Vishwashanti Gurukul World School

Academic year 24-25

Unit 2 Notes 1

Water and its biological significance:

What is water?

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O, one molecule
of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.
Let us learn about the physical and chemical properties of water.

Properties of water:

Water is a dipolar molecule.

Water molecules form hydrogen bonds.
Water is the universal solvent.
Water has a high surface tension.

Water is adhesive and cohesive.

Thermal properties:

Water has a high specific heat capacity meaning that it needs to

gain a lot of energy to raise its temperature. Conversely it also needs
to lose a lot of energy to lower its temperature. Water’s specific heat
capacity is 4.2 kJ/g/oC.
Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation which means a lot of
energy is required to evaporate it. When it evaporates, water draws
thermal energy out of the surface it’s on, which can be observed in
sweating.
Water also has a high latent heat of fusion meaning that at 0oC
water must lose a lot of thermal energy before it freezes, thus liquid
water can reach temperatures of down to -10oC before it forms ice.

Other physical properties of water:

It is transparent to sunlight.
 It has high density compared to air.
It is difficult to compress.
It conducts electricity (when it contains dissolved ions)

The Biological Importance of Water

Source: Essence of Water, Apr. 2016, http://essenceofwater.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Water-in-Body-01.png.

Water has several unique properties that make it vital not only
for human beings, but for all living organisms to survive.
Water being a liquid at room temperature provides a marine
environment for organisms to live in, and also provides a liquid
environment inside cells, which holds significant importance as
metabolic reactions that are key to life take place in solution.
Water molecules are dipolar, meaning they have a positively
charged and a negatively charged region. The charges of these
areas attract polar and ionic substances that are dissolved in it,
and the water molecules form a layer around each charged ion,
keeping the substance in solution.
Water is known as the ‘universal solvent’, this is because it
dissolves much more substances than most common solvents.
This is of vital significance as all of the metabolic reactions
essential for life take place in solution in the cytoplasm of living
cells.
Another property caused by water molecules being dipolar is that
water is adhesive, and this adhesion makes water stick to other
polar substances, effectively making it „wet‟. This allows water to
move upwards through the very narrow xylem of tall plants, such
as trees, against gravity. Continuous columns of water can also be
pulled up to the top of trees due to its high tensile strength, meaning
that water columns do not break easily. Also important to plants is
water’s transparency. Water, being transparent and colourless
transmits sunlight, enabling aquatic plants to photosynthesis, and
also enabling us to see, as our eyes are coated in water.
There are also many thermal properties that make water so
essential for life, for example its very high specific heat capacity,
4.2kJ/g/oC. This means that a lot of energy needs to be gained, or
lost, in order to change the temperature of water, and so the
environment inside organisms resists temperature changes that could
cause it damage.
Water also has a high latent heat of vaporisation which means
mean that water needs a lot of energy to evaporate, and so draws this
thermal energy from the surface it is on, cooling it as the water
evaporates from it (this can be observed when we sweat to cool
ourselves).
Water‟s high latent heat of fusion prevents the liquid environment of
cells from freezing, and tearing the cells apart, as liquid water
temperatures can drop to around -10oC before it begins to freeze.
Digested food molecules are in the alimentary canal but need to be
moved to cells all over the body – without water as a solvent this would
not be able to happen.
Toxic substances such as urea and substances in excess of
requirements such as salts can dissolve in water which makes them
easy to remove from the body in urine.
Water is also an important part of the cytoplasm and plays a role
in ensuring metabolic reactions can happen as necessary in cells.
Introduction to macromolecules:

Introduction:

The term macromolecules refer to a very big molecule and something

that consists of more than one atom. Macromolecules are so huge that
these are made up of more than 10,000 or more atoms.
A Polymer is another term for macromolecule. The prefix “poly” refers
to the meaning many; similarly, polygon means a figure with many
sides. Since macromolecules consist of many building blocks called
monomers, hence these terms are synonymous.
Consider a monomer as a brick and a polymer or a macromolecule
being a complete brick wall made up of building blocks. The brick wall
consists of smaller units just like macromolecule is made up of a
monomer as building blocks.

