MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

For the measurement of length usually metre scales are used with an accuracy up
tomillimetres.To measure length, say 1/100th of a centimetre (or) 1/100th of a millimetre, it is not
possible to measureaccurately using metre scale. Hence the following instruments are used for more
accuracy.

1. Vernier Callipers (Accuracy up to 1/100th of cm)

2. Screw gauge (Accuracy up to 1/100th of mm)

A. VERNIER CALLIPERS

Design of the Instrument

It consists of two scales viz, main scale and vernier scale. The main scale is a long steelbar
graduated in inches on the top and in centimetres on the bottom. 10 main scale divisions are equalto
lcm. The vernier scale has 10 divisions which are equal to 9 main scale divisions. There are twometal
jaws A & B.-A is fixed and B is movable which can be fixed at any position using the screw(s) as
shown in fig. A-1.

The projections P1 and P2 of the jaws in the upward direction is used to measure the
internaldiameter of the calorimeter, cylinder, etc.
Least Count
Least Count of vernier callipers is defined as the smallest length that can be
accuratelymeasured and is equal to the difference between the main scale division (MSD) and the
vernier scaledivision (VSD).

Derivation

LC=1 MSD - VSD

10 MSD=1 cm
1
10 MSD = cm
10
But 10 VSD = 9 MSD
9 9 1
 1VSD = MSD (or) ( )
10 10 10
9
= cm
10
1 9
LC = ( − ) cm
10 10
1
= cm = 0.01 cm
100

LC = 0.01 cm

No Zero Error

To find the zero error of the of the

vernier callipers, the two jaws A and B
arebrought in contactwith each other. If the zero
of the vernier scale coincides with thezero of the
main scale then there is no zero error (Fig. A-2).
Hence there is no need toapply zero correction.

Positive Zero Error

If the zero of the vernier scale lies on the

right side of the zero of the mainscale, then the
instrument has an error called positive zero error
(Fig A-3). This error should be subtracted from
the final reading. Thus, the zero correction is negative.

Example

If the 4% vernier division coincides with any of the main scale division, then
zero error = Vernier Scale coincidence  Least count

= VSC x LC

= 4  0.01 = 0.04 cm

 Zero Correction = 0.04 cm

Negative Zero Error

If the zero of the vernier lies on the left side of

the zero of main scale, then the instrument is said to
have an error called negative zero error. (Fig A-4).
This errorshould be added to the final reading. Thus,
the zero correction is positive.

Example

If the 6th division of the verniercoincides with

any of the main scale division,then

Zero error = – (number of vernier scale divisions –

vernier scale coincidence)  least count

= – (10 – 6)  0.01 cm

= – 4 0.01 =– 0.04 cm

Zero Correction=0.04 cm

To find the length of the specimen

The specimen whose length (or) outer diameter is to be determined is held betweenthe two
jaws. The position of zero of the vernier on the main scale gives the mainscale reading(MSR). The
vernier division which coincides with any one of the main scale divisions gives thevernier scale
coincidence (VSC), then

Observed reading (OR) = MSR+ (VSC  LC) in cms

 Actual (or) correct Reading = OR ± Zero Correction in cms

B.SCREW GAUGE

Design of the Instrument

It consists of two scales namely pitch scale and head scale. Pitch scale is a millimetre scale
engraved on the cylinder (C), which is rigidly attached with the frame (f). The head scale carries 100
equal divisions. The specimen can be held in between the two edges A (fixed) and B (movable) as
shown in Fig. B-1.

Derivation of Least Count

Pitch
LC =
No.of head scale divisions

Distance moved on the pitch scale

Pitch =
No.of head scale divisions
To find pitch the head is given say, two rotations and the distance moved by the head on the
pitch scale is noted.
2mm
Pitch =
2
= 1 mm

Number of head scale divisions = 100

 1
LC = mm
100

LC = 0.01 mm

To find zero error

To find zero error the stud A and the screw

tip B are kept in contact. If the zero of the head
scale coincides with zero of the pitch scale on the
reference line, the instrument is said to have no
zero error (Fig. B-2).

Positive zero error

If the zero of the head scale lies below the

reference line of the pitch scale, the zero error is
positive and the correction in negative(Fig B-3).

