ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (POWER OPTION) LEVEL 6

Unit of Competency: DEMONSTRATE UNDERSTANDING OF ELECTRONICS

Trainer: Julius Mukoma

Course Outline
1. Demonstrate understanding of  BJTs and FETs
semiconductor theory configuration
 Definition of terms  Characteristics of
 Types of materials transistors
 Insulators  Gain of transistors
 Conductors  DC and AC load lines
 Semiconductors 4. Apply special semiconductor
 Types of semiconductor devices
materials  Definition of terms
 Intrinsic and  Types of special
Extrinsic semiconductor devices
2. Demonstrate understanding of  UJT
semiconductor diodes  SCR
 Definition of terms  LASCR
 P-N junction  DIAC
 Semiconductor diodes  TRIAC
 Forward and reverse  SCS
characteristics  Application of special
 Types of semiconductor semiconductor devices
diodes 5. Perform rectification
 Application of  Definition of terms
semiconductor diodes  Classification of rectifiers
3. Demonstrate understanding of  Types of rectifiers
transistors  Application of rectifiers
 Bipolar junction transistors  Types of converters
(BJTs)  Application of converters
 Operation of NPN and 6. Apply amplifiers
PNP transistors  Definition of terms
 Field effect transistors  Types of amplifiers
(FETs)  RC coupled
 Operation of N and P amplifiers
channel FETs  Small signal
 Types of FETs amplifiers
 BJTs and FETs biasing  Power amplifiers

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  Wideband 8. Apply wave shaping and pulse
amplifiers generation circuits
 Operational amplifiers  Definition of terms
(Op-Amp)  Wave shaping
 DC amplifiers  Pulse generation circuits
 Differential  Application of wave
simplifier shaping and pulse
 Op-Amp generation circuits
characteristics 9. Apply opto-electronics
 Op-Amp circuits  Theory of opto-electronics
 Application of amplifiers  Lasers and masers
7. Demonstrate understanding of  Properties and drive
oscillators requirement
 Definition of terms  LED
 Classification of oscillators  LCD
 Sinusoidal  Plasma
 Non-sinusoidal  Photo devices
 Oscillator requirements  Application of opto-
 Oscillator circuits electronics
 Damped and undamped
oscillators

1. SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
Definition of terms
Electronics is the branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a
vacuum or gas or semiconductor.
Electronic device is that in which current flows through a vacuum or gas or
semiconductor.
Some applications of electronics
 Rectification (is the process of converting ac power to dc power)
 Amplification (is the process of raising the strength of a weak signal)
 Control of devices such as motors
 Generation of ac power from dc power (alternators)
 Conversion of light into electricity (photo-electricity)
 Conversion of electricity into light
Atomic Theory involve the study of the structure and properties of atoms
Atom is a particle of matter that uniquely defines a chemical element. i.e the smallest
particle of an element that retains the properties of that element

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Element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
Compound is a substance formed by chemically combining two or more elements
together.
Periodic table is a tabular array of the chemical elements organized by atomic number.
Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of
that element.
NB: The number of protons of an atom equals the number of electrons of the neutral
atom.
Mass number (Atomic Weight) (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom (i.e. A = P + N).
The structure of an atom consists of nucleus which is positively charged and orbits
(energy levels) that comprises of electrons.

Nucleus is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons.
Orbit is the region outside the nucleus of an atom through which electrons revolve
Proton is a positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom while the
neutron has the same mass as the proton, but has no charge.
Electrons are negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus in different
orbits or paths of an atom.
The number and arrangement of electrons in any orbit is determined by the following
rules:
(i) The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 𝟐𝒏𝟐 where n is the number of
the orbit.
For example,
First orbit contains 2 × 12 = 2 electrons
Second orbit contains 2 × 22 = 8 electrons
Third orbit contains 2 × 32 = 18 electrons.
(ii) The last orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons.
(iii) The last but one orbit cannot have more than 18 electrons.