There are 3 main types of biological macromolecules:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins

Source: Pmbiology.net, Oct. 2014, https://pmgbiology.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/averillfwk-

fig12_031.jpg?w=300&h=272.

Source: Pmbiology.net, Oct. 2014, https://pmgbiology.files.wordpress.com/2014/10/averillfwk-

fig12_031.jpg?w=300&h=272.
Carbohydrate:

Carbohydrates are grouped into three main types:

Simple sugars like glucose or fructose – these are called
monosaccharides. Some sugars like sucrose are made of two simple
sugars joined together – these are called disaccharides
Some carbohydrates are macromolecules (polymers) made of many
hundreds of sugar residues joined together – these are called
polysaccharides.
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxzc_2c6GMg

Source: Oct. 2014, https://mitochondriamackenzie.weebly.com/uploads/6/1/0/8/61085393/743079.png?1442603342.

Sources of Carbohydrates

1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.

2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese, pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing small
amounts of vitamins and minerals.

These simple sugars that consist of minerals and vitamins exist commonly
in milk, fruits, and vegetables. Many refined and other processed foods like
white flour, white rice, and sugar lack important nutrients and hence, they
are labelled “enriched.” It is quite healthy to use vitamins, carbohydrates,
and all other organic nutrients in their normal forms.
Carbohydrate Foods
Eating too much sugar results in an abnormal increase in calories which
finally leads to obesity and in turn low calories leads to malnutrition. Therefore,
a well-balanced diet needs to be maintained to have a healthy life. That is the
reason a balanced diet is stressed so much by dietitians.
 Let us look into the differences between the good and bad carbohydrates.
Good Carbohydrates Bad Carbohydrates
High in Nutrients Low in nutrients
Moderate in calories High in calories
Low in sodium and saturated High in sodium and saturated fats
fats
Low in trans-fat and High in trans-fat and cholesterol
cholesterol
They are complex carbs. For Foods considered bad carbs rarely have
instance: Legumes, any nutritional value. Some of the foods
vegetables, whole grains, include white flour, rice, pastries, sodas
fruits, and beans. and processed foods.

Test for Reducing Sugar (Glucose)

Procedure:

1. Take the given sample solution to be tested in a clean test tube.

2. Add 5 ml of Benedict’s reagent to it.
3. Boil the solution for about 4-5 minutes at 90 degrees.
4. Cool the solution and observe the solution.
5. If there is formation of green, red or yellow precipitate then there is presence of
reducing sugars.
6. If there is the appearance of brick red colour, then the presence of reducing sugar
is confirmed.

Test for Starch

Procedure:

1. Take the sample solution to be tested in a clean test tube.

2. Add 2-3 drops of iodine solution.
3. Observe the change in colour.
4. If there is the appearance of a blue- black colour, then the presence of starch is
confirmed.

Lipids:

Lipids are molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make up the building blocks of the
structure and function of living cells. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.

The following points highlight the four main groups of lipids. The groups are:

1. Triglycerides
2. Phospholipids (Membrane Lipids)
3. Steroids
4. Wax.
Test for Fats
Procedure:

1. Take a small quantity of the food item to be tested.

2. Wrap the food item in a piece of paper and crush it.
3. Straighten the paper.
4. Dry the paper by keeping it in sunlight for a while.
5. Observe the paper.
6. An oily patch on the paper indicates the presence of fats in the tested food item.

Proteins:

• Proteins are composed of chains of amino acids.

• A typical protein is about 400 amino acids long.
• As there are 20 different types of naturally occurring amino acids,
many different proteins can be made.
• Different proteins are made of different combinations of amino acids.

Parts of the Amino Acid:

a) Amino group (NH2)
b) Carboxyl group (COOH)
c) R-group: variable- 20 R-groups, so only 20 amino acids.

Types and functions of proteins:

• Proteins can play a wide array of roles in a cell or organism.