Example

If the 5th division of the head scale

coincides with the reference line ofthe pitch scale,
then

Zero error = head scale coincidence × Least count

= 5 × 0.01 mm = 0.05 mm

Zero correction = – 0.05 mm

Negative zero error

If the zero of the head scale lies above

the reference line of the pitch scale (Fig B-4)
the zero error is negative and the correction is
positive.
Example

If the 95th division of the head scale coincides with the reference line of the pitch scale then,

Zero error = – (100 – head scale coincidence) × least count

= – (100 – 95)× 0.01 mm

= - 0.05 mm

Zero correction = 0.05 mm

The wire is gripped gently between the faces A and B. The number of pitch scale divisions
just in front of the head scale gives the pitch scale reading. The division on the head scale that
coincides with the reference line gives the head scale coincidence. The readings are noted and are
tabulated.

Example

Suppose if the PSR = 5 mm

H.S.C. = 35 div,

HSR = HSC x L.C.  35 x 0.01= 0.35 mm

Observed reading = PSR + HSR 5+0.35 = 5.35 mm

If the zero error is 0.04 mm, then the zero correction is -0.04 mm,

Correct reading = OR ± Z.C

=(5.35 - 0.04) mm

= 5.31 mm

C. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Design of the Instrument

Travelling Microscope consists of an ordinary compound microscope, which slides along a

graduated vertical pillar, attached to a horizontal base resting on the levelling screws. The main scale
divisions along with vernier scale divisions are marked on the horizontal base and the vertical pillar
as shown in Fig.C-1.
 The microscope can be moved up and down in the vertical pillar and can be moved in, to and
fro direction over the horizontal base. Thus, the microscope can be moved both in the vertical and
horizontal directions. Two fine adjustment screws are provided for the horizontaland vertical
movements respectively.

The image of the object can be focused by adjusting the side screw (S) attached to the
microscope. The eye piece of the microscope is provided with a cross wire. The main scale is divided
into millimetre and half a millimetre. Therefore, the value of one main scale division (MSD) is 0.5
mm. The Vernier scale of the travelling microscope is divided into 50 divisions which are equivalent
to 49 main scale divisions.

Least Count Derivation

LC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD
20 MSD = 1 cm
1
1MSD = cm
20
Here 50 VSD = 49 MSD

49 49 1
1VSD = MSD (or) ( ) cm
50 50 20

49
1 VSD = cm
1000

1 49
LC = ( – ) cm
20 1000
 1
= cm
1000

LC = 0.001 cm
 EXPERIMENTS
Physics laboratory
 1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM – DETERMINATION OF
RIGIDITY MODULUS OF WIRE AND MOMOENT OF
INERTIA OF REGULAR OBJECT (WITHOUT MASS)

Expt. No. : Date :

AIM

To determine the moment of inertia of the regular object (circular disc), and rigidity modulus
of the given material of a wire by torsional oscillations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Torsion pendulum in the form of circular metal disc, suspended wire, metre scale, stop watch,
screw gauge, vernier calliper, etc.

FORMULA

MR2
(i) Moment of inertia of the regular object (disc) I = kgm2.
2

(ii) Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire

8𝜋𝐼𝐿
𝑛= 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑟 4 𝑇2

Symbol Explanation Unit

M Mass of circular disc kg

R Radius of the circular disc metre

R Radius of the given wire metre

L Length of the suspension wire metre

T Time period for various lengths second

(II) MEASUREMENT OF THE DIAMETER OF THE SUSPENSION WIRE
USING SCREW GAUGE
LC = 0.01 mm ZE = ………..  10-3 m
ZC = ………..  10-3 m

Sl. Pitch Scale Head Scale Observed Reading Correct Reading

No. Reading (PSR) Coincidence OR = PSR + = OR ± ZC
(HSC) (HSCLC)
Unit  10-3 m Div  10-3 m  10-3 m

Mean diameter = …………... 10-3 m

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Radius of the suspension wire (r) = = …………….. 10-3 m
2

(III) MEASUREMENT OF THE DIAMETER OF THE DISC USING VERNIER

CALLIPERS

LC = 0.01 mm ZE = ………..  10-2 m

ZC = ………..  10-2 m

Sl. Main Scale Vernier Scale Observed Reading Correct Reading

No. Reading (MSR) Coincidence OR = MSR + = OR ± ZC
(VSC) (VSCLC)
Unit  10-2 m Div  10-2 m  10-2 m

Mean diameter = …………...  10-2 m

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
 Radius of the circular disc (R) = = …………….. 10-2 m
2
THEORY

The circular disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so that a twist is given to the wire
whichholds the disc. Hence the various elements of the wire undergo shearing strains. The
restoringcouples, which tend to restore the unstrained conditions are called into action. Now when
the disc isreleased it starts executing torsional oscillations. The couple which acts on the disc
produces in it anangular acceleration which is proportional to the angular displacement and is
always directed towardsits mean position. Hence the motion of the disc is a simple harmonic
motion.

