‬‭all‬‭for‬‭some‬‭time.‬‭2+‬‭simultaneous‬‭periods‬‭of‬‭variation.‬
M

‭-SRC‬‭Spectral‬‭type‬‭(M,‬‭C,‬‭S‬‭/‬‭Me,‬‭Ce,‬‭Se)‬‭supergiants‬‭with‬‭amplitudes‬‭of‬‭about‬‭1‬‭mag‬‭and‬
‭ eriods‬‭of‬‭light‬‭variation‬‭from‬‭30‬‭to‬‭several‬‭thousand‬‭days.‬
p

‭-SRD‬‭Giants‬‭and‬‭supergiants‬‭of‬‭F,‬‭G,‬‭or‬‭K‬‭spectral‬‭types,‬‭sometimes‬‭with‬‭emission‬‭lines‬ ‭in‬
s‭ pectra.‬‭0.1-4‬‭mag‬‭var.‬‭in‬‭light,‬‭per.‬‭30-1100‬‭days.‬

‭DWARF/RECURRENT‬‭NOVAE‬
 ‭-Dwarf‬‭nova:‬‭periodic‬‭outbursts‬‭when‬‭a‬‭white‬‭dwarf‬‭accretes‬‭matter‬‭which‬‭collapses‬ ‭onto‬
t‭he‬‭dwarf,‬‭releasing‬‭much‬‭energy‬‭without‬‭destroying‬‭the‬‭star.‬

‭-Recurrent‬‭novae:‬‭novae‬‭occurring‬‭over‬‭and‬‭over‬‭again.‬‭Bimodal‬‭mag.‬‭Light‬‭curves.‬ ‭Ejected‬
‭ atter‬‭can‬‭be‬‭detected‬‭spectroscopically‬‭which‬‭is‬‭the‬‭difference‬‭between‬‭dwarf‬ ‭nova.‬
m

‭ORBITAL‬‭MOTIONS,‬‭DISTANCES,‬‭AND‬‭MATHEMATICS‬

‭KEPLER’S‬‭LAWS‬
‭KEPLER’S‬‭FIRST‬‭LAW‬‭–‬‭LAW‬‭OF‬‭ELLIPTIC‬‭ORBITS‬

‭-Each‬‭star‬‭(or‬‭planet)‬‭moves‬‭in‬‭an‬‭elliptical‬‭orbit‬‭with‬‭the‬‭center‬‭of‬‭mass‬‭at‬‭one‬‭focus.‬
‭KEPLER’S‬‭SECOND‬‭LAW‬‭–‬‭LAW‬‭OF‬‭EQUAL‬‭AREAS‬

‭-A‬‭line‬‭between‬‭one‬‭star‬‭and‬‭the‬‭other‬‭(radius‬‭vect.)‬‭sweeps‬‭out‬‭equal‬‭areas‬‭in‬‭equal‬
t‭imes.‬

‭KEPLER’S‬‭THIRD‬‭LAW‬‭–‬‭LAW‬‭OF‬‭HARMONICS‬

‭-The‬‭square‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star’s‬‭orbital‬‭period‬‭is‬‭proportional‬‭to‬‭its‬‭mean‬‭distance‬‭from‬‭the‬‭center‬ ‭of‬
‭ ass‬‭cubed.‬‭The‬‭formula,‬‭where‬‭A‬‭is‬‭mean‬‭separation‬‭in‬‭A.U.‬‭and‬‭M‬‭is‬‭solar‬‭masses‬ ‭and‬‭P‬
m
‭is‬‭the‬‭period‬‭in‬‭years:‬

‭FINDING‬‭DISTANCES‬
‭THE‬‭DISTANCE‬‭MODULUS‬

‭2025‬

‭-The‬‭distance‬‭modulus‬‭μ‬‭(mu)‬‭gives‬‭the‬‭relationship‬‭between‬‭a‬‭celestial‬‭object’s‬‭apparent‬
‭ agnitude,‬‭absolute‬‭magnitude,‬‭and‬‭distance‬‭in‬‭parsecs:‬
m