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Draw a structure of the atoms of the following elements Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium,
and Copper and show the composition of the nucleus and orbits of each atom.
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons i.e. the maximum number of
valence electrons can be 8.
The valence electrons which are very loosely attached to the nucleus are known as free
electrons.
Types of Materials
On the basis of electrical conductivity, materials are generally classified into
conductors, insulators and semi-conductors.
(i) A conductor is a substance which has a large number of free electrons and
conducts electric current. E.g. Most metals such as Copper, Aluminium, and
Iron. Usually, they have less than 4 valence electrons.
(ii) An insulator is a substance which has practically no free electrons at
ordinary temperature and do not conduct any electric current. E.g. Rubber,
plastic, sulphur, neon, etc. Usually, they have more than 4 valence electrons.
(iii) A semiconductor is a substance which has very few free electrons at room
temperature and they practically don’t conduct current at room temperature.
E.g. Silicon, Germanium, and Carbon. Usually, they have 4 valence electrons.
Energy Bands in Solids
When energy level of same or slightly different energies in an element are
combined, they form an energy band. For simplicity, the electrons in each energy
band are assumed to have the same amount of energy.
For example, consider a single lithium atom as shown in the figure (a) below and a
lithium metal with 100 lithium atoms as shown in figure (b) below.

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Energy bands
Valence band is the band of energy occupied by the valence electrons. It is usually
the highest occupied band.
Conduction band is the next higher permitted energy band after the valence band.
It may be empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, the electrons move
freely and that’s why it is called conduction band.
Forbidden energy gap is the gap between the valence band and the conduction
band.
If a valance electron happens to absorb enough energy (for example from heat
energy or light), it jumps across the forbidden energy gap and enters the conduction
band (figure below) leaving a hole in the valence band. The hole is filled by an
electron from an adjacent atom in the valence band.

In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators have:

 A full valence band
 An empty conduction band
 A large energy gap (of several eV) between them
 At ordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons from full valence band
gaining sufficient energy so as to surmount energy gap and thus become
available for conduction in the conduction band, is low.

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Figure (a) above shows the energy band diagram of an insulator, figure (b) shows an
energy band for conductors, and figure (c) shows the energy band for semi-
conductors. As shown in figure (b), conductors don’t have a forbidden gap and that the
valence band and the conduction band overlaps each other thus making electrons to
flow freely from the valence band to the conduction band.
In terms of energy bands, it means that electrical conductors are those which have
overlapping valence and conduction bands.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which
have almost an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very
narrow energy gap (of the order of 1 eV) separating the two.
In terms of energy bands, insulators can be defined as those materials which have an
empty conduction band and a filled valence band with a very wide energy gap (of the
order of several eV) separating the two.

Types of Semiconductors
There are two types of semiconductors:
 Intrinsic or pure semiconductors
 Extrinsic or impure semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its
extremely pure form. Examples of such semiconductors are germanium and silicon.
Extrinsic Semiconductor or Impure Semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors which some impurity or doping
agent has been added to it to improve its conductivity.
Doping is the addition of an impurity to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor to improve its
electrical conductivity.

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Types of extrinsic semiconductors
Depending on the doping agent, extrinsic semiconductors are sub-divided into two
classes:
 N-type semiconductors
 P-type semiconductors
Doping agents
The usual doping agents are:
 Pentavalent atoms: - these atoms have five valence electrons. E.g. arsenic,
phosphorus, antinomy, etc.
 Trivalent atoms: - these atoms have three valence electrons. E.g. gallium,
indium, aluminium, boron, etc.
The pentavalent doping atoms are known as donor atoms because it donates or
contributes one electron to the conduction band of pure germanium atom.
The trivalent doping atoms are known as acceptor atoms because it accepts one
electron from the pure germanium atom.
Covalent Bond
This is a type of bond that is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.
Each atom in this type of bond contributes equal number of electrons for sharing. For
example, germanium atom; which has 4 valence electrons, can bond covalently to 4
other germanium atoms as shown in figure (i) and (ii) below. As seen in the figure
below, the middle germanium atom is surrounded by 4 other germanium atoms giving a
total of 8 electrons in its outermost energy level (orbit). A similar observation is made on
the other germanium atoms as they bond covalently to other 3 germanium atoms.
During doping, the middle germanium atom will be replaced by a doping agent
(pentavalent or trivalent) to form an extrinsic semiconductor.