PROCEDURE

A uniform thin wire whose rigidity modulus has to be found is suspended from a
rigidsupport. The other end of the wire is attached to a circular disc using an adjustable chuck. The
lengthof the suspension wire (L) between the point of suspension and the metal disc is the length of
thetorsional pendulum as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Initially, the length of the pendulum is adjusted, say 60 cm. Torsional oscillations are set
upby giving a small twist to the disc. The time taken for 10 oscillations are found and hence
timeperiod,which is nothing but the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.

The length of the pendulum is increased in steps of 5 (or) 10 cm and periods of

oscillationsare found for each length. The readings are tabulated in the tabular column and the mean
of L/T2 is calculated.

The radius of the wire (r) is found using screw gauge and the radius of the disc (R) is
foundusing vernier callipers.

The mass (M) of the metal disc is found using the biscuit balance by substituting the
values,in the given formula the moment of inertia can be calculated.

Now by substituting the value of moment of inertia and L/T 2 in the given formula rigidity
modulus of the given wire can be calculated.
 WORKSHEET FOR CALCULATION

CALCULATION

MR2
(i) Moment of inertia of the regular object (disc) I = kgm2.
2

8𝜋𝐼𝐿
(ii) Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire 𝑛= 𝑁𝑚−2
𝑟 4 𝑇2
RESULT

(i) The moment of inertia of the regular object (disc) (I) = ................ kgm2

(ii) The rigidity modulus of the suspension wire (n)

(a) By calculation = …………………. Nm–2

(b) By graph = ………………… Nm–2

VIVA-VOCE

1. What is torsional pendulum?

A body suspended from a rigid support by means of a long and thin elastic wireand produce
rotational oscillation is called torsional pendulum.
2. What is the rigid body you can use for a torsional pendulum?
Sphere, cylinder or circular disc.
3. Why is it called a torsional pendulum?
As it performs torsional oscillations, it is called a torsional pendulum.
4. What is the type of oscillation?
It is simple harmonic oscillation type.
5. On what factors does the time period depends?
It depends upon G) moment of inertia of the body (ii) rigidity of wire ie, length,radius and material
of the wire.
6. What type of wire do you prefer for this experiment
Thin and long metallic wire.
7. How will you determine the rigidity of fluids?
As fluids do not have a shape of their own, hence they do not possess rigidity.Hence there is no
question of determining it.
Scope of the experiment
By doing the experiment, we understand the concept of elasticity. The elasticcharacteristics of
different (wire} materials like steel, copper etc., can be analysed.
 Fig.2.1. Young’s Modulus – Non-Uniform Bending

To find the Least Count of Travelling Microscope

Least Count = 1 MSD – 1 VSD

20 MSD =1 cm

1
Value of 1 MSD = cm = 0.05cm
20

Number of Vernier Scale Division = 50

50 VSD = 49 MSD

49 49
 1 VSD = MSD = 0.05 =0.049
50 50

LC = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm

LC = 0.001 cm
 2. YOUNG’S MODULUS
NON – UNIFORM BENDING
Expt. No.: Date:
AIM
To find the Young’s modulus of the material of a uniform bar (metre scale) byNon-Uniform
bending.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Travelling microscope 2. Two knife edge supports 3. Weight hanger with set ofweights 4.
Pin 5. Metre scale 6. Vernier Callipers 7. Screw gauge 8. Wooden bar
FORMULA
Young’s modulus of the beam (metre scale).