‭-If‬‭one‬‭has‬‭access‬‭to‬‭two‬‭of‬‭the‬‭three‬‭variables,‬‭one‬‭can‬‭find‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭the‬‭other.‬‭The‬
‭ quation‬‭can‬‭be‬‭rearranged‬‭in‬‭order‬‭to‬‭accommodate‬‭the‬‭problem‬‭at‬‭hand.‬‭The‬‭apparent‬
e
‭magnitude‬‭m‬‭of‬‭an‬‭object‬‭like‬‭a‬‭Cepheid‬‭can‬‭be‬‭obtained‬‭by‬‭examining‬‭its‬‭light‬‭curve,‬‭if‬ ‭given.‬
‭Its‬‭absolute‬‭magnitude‬‭M‬‭can‬‭be‬‭found‬‭via‬‭the‬‭Period-Luminosity‬‭relationship.‬

‭PARALLAX‬‭(STELLAR‬‭MAX‬‭DIST.‬‭~650ly)‬

‭-Observing‬‭an‬‭object‬‭to‬‭determine‬‭its‬‭object‬‭via‬‭the‬‭displacement‬‭in‬‭its‬‭apparent‬
‭ isplacement‬‭from‬‭two‬‭lines‬‭of‬‭sight.‬
d

‭-Formula‬‭for‬‭distance,‬‭d‬‭in‬‭parsecs‬‭with‬‭an‬‭angle‬‭p‬‭in‬‭arcseconds:‬
‭SPECTROSCOPIC‬‭PARALLAX‬‭(MAX‬‭DIST.‬‭~10,000pc)‬

‭-One‬‭must‬‭measure‬‭the‬‭apparent‬‭magnitude‬‭of‬‭a‬‭star‬‭and‬‭know‬‭its‬‭spectral‬‭type.‬‭If‬‭on‬‭the‬‭main‬
s‭ equence,‬‭abs.‬‭magnitude‬‭can‬‭be‬‭approximated‬‭and‬‭then‬‭distance‬‭can‬‭be‬‭solved‬‭for‬ ‭using‬‭the‬
‭distance‬‭modulus.‬‭Difference‬‭may‬‭be‬‭off‬‭due‬‭to‬‭interstellar‬‭extinction.‬

‭THE‬‭PERIOD-LUMINOSITY‬‭RELATIONSHIP‬
‭-The‬‭period‬‭of‬‭a‬‭Cepheid‬‭variable‬‭is‬‭directly‬‭related‬‭to‬‭its‬‭luminosity.‬‭The‬‭longer‬‭the‬ ‭period,‬‭the‬
‭ igher‬‭its‬‭luminosity.‬‭The‬‭relationship‬‭between‬‭its‬‭mean‬‭absolute‬‭magnitude‬ ‭and‬‭period‬‭can‬‭be‬
h
‭given‬‭by‬‭the‬‭following‬‭equation,‬‭where‬‭P‬‭is‬‭measured‬‭in‬‭days:‬

‭-If‬‭the‬‭mean‬‭visual‬‭(‬‭V)‬‭and‬‭near-infrared‬‭(‭I‬‬‭)‬‭magnitudes‬‭are‬‭known,‬‭the‬‭distance‬‭d‬‭in‬
‭ arsecs‬‭to‬‭classical‬‭Cepheids‬‭is‬‭given‬‭with‬‭the‬‭following‬‭formulae:‬
p

‭Or‬

‭-The‬‭relationship‬‭may‬‭also‬‭be‬‭used‬‭for‬‭objects‬‭that‬‭behave‬‭similarly‬‭to‬‭Cepheids,‬‭such‬‭as‬ ‭Mira‬
‭ nd‬‭RR‬‭Lyrae‬‭variables,‬‭although‬‭adjustments‬‭will‬‭be‬‭needed.‬‭Longest‬‭range‬ ‭~25MPC‬
a

‭2025‬

‭THE‬‭MASS-LUMINOSITY‬‭RELATIONSHIP‬
‭-An‬‭equation‬‭giving‬‭the‬‭relationship‬‭between‬‭a‬‭star’s‬‭mass‬‭and‬‭its‬‭luminosity.‬