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Formation of N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor
This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent impurity like arsenic (As) is
added to pure germanium crystal. Each arsenic atom forms covalent bonds with the
surrounding four germanium atoms with the help of four of its five electrons. The fifth
electron is free. Since several arsenic (As) atoms are added, several free electrons are
produces and that helps in electrical conductivity. Due to the presence of the free
electrons (negatively charged), the resulting semiconductor is of N-type.
NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the same type
of extrinsic semiconductor.

Formation of P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor

This type of semiconductor is obtained when a trivalent impurity like Gallium (Ga) is
added to pure germanium crystal. In this case, the three valence electrons of Gallium
atom form covalent bonds with four surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left
incomplete and gives rise to a hole as shown in figure below. Since several Gallium
atoms are bonded with germanium atoms, several holes will be produced. Due to the
presence of the free holes (positively charged), the resulting semiconductor is of p-type.
NB: Silicon (Si) can be used in the place of Germanium (Ge) to produce the same type
of extrinsic semiconductor.

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Majority and Minority Charge carriers
In P-type semiconductors, holes (which are positively charged) are the majority
charge carriers while electrons (negatively charged) are the minority charge carriers.
In N-type semiconductor, electrons (negatively charged) are the majority charge
carriers while holes (positively charged) are the minority charge carriers.
The figure below shown the minority and majority charge carriers in both p-type and n-
type semiconductors.

P-N Junction
It is possible to manufacture a single piece of a semiconductor material half of which is
doped by P-type impurity and the other half by N-type impurity as shown in the figure
below. The plane dividing the two zones is called junction.
When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor, the contact
surface is called pn junction.

Formation of P-N junction

One common method of making pn junction is called alloying.
In this method, a small block of indium (trivalent impurity) is placed on an n-type
germanium slab as shown in figure (i). The system is then heated to a temperature of
about 500ºC. The indium and some of the germanium melt to form a small puddle of
molten germanium-indium mixture as shown in figure (ii). The temperature is then
lowered and puddle begins to solidify. The addition of indium overcomes the excess of
electrons in the n-type germanium to such an extent that it creates a p-type region. As

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the process goes on, the remaining molten mixture becomes increasingly rich in indium.
When all germanium has been re-deposited, the remaining material appears as indium
button which is frozen on to the outer surface of the crystallized portion as shown in
figure (iii). This button serves as a suitable base for soldering on leads.

Formation of Depletion Layer

Initially, when both the P- and N-type materials are joined together (without any external
voltage applied) the excess electrons in the N-type and excess holes in the P-type will
get attracted to each other and gets recombined where the formation of fixed ions
(Donor ion and Acceptor ion) takes place as shown in below picture. These fixed ions
resists the flow of electrons or holes through it which now acts as a barrier in between
the two materials (formation of barrier means the fixed ions diffuses into P and N
regions). The barrier which is now formed is called as Depletion region/layer.

Forward Biased P-N Junction

In this connection, the p-region of the semiconductor is connected to a positive terminal
of a battery while the n-region of the semiconductor is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery.

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In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the side of holes while the
holes moves to the side of electrons. For this reason, the depletion layer decreases and
electric current starts to flow through the p-n junction.
Reverse Biased P-N Junction
In this connection, the n-region of the semiconductor is connected to a positive terminal
of a battery while the p-region of the semiconductor is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery.

In this type of connected, the electrons will be attracted to the positive terminal of the
battery while the holes will be attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. For this
reason, the depletion layer increases and no current will flow through it.

2. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE (P-N JUNCTION

DIODE)
Definition of terms

A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only conducts current in

one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified voltage level).
The P-type region is referred to as anode
The N-type region is referred to as the cathode.

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In figure (b) below, arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow when
forward-biased. It is the same direction in which hole current flow takes place.

The figure below shows the schematic/circuit symbol of a diode and some of the
available diodes in the market.

Figure (b) shows the schematic (circuit) symbol of a PN junction diode

The construction of a p-n junction diode is similar to the construction of a p-n junction
explained in the previous topic.

Working of a diode

A P-N junction diode is one-way device offering low resistance when forward-biased
and behaving almost as an insulator when reverse-biased. Hence, such diodes are
mostly used as rectifiers i.e. for converting alternating current (ac) into direct current
(dc).

Biasing of diodes

Biasing refers to the application of an external voltage across a diode to control the
direction and behavior of current flow through it.

Diode biasing modes/types

1. Forward bias diode

When the anode of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and the
cathode to the negative terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be forward bias.

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Operation of diode in forward bias mode

When forward bias, the holes in the P-type region gets repelled by the positive charge
of the battery while electrons in the N-type region gets repelled by the negative charges
of the battery. This decreases the width of the depletion layer and eventually destroys it
if the applied voltage is high enough to overcome the barrier voltage (0.3V or 0.7V). The
result is that the electrons and holes can now cross the opposite sides and constitute
the electric current from the battery to flow through the diode from the P-type to the N-
type region and back to the battery as shown in the figure below.

In this mode, the diode works like a closed switch.

2. Reverse bias diode

When the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of a battery and the
cathode to the positive terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be reverse bias.

Operation of diode in reverse bias mode

When reverse bias, the holes in the P-type region gets attracted by the negative charge
of the battery while electrons in the N-type region gets attracted by the positive charges
of the battery. This increases the width of the depletion layer thus increasing the barrier
voltage. The result is that the electrons and holes cannot cross the opposite sides and
thus no electric current can flow from the battery through the diode. In this mode, the
diode is said to be blocking the flow of current.

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In this mode, the diode works like an open switch.
V-I Characteristics of a PN Junction Diode
It is a graph showing the current (usually on the y-axis) and voltage (usually on the x-
axis) through a diode in both forward and reverse bias. The figure below shows the VI
characteristics of a PN-junction diode.

Forward characteristics
As shown in the figure above, when a diode is in the forward bias, a small leakage
current flows through the diode until when the forward voltage exceeds the knee voltage
of 0.3V (for Ge) or 0.7V (for Si). Beyond the knee voltage, the diode starts allowing
large amounts of current to flow through it in the forward direction.
Reverse characteristics
When the diode is in reverse bias, current is blocked from flowing. However, small
leakage current flows through the diode in reverse direction until when the breakdown
voltage is exceeded. Beyond the breakdown voltage, the diode undergoes avalanche
breakdown (gets damaged) and a large amount of current starts flowing through it in the
reverse direction. Therefore, care should be taken when connecting a diode in the
reverse bias.
Types of diode
1. P-N junction diodes or rectifier diode

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This is the basic diode formed with the interaction of p-type and n-type materials.
They are used mainly for rectification purposes.
The figure below shows the diode and its circuit symbol.

2. Zener diodes
It is the diode designed in such a way that it can operate in the reverse bias mode.
The figure below shows a zener diode and its circuit symbol.

3. Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

This is a type of diode that emits light when a forward current passes through it.

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 4. Schottky diodes
These type of diodes are used for faster switching operations

5. Photo diode
This is the type of diode that allows current to flow through it when light is shining on it
and blocks the current when in the dark.

6. Laser diode (LD)

This is type of diode similar to the LED but it emits coherent light of high intensity.