M g 𝑙3
Y= Nm–2
4 𝑏 𝑑3 𝑦

Symbol Explanation Unit

y Mean depression for a load M metre
g Acceleration due to gravity ms–2
l Distance between the two knife edges metre
b Breadth of the beam (metre scale) metre

d Thickness of the beam (metre scale) metre

M Load applied kg

PROCEDURE
The weight of the hanger is taken as the dead load W. The experimental bar isbrought to
elastic mood by loading and unloading it a number of times with slotted weights.With the dead load
W suspended from the mid-point, the microscope is adjusted such thatthe horizontal cross-wire
coincides with the image of the tip of the pin. The reading in thevertical scale is taken. (Fig. 2.1).
The experiment is repeated by adding weights in steps. Every time the microscopeis
adjusted and the vertical scale reading is taken. Then the load is decreased in thesame steps and the
readings are taken. From the readings, the mean depression of themid - point for a given load can be
found. The length of the bar between the knife edgesis measured (l).
The bar is removed and its mean breadth 6 and mean thickness are determinedwith a vernier
calliper and a screw gauge respectively.
Fig.2.2
 From the observations, Young’s modulus of the material of the beam is calculatedby using
the given formula.

RESULT
Young’s modulus of the
given beam (metre scale)
} ………………………… N m–2
CALCULATION
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 ms–2
Distance between two knife edges l= …………………………………………  10–2 m
Depression for the load applied y= …………………………………………  10–2 m
Load applied M = ……………………………… kg
Breadth of the beam b = ……………………………………….. 10–2 m
Thickness of the beam d = ……………………………………….. 10–3 m

Young’s modulus of the

material of the beam }Y = M g 𝑙3
4𝑏 𝑑3 𝑦
(Nm–2 )

Y = ……………………………….. N m–2
PRECAUTIONS
 The beam must be kept horizontal.
 While taking readings, the microscope must be moved in the same direction so asto avoid
the back-lash error.
 After loading or removing weights, some time must be allowed before taking thereadings.

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is Young’s modulus?

Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain.

2. What is a beam?

When the length of a rod of uniform cross-section is very large compared to itsbreadth such
that the shearing stress over any section of the rod can be neglected, therod is called a beam.

3. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?

Due to depression, the upper or the concave side of the beam becomes smaller thanthe lower
or the convex side of the beam. As a result, longitudinal strain is produced.The change in length
will be due to the forces acting along the length of the beam.These forces will give rise to
longitudinal stress.

4. Which dimension — breadth, thickness, or length of the bar-should bemeasured very

carefully and why?

The thickness of the bar should be measured very carefully since its magnitude issmall and
it occurs in the expression ‘Y in the power of three. An inaccuracy in themeasurement of the
thickness will produce the greatest proportional error in Y.

5. What is the SI unit of Young’s modulus?

newton m–2.

6. Will the value of Young’s modulus obtained by you change if the length,thickness or
breadth of the bar is altered?

No, the Young’s modulus depends on the material of the beam.

7. Why do you place the beam symmetrically on the knife edges?

To keep the reaction at the knife edges equal in conformity with the theory.
 Fig 3.1 Youn’g Modulus – Uniform Bending

DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT: (TRAVELLINGMICROSCOPE)

LC = 1MSD – 1VSD

20 MSD = 1 cm

1
Value of 1 MSD = cm = 0.05 cm
20

Number of Vernier scale division =50

50 VSD = 49 MSD

49 49
 1 VSD = MSD = 0.05 =0.049
50 50

LC = 0.05 – 0.049 = 0.001 cm

LC = 0.001 cm
 3. YOUNG’S MODULUS –
UNIFORM BENDING
Expt. No.: Date:
AIM

To find the Young’s modulus of the beam (metre scale) byUniform bending.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Travelling microscope 2. Two knife edges 3. Two set of weights 4. Pin5. Metre scale
6. Vernier caliper 7. screw guage

FORMULA

Young’s modulus of the beam (metre scale)

3 M g a𝑙 2
Y= Nm–2
2𝑏 𝑑3 𝑦

Symbol Explanation Unit

y Elevation for a load M kg

g Acceleration due to gravity m s–2

l Distance between the two knife edges metre

b Breadth of the beam (metre scale) metre

d Thickness of the beam (metre scale) metre

M Load applied Kg

a Distance between the point of application of metre

loadand the nearest knife edge

PROCEDURE

The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges and two weighthangers are
suspended at equal distance from the two knife edges. A pin is fixed verticallyat the mid-point of
the beam. A suitable dead load W is suspended from each hanger (Fig. 3.1).
 Using Travelling microscope, the reading corresponding to the tip of the pin is taken.The
load is equally increased on both weight hanger in steps of 50gram upto 300 gramand the
corresponding readings in the microscope are noted.

Readings are also taken when the load in each hanger is decreased (unloading) inthe same
step. The readings are tabulated and the mean elevation is determined.