☉ ☉
‭ ‬ ‭ ‬ ‭(M‬‭<‬‭0.43M‬‭ ‬‭)‬ ☉
‭ ‬ ‭☉‬
☉
‭(0.43M‬‭☉‬‭<‬‭M‬‭<‬‭2M‬‭☉‭)‬ ‬
☉ ☉ ☉
‭ ‬ ‭ ‬ ‭(2M‬‭ ‬‭<‬‭M‬‭<‬‭20M‬‭ ‭)‬ ‬ ☉

☉ ☉
‭ ‬ ‭ ‬

‭(M‬‭>‬‭20M‬‭☉‬‭)‬
‭^‬‭For‬‭the‬‭value‬‭of‬‭a‬‭(the‬‭exponent),‬‭main-sequence‬‭stars‬‭are‬‭commonly‬‭3.5‬
 ‭FORMULAE‬‭AND‬‭NUMBERS‬‭WORTH‬‭KNOWING‬
‭Bolometric‬

‭Magnitude‬

‭OBJECTS‬

‭MIRA‬
‭AKA:‬‭Omicron‬‭Ceti,‬‭SAO‬‭129825,‬‭HIP‬‭10826‬

‭Cetus‬‭B-V:‬‭+1.53‬‭RA:‬‭02h‬‭19m‬‭20.79120s‬ ‭Spec.‬‭Type:‬‭M7‬‭IIIe‬‭Dist:‬‭~350‬‭ly‬
‭Dec:‬‭–02°‬‭58′‬‭39.4956″‬

‭ ‬‭white‬‭dwarf-red‬‭giant‬‭binary‬‭system‬‭consisting‬‭of‬‭Mira‬‭A,‬‭the‬‭red‬‭giant,‬‭and‬‭Mira‬‭B,‬‭the‬ ‭white‬
A
‭dwarf.‬‭Mira‬‭A‬‭is‬‭undergoing‬‭mass‬‭loss‬‭to‬‭Mira‬‭B‬‭and‬‭are‬‭separated‬‭by‬‭a‬‭distance‬‭of‬ ‭about‬
‭70AU.‬‭Up‬‭to‬‭3.5Mag‬‭and‬‭as‬‭low‬‭as‬‭8.6-10.1Mag.‬

‭W49B‬
‭AKA:‬‭SNR‬‭G043.3-00.2‬

‭Aquila‬‭B-V:‬‭+1.53‬‭RA:‬‭19h‬‭11m‬‭09s‬ ‭2025‬

‭Supernova‬‭Remnant‬‭Dist:‬‭~26,000‬‭ly‬‭Dec:‬‭+09°‬‭06′‬‭24″‬

‭ ighly‬‭distorted‬‭SNR,‬‭created‬‭via‬‭a‬‭special‬‭type‬‭of‬‭supernova.‬‭About‬‭1,000‬‭years‬‭old‬‭and‬
H
‭shot‬‭more‬‭matter‬‭out‬‭of‬‭its‬‭poles‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭its‬‭equator.‬‭Remnant‬‭may‬‭be‬‭a‬‭black‬‭hole,‬
‭possibly‬‭the‬‭youngest‬‭in‬‭the‬‭galaxy.‬‭More‬‭barrel-shaped‬‭in‬‭terms‬‭of‬‭intense‬‭X-ray‬ ‭emissions‬
‭from‬‭nickel‬‭and‬‭iron.‬

‭TYCHO’S‬‭SNR‬
‭AKA:‬‭SN‬‭1572‬

‭Cassiopeia1‬‭Disc:‬‭Nov.‬‭1572‬‭RA:‬‭02h‬‭19m‬‭20.79120s‬ ‭Supernova‬‭Remnant‬
‭Dist:‬‭~8000-13000‬‭ly‬‭Dec:‬‭–02°‬‭58′‬‭39.4956″‬

‭ roduced‬‭as‬‭a‬‭result‬‭of‬‭a‬‭type‬‭1a‬‭(white‬‭dwarf)‬‭supernova.‬‭Possesses‬‭a‬‭companion‬‭G2‬‭star‬
P
‭that‬‭is‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭have‬‭contributed‬‭the‬‭mass‬‭necessary‬‭for‬‭the‬‭supernova.‬