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Application of Diodes

 Used in rectifiers
 Used in clipper Circuits
 Used in clamping Circuits
 Used in reverse current protection circuits
 Used in Logic Gates
 Used in voltage multipliers
 Used as a switch
 Used in source isolation
 Used as voltage reference
 Used as a light source
 Used as a light sensor
 Used as a solar cell or Photo-Voltaic cell
 Used in the protection against surges

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when
energized.

Construction of LED

Broadly speaking, the LED structures can be divided into two categories:

1. Surface-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the PN

junction plane.

2. Edge-emitting LEDs: These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN junction
plane

The figure below shows the construction of a surface-emitting LED. As seen from this
figure, an N-type layer is grown on a substrate and a P-type layer is deposited on it by
diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in the P-layer, it is kept upper most.
The metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer so as to allow
more central surface area for the light to escape. LEDs are manufactured with domed

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lenses in order to lessen the reabsorption problem. A metal (gold) film is applied to the
bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much light as possible to the surface of the
device and also to provide cathode connection. LEDs are always encased in order to
protect their delicate wires.

Working of LEDs

The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon PN junction
diode. Typically the maximum forward voltage for LED is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V
depending on the device. Reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is of the order of 3 V
to 10 V. For this reason, a current limiting resistor is connected in series with the LED
as shown in the figure (a) below. The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward
current. The amount of power output translated into light is directly proportional to the
forward current as shown in figure (b). It is evident from this figure that greater the
forward current, the greater the light output.

Applications of LED

 LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;

 Used for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes
(CRT);
 Used in image sensing circuits used for ‘picturephone’;
 Used in the field of optical fibre communication systems
 Used in data links and remote controllers;
 Used in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and
numbers) or supplying input power to lasers or for entering information into
optical computer memories;
 Used for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket calculators

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Other Electronic Components Commonly used in Electronic Circuits
Some of the highly used electronic components today are resistors, capacitors,
inductors, diodes, transistors, triacs, thyristors (SCR), photo conductive cells, photo
diodes, light emitting diodes, liquid crystal display (LCD), integrated circuits (IC), etc.
There are two types of electronic components; active electronic component, and
passive electronic component.
Active electronic components are those that rely on an external power source to
function. Examples are transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs), diodes,
MOSFETs, JFETs, etc.
Passive electronic components are components that don’t need an external power
source to function. Examples are resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, etc.
In this unit, we will discuss the construction, operation, characteristics, and applications
of some of these electronic components.
1. Resistors
Resistors are electronic components that are used to resist the flow of electric current.
The unit or resistance is the Ohm, Ω and resistor values may be seen quoted in terms of
Ohms - Ω, thousands of Ohms or kilohms - kΩ and millions of Ohms, megohms, MΩ.
When written on circuits values like 10k may be seen meaning 10 kilohm, or 10 kΩ. The
Omega sign is often omitted and the decimal point replaced by the multipler: e.g. 1R5
would be 1.5 Ohms, 100R is 100Ω, 4k7 is 4.7 kΩ, 2M2 is 2.2MΩ and so forth.
The general circuit symbol of a resistor is as shown in the figure below

Or

The figure below shows a commercial fixed resistor

Resistor Construction
Resistors can be constructed out of a variety of materials. Most common, modern
resistors are made out of either a carbon, metal, or metal-oxide film. In these

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resistors, a thin film of conductive (though still resistive) material is wrapped in a helix
around and covered by an insulating material. Metallic connection leads are then
attached to the end caps of the resistor as shown below.

Types of Resistors
There are two major types of resistors
 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors
Fixed resistors are highly used in most electrical and electronic equipment than the
variable resistors.
Fixed resistors offer a fixed value of resistance to the flow of current. Usually, the
resistance value is set by the manufacturer.
Variable resistors on the other hand have a variable resistance value. These resistors
consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the main resistor
element. This gives three connections to the component: two connected to the fixed
element, and the third is the slider. In this way the component acts as a variable
potential divider if all three connections are used. Variable resistors and potentiometers
are widely used for all forms of control; everything from volume controls on radios and
sliders in audio mixers to a host of areas where a variable resistance is required.
The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a variable resistor

Types of fixed resistors

There are various types of fixed resistors
Metal oxide film or Metal film resistors: - uses a metal film or metal oxide to surround
the ceramic rod. They are used for low power levels. used for medium power
applications.