The distance between the two knife edges (/), the distance between the point ofapplication of
load and the nearest knife edge (a) are measured. The breadth (b) of thebeam is determined using
vernier caliper. The thickness (d) of the beam is measuredusing a screw gauge. From the
observations, the Young’s modulus of the material of thebeam is calculated.

RESULT

Young’s modulus of the

material of the beam (metre scale)

PRECAUTION
} ………………………… N m–2

 The beam must be kept horizontal

 Since the value of thickness (d) is small and it also occurs in the power of three,it must be
measured carefully with a screw gauge.
 While taking readings, the microscope must be moved in the same direction, soas to avoid
the back - lash error.
 After loading or removing weights, some time must be allowed before taking thereadings.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is elasticity?

The property of the body to regain its original shape or size, after the removal ofdeforming
force is called elasticity.

2. What are elastic bodies?

Bodies which regain its original shape and size after the removal of deforming forceare
called elastic bodies.
3. Define young’s modulus of elasticity.
Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain iscalled the
Young’s modulus of elasticity.
It is denoted by the letter ‘Y’.
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus of elasticity (Y) =
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Unit: SI unit of stress is Nm–2and strain has no unit. Therefore, SI unit ofYoung’s modulus
is Nm–2
4. What are factors affecting elasticity?
 Stress
 Change in temperature
 Impurities
 Hammering, rolling and annealing
 Crystalline nature.
5. What is uniform bending?
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent beam forms an arc of acircle. The
elevation in the beam is produced. This bending is called uniform bending.
CALCULATION

Elevation for load applied y = ______________  10–2 m

Load applied M = ______________  10–3kg

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s–2

Distance between the point of

application of load and the
nearest knife edge (a) = ______________  10–2 metre

Distance between the two knife edges (l) = ______________  10–2 metre

Breadth of the beam (b) = ______________  10–2 metre

Thickness of the beam (d) = ______________  10–2 metre

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam

3 M g a𝑙 2
Y=
2 𝑏 𝑑3 𝑦

Y = ______________ N m–2
WORK SHEET
 Fig. 4.1 Laser Grating

Fig. 4.2 Diffraction Grating

 4. LASER- DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF THE
DIODE LASER USING GRATING

Expt. No.: Date:

AIM

To determine the wavelength of the given laser source, using diffraction grating.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A diode laser source, diffracting grating, scale, screen, etc.

FORMULA

Wavelength of the laser source

Xm
= Å
Nm√(X2m +D2 )

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Wavelength of the laser source Å (1 Å= 10–10m)

N Number of lines in the grating Lines/meter

m Order of diffraction Unit

Xm Distance of the mth diffracted meter spot metre

from the central bright spot

D Distance between the screen and metre

thegrating
Tofind the wavelength of the laser source

Number of lines in the grating =_________________ lines/inch

Number of lines in the grating = _________________ lines/metre

Distance between the grating and the screen = _________________  10–2 metre

Xm Mean 𝐗 𝟐𝐦 D2 √(𝐗 𝟐𝐦 + 𝐃𝟐 ) 

S.No. Order LHS RHS Xm

 10–2  10–2  10–2  10–4  10–4  10–4 m2 Å

m m m m2 m2
1
2
3
4
5
PROCEDURE

The grating is mounted on the separate grating stand and the screen is kept at a fixeddistance
from the grating. The laser source is switched ON and the laser beam is allowed to passthrough the
grating. When the laser beam passes through the grating it gets diffracted anddiffracted spots are
collected on the screen as shown in figure 4.1. The diffracted spot is observedwith thecentral
maxima (maximum intensity) including first order, second order, third order etc.,minima. The
distance between the central spot and the other diffracted spots are measured oneither side of the
central maxima. The experiment is repeated for various values of distances Dand the readings are
tabulated. Then by the using the given formula the wavelength of the laserlight is determined.

RESULT

The wavelength of the given laser source = ________________ Å.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is semiconductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. It emits laser light
when it is forward biased.

2. What is meant by active material in laser? (A.U, June 2016)

A material in which inversion is achieved is called active material.
3. How lasers are classified? Or Mention the various types of lasers. (A.U, May 2014)

(i) Solid state lasers (ii)Gas lasers (iii) Liquid lasers (iv) Dye lasers (v) Semiconductor
lasers.