Role Examples Functions

Digestive Amylase, lipase, pepsin Break down nutrients in food into small
enzyme pieces that can be readily absorbed

Transport Hemoglobin Carry substances throughout the body in

blood or lymph

Structure Actin, tubulin, keratin

Build different structures, like the
cytoskeleton

Hormone Insulin, glucagon Coordinate the activity of different body

signaling systems

Defense Antibodies Protect the body from foreign pathogens

Contraction Myosin Carry out muscle contraction
Storage Legume storage proteins, Provide food for the early development of the
egg white (albumin) embryo or the seedling
Test for Proteins
Procedure:

1. Take a small quantity of the food items to be tested.

2. Grind/mash/paste/powder the food item.
3. Put the food item into a test tube.
4. Add 10 drops of water and shake the test tube.
5. Using a dropper add two drops of copper sulphate solution to the test tube.
6. Add 10 drops of caustic soda solution and shake the test tube.
7. Observe the colour of the mixture.
8. Violet colour indicates the presence of proteins in the tested food item.

Nutrient Eleme Smalle Types Functions/ Role Deficiency diseases

s nts st Unit
Carbohyd Carbon Monosa Monosaccharide • Providing energy • Short term: Weak, hungry and
rates Hydroge ccharide s and regulation of tired.
n s blood glucose.
(Simple Disaccharides • Long term: lack of carbohydrates in
Oxygen
sugar) • Sparing the use of
proteins for energy. the diet can cause Ketosis — a
Polysaccharides condition where the body switches
• Breakdown of fatty to using protein as an energy
acids and source.
preventing ketosis.
• Biological • Excess: converts to fat — obesity,
recognition type 2 diabetes, heart disease,
processes. some cancers.
• Flavour and
Sweeteners. • Excess sugars: tooth decay.

• Dietary fibre.
Lipids Carbon Glycerol Phospholipids • Energy reserve • Lack of fat in the diet can lead to
Hydroge • Regulate hormone deficiencies of fat soluble vitamins
n Sterols • Transmit nerve A, D, E & K.
Oxygen impulse • Excess fat (either type): obesity and
Phospho Triglycerides • Cushion vital all diseases linked to it.
rus organs • Excess unsaturated fat – build-up
• Transport fat- of cholesterol on artery walls which
Nitrogen
soluble nutrients. can lead to a heart attack.
Sulphur
Proteins Carbon Amino Antibodies • Building Tissues • Wasting of muscle & muscle loss
Hydroge acids and Muscles. • Oedema — build up of fluids in the
Contractile
n • Hormone body
Enzyme
Oxygen Production • Slow growth in children
Nitrogen Hormonal
• Enzymes • Severe deficiency leads to
Phospho Structural kwashiorkor
rus
• Immune Function • Excess — some is removed as
Storage • Energy waste. Rest is stored as fat.
Sulphur
Transport
Bibliography:

Websites:

• “The Biological Importance of Water.” Mybiochem, 17 Jan. 2011,

mybiochem.wordpress.com/2011/01/17/the-biological-importance-of-water/.
• Steane, Richard. “Water - in a Class of Its Own.” Water - Its Biological Significance,
www.biotopics.co.uk/A15/water.html.
• “What Are Some Examples of Hydrogen Bonds?: Socratic.” Socratic.org, 13 May 2015,
socratic.org/questions/what-are-some-examples-of-hydrogen-bonds.
• Admin. “Properties of Water - Physical & Chemical Properties: Chemistry.” BYJUS, BYJU'S, 17
May 2022, byjus.com/chemistry/physical-and-chemical-properties-of-water/.
• “Why Does Ice Float in Water?” Wonderopolis, wonderopolis.org/wonder/why-does-ice-float-in-
water/dummy.

Videos:

• “Properties of Water: Fuseschool.” YouTube, 9 Oct. 2014, youtu.be/h0py6BFlFZw.

• “Biological Molecules: Cells: Biology: FuseSchool.” YouTube, 1 Oct. 2017,
youtu.be/FgfknBZaVTI.
• RicochetScience. “Lipids.” YouTube, YouTube, 12 Apr. 2016,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=5BBYBRWzsLA.