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Carbon film resistors: - uses a carbon film to surround the ceramic rod. They are used
for low power levels.

Wire wound resistors: - they consists of a high resistance wire wound on a ceramic
former. They are used for high power applications.

Types of variable resistors

Potentiometers: - three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider.
The figure below shows the various types of potentiometers.

Light depended resistor (LDR): - these are resistors whose resistance value depends
on light intensity.

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Rheostat: - is a variable resistor which is used to control current.

Thermistor: - is a type of variable resistor whose resistance value varies with

temperature

Applications of resistors
 Resistors are used in high frequency instrument.
 Resistor is used in power control circuit.
 It is used in DC power supplies.
 Resistors are used in filter circuit networks.
 It is used in wave generators.
 Resistors are used in transmitters, modulators and demodulators.
 It is used in medical instrument.
 It is used in instrumentation applications.
 Resistor is used in voltage regulators.
 It is used in feedback amplifiers.

2. Capacitors
Capacitors are the most widely used electronic components after resistors. We find
capacitors in televisions, computers, and all electronic circuits.

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A capacitor is an electronic device that stores electric charge or electricity when
voltage is applied and releases stored electric charge whenever required. Capacitor
acts as a small battery that charges and discharges rapidly.
Capacitance is the capacitors ability (capacity) to store an electrical charge on its
plates.
Standard Units of Capacitance
1
Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10−6 𝐹
1
Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10−9 𝐹
1
Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10−12 𝐹

Construction of a capacitor
A capacitor is made of two electrically conductive plates placed close to each other, but
they do not touch each other. These conductive plates are normally made of materials
such as aluminum, brass, or copper. The conductive plates of a capacitor is separated
by a small distance. The empty space between these plates is filled with a dielectric
material such as air, vacuum, glass, liquid, or solid (such as paper) as shown in the
figure below.

Working of a capacitor
Charging a capacitor
When no voltage is applied to the capacitor, the total number of electrons and protons in
the each plate of the capacitor are equal thus making them electrically neutral. When
voltage is applied to the capacitor in such a way that, the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to the left side plate of the capacitor and the negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the right side plate of the capacitor, the charging of capacitor
takes place. In this case, a large number of electrons start moving from the negative
terminal of the battery through the conductive wire. When these electrons reach the
right side plate of the capacitor, they experience a high resistance from dielectric

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material. As a result, a large number of electrons build up on the right side plate of the
capacitor. On the other hand, the electrons on the left side plate experience a strong
attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery leaving behind concentration of
holes on the left plate. This constitutes a potential difference between the two plates.
Also, an electric field develops between the two plates through the dielectric material as
shown in the figure below. This way, the capacitor is said to be charged.

Discharging a capacitor
If the external voltage source connected to the capacitor is removed, the capacitor
remains charged. However, when the capacitor is connected to an electric device such
as an electric bulb through a conductive wire, the electrons trapped on the right side
plate starts flowing through the circuit. We know that electric current is the flow of
charge carriers (free electrons). Therefore, when the free electrons or electric current
reaches the light bulb, it glows with high intensity. The electrons that started flowing
from the right side plate through the conductive wire finally reach the left side plate and
fill the holes of the left side plate. As a result, the charge on the left side plate and right
side plate starts decreasing. This decreases the intensity of electric bulb, because the
electric current flowing through the electric bulb decreases. Finally, the charge stored on
the left plate and the right plate is completely released. As a result, the bulb will turn off,
because no electric current flows through the bulb. Thus, the charge stored on the left
plate and right plate of the capacitor is discharged.