4. What is homo-junction laser?

Homo-junction means that a p-n junction is formed by a single crystalline material.
Examples: Gallium Arsenide (Ga-As).
5. What is hetero-junction laser?
Hetero-junction laser means that the junction has two different materials.
Example: Hetero-junction laser can be formed between Ga-As abd Ga-Al-As.
6. What are the applications of semiconductor laser? (A.U. May 2015)
 It is mainly used in fiber optical communications,
 It is used to heal the wounds by means of infrared radiation.
 It is used in printers for computer laser printers, wiring and reading CD’s.
Fig. 5.1. Air-wedge arrangement

Fig. 5.2. Interference Pattern

 5. AIR-WEDGE – DETERMINATION OF
THICKNESS OF A THIN WIRE

Expt. No: Date:

AIM

To determine the thickness (diameter) of a thin wire by forming interference fringesusing

air-wedge arrangement.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Travelling microscope 2. Sodium vapour lamp 3. Two optically plane rectangularglass

plates 4. Condensing lens 5. Reading lens 6. Thin wire

FORMULA

Thickness of the thin wire

l
t= metre
2β

Symbol Explanation Unit

 Wave length of sodium light = 58.93 Å metre

l Distance of the wire from the edge of contact metre

 Mean width of one fridge metre

PROCEDURE

An air wedge is formed by keeping two optically plane glass plates in contact alongone of
their edges. At the other end, thin wire is introduced with its length perpendicularto the length of the
plate. The glass plates are tied together in this position by meansof rubber band. It is then placed on
the horizontal bed plate of the travelling microscope.

The interference pattern can be obtained with the help of the glass plate inclinedat an angle
45° to the horizontal plane and a condensing lens (Fig. 5.1). Light from thesodium vapour lamp is
made to fall vertically on the air wedge. These interference fringesare viewed through the travelling
microscope.

A system of equi-spaced straight alternately dark and bright bands are obtained (Fig. 5.2).
 The vertical cross wire of the microscope is adjusted to coincide with the centre ofwell-
defined dark band near the edge of contact of the glass plates. It is taken as the nth dark fringe. The
reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope is noted.

The microscope is then moved in the same direction by using the horizontaltransverse screw
and made to coincide with every successive 5 th dark fringe. The readingsare noted. This is
continued till about 50 fringes are covered. The readings are tabulated.From these readings, the
mean width of one fringe () is calculated.

The distance ‘l’ between the edges of contact and the wire is measured with thehelp of the
travelling microscope (Fig.5.3). Assuming the wavelength of sodium light,the thickness of the thin
wire is calculated by using the given formula.

RESULT

Thickness of the given thin wire (t) = .................................... metre.

Fig.5.3 Measurement of distance between edge of contact and specimen wire
CALCULATION

Wavelength of the sodium light () = 5893  10–10 m

𝑙
Thickness of the wire (t) = 𝑡 = m
2𝛽

t =

Thickness of the wire (t) = ………………………….. metre

PRECAUTION

 The two glass plates must be cleaned and should be optically plane.
 The movement of the vernier should be in one direction only so as to avoid backlash error.

SCOPE AND ENGINEERING APPLICATION

 This experiment can be used to determine the thickness of any thin objects likehair, paper,
blade etc.
 The thickness of the insulation of an enamelled or cotton covered copper wirecan also be
found by this method.
Fig 6.1. Experimental Setup for numerical aperture measurement

Fig. 6.2 Numerical Aperture Measurement

 6. OPTICAL FIBER – DETERMINATION
OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AND
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Expt. No.: Date:

AIM
To determine acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Laser light source 2. Laser power meter 3. Optical fibre cables of various length 4. Optical
fibre connections 5. Numerical aperture jig 6. Mandrel for optical fibre

FORMULA
𝑟
Acceptance angle 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ( ) (degree / radian)
𝑑

Numerical aperture 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛𝑜 sin 𝜃0 ; (no = 1 for air)

Symbol Explanation Unit

r Radius of the circular image metre
d Distance from fibre end to circular image metre

PROCEDURE
Using laser, we can find the numerical apertures of the fibre optic cable. The given laser
source is connected to the optical fibre cable. The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark
place, The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper (Fig. 6.1).

Now, er get illuminated circular patch on the screen. The distance from the fibre end to
circular image (d) is measured using metre scale. The radius of the circular image is also measured
(Fig. 6.2). Thus, the acceptance angle is calculated. From the acceptance angle, the numerical
aperture of the cable is found by using the given formula.

RESULT
(i) Acceptance angle of the optical fibre = _________________ (radian/degree)
(ii) Numerical aperture of the optical fibre = _________________
 Fig.6.3

𝑟 𝑟
tan 𝜃𝑜 = 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ( )
𝑑 𝑑

Determination of acceptance angle and numerical aperture

S.No. Distance from the Radius of the Acceptance angle

fibre end to the circular image (r) 𝒓
𝜽𝒐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏–𝟏 ( ) 𝑵𝑨 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟎
𝒅
circular image (d)
 10–2 m  10–2 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
MEAN
CALCULATION

𝑟
(i) 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛–1 ( )
𝑑

Mean 𝜃𝑜 = _______________________ (degree / radian)

(ii) 𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃0

Mean NA = ____________________________
VIVA-VOCE

1. What is an optical fibre?

Optical fibre is a thin hairlike structure made up of transparent material. It can guide the light
beam from one end to another end by total internal reflection.

2. What is the principle used in fibre optic communication system? (A.U. Dec 2014)

The principle behind the transmission of light waves in an optical fibre is total internal
reflection.

3. Define acceptance angle.

The maximum angle ‘𝜃𝑜 ’ with which a ray of light enters through one end of the fibre and
still be total internally reflected is called acceptance angle of the fibre.

4. Define numerical aperture.

Numerical aperture is defined as the light gathering capability of an optical fibre. It is the sine
of the acceptance angle
𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃0

5. What are the types of optical fibres based on number of modes? (A.U. Jan 2015)

(a) Single mode fibre – one mode

(b) Multi-mode fibre – many modes.

6. What are the types of optical fibres based on the reflective index profile? (A.U. Jan 2005)

(a) step-index fibre (b) graded-index fibre

7. Mention the components involved in fibre optical system. (A.U. May 2016)

The three components involved in fibre optical systems are

(a) Light source (b) Optical fibre transmission line (c) Photo detector.

8. What is the optical fibre communication system? (A.U. Dec 2014)

It is the communication system in which information is carried by the light through the optical
fibre.
 7. DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT
– PHOTOELECTRIC CELL

Expt. No.: Date:

AIM

To determine the value of Planck’s constant ‘h’ by a photo cell.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Photo emissive cell, DC power supply with digital meters, set of filters and light source.

FORMULA

e(V2 –V1 )1 2

ℎ= Joules-Second
C(1 –2 )

Symbol Explanation Unit

E Electronic charge (1.6 x 10–19) Coulomb

1 and 2 Wavelength of filter 1 andfilter 2 Å (1Å=10°'m)

respectively
V1 and V2 Stopping potentialcorresponding to Volt
wavelengthwith filter1 and filter2
C Velocity of light (3 x 108) meter/second
PROCEDURE

The schematic diagram of Planck’s constant determination is shown in Figure 7.1.Initially

without any electrical connection set zero volt and zero current in power supply.Connect positive
terminal of photo cell to ammeter positive and negative terminal of photo cellto voltmeter positive.
The ammeter and voltmeter negative terminals must be connected together.Now, switch on the light
source and set photo current value around 50 — 55 µA by adjusting the distance between photo cell
and light source. Increase the de-accelerating voltage so that photocurrent value in the display
becomes zero without any filter.

Then, insert any one of the filters (say red filter of wavelength 6300Å ) in the photo cell.The
photo current will arise and increase the de-accelerating voltage until current value is equalto zero.
Note down the stopping potential for red filter at zero current. Similarly repeat this procedure to
green and blue filters and tabulate the values in tabular column.

RESULT

Planck’s constant = ______________ Joules-second

VIVA VOCE

1. What is meant by photoelectric effect?

Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which the electrons are ejected from the surface of
a metal when light is incident on it.
2. What is meant by work function?
It is the minimum amount of energy required to induce the photoemission ofelectrons from a
metal surface.
3. Name some applications of photoelectric effect.
a. Solar panel converts light energy into electricity by the principle called photoelectric effect.
b. Light sensors — Photodetectors
c. Digital camera
d. Barcode scanners — The white areas of the barcode reflect most of light andblack area the
least light. The scanner detects the width and sequence of blackand white stripes and
converts them into numbers.
4. What do you understand by the term stopping potential?
The negative potential of the anode of a photoelectric tube for which photoelectric current
stops (or) become zero is called stopping potential.
5. Define photocurrent.
The current which is induced due to the incident photons that depends on the intensity of
light and does not depend upon frequency.