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The figure below shows the circuit symbol of a capacitor

Types of capacitors
Capacitors are mainly grouped into
 Fixed capacitors
 Variable capacitors
Fixed capacitor is a type of capacitor which provides fixed amount of capacitance. They
are classified into different types based on the dielectric material used to construct
them. The different types of fixed capacitors are:
Paper capacitor: - uses paper as the dielectric material to store charge.

Plastic capacitor or plastic film capacitor: - uses plastic film as dielectric material to
store charge.

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Ceramic capacitor: - uses ceramic material as dielectric to store charge. They are the
most widely used capacitors in the electronic circuits. These capacitors are used when
large charge storage and small physical size is required.

Mica capacitor: - they are used in the applications where high accuracy and low
capacitance change over the time is desired. These capacitors can work efficiently at
high frequencies.

Electrolytic capacitor: - is a type of capacitor which uses electrolyte as one of its

electrodes to achieve large capacitance. Electrolytic capacitors are mainly used when
high charge storage in small volume is required.

Page 26 of 140
Variable capacitors are those whose capacitance can be varied. There are two most
common types of such capacitors named as a trimmer and rotor-stator capacitors.

Applications if capacitors
 Energy storage
 Pulsed power and weapons
 Power conditioning
 Power factor correction
 Suppression and coupling
 Sensing
 Oscillators

3. Inductors
An inductor is a passive component that is used in most power electronic circuits to
store energy in the form of magnetic energy when electricity is applied to it.
Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy.
The S.I. unit of inductance is Henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is
equivalent to Weber/Ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.
The general circuit symbol of an inductor is shown in the figure below

Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows:
Iron Core Inductor the core of this type of inductor is made of iron as shown in the
figure below.

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Air Core Inductor refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic
forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings as shown below.

Iron Powder Inductor are those that are made of iron oxide core

Ferrite Core Inductor uses ferrite materials as core.

Applications of inductors

 Used in tuning circuits

 Used to store energy in a device
 Used in induction motors
 Used in transformers
 Used in filters
 Used in power supply circuits as chokes (to choke ac current and allow only dc
current to pass)
 Used in inductive sensors such as proximity sensors

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 4. Liquid Crystals Display (LCD)

A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows like a liquid at
room temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties normally
associated with solids (examples of such compounds are: cholesteryl nonanoate and p-
azoxyanisole).

Construction of LCD

As shown in figure (a), a liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer (about 10 µm) of a
liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass sheets with transparent electrodes
deposited on their inside faces. With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is known as
transmittive type cell. When one glass is transparent and the other has a reflective
coating, the cell is called reflective type. The LCD does not produce any illumination of
its own. It, in fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source
for its visual effect.

Working of LCD

The two types of display available are known as (i) field-effect display and (ii)
dynamic scattering display. When field-effect display is energized, the energized
areas of the LCD absorb the incident light and, hence give localized black display.
When dynamic scattering display is energized, the molecules of energized area of the
display become turbulent and scatter light in all directions. Consequently, the activated
areas take on a frosted glass appearance resulting in a silver display. Of course, the un-
energized areas remain translucent.

As shown in figure (b), a digit on an LCD has a segment appearance. For example, if
number 5 is required, the terminals 8, 2, 3, 6 and 5 would be energized so that only
these regions would be activated while the other areas would remain clear

Applications of LCDs

 Field-effect LCDs are normally used in watches and portable instruments where
source of energy is a prime consideration.

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  Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to form the picture elements (pixels) of the
screen in one type of B & W pocket TV receiver.
 Used in recent desk top LCD monitors.
 Used in note book computer display
 Used in cellular phone display

Values and ratings of electronic components

Resistor colour codes
We can determine the value of a resistor using its colour code or using an ohmmeter (or
a multimeter).
Here, we will determine the value or size of a resistor using its color code. A resistor
(fixed) has different colour bands printed on its body like the one shown in the figure
below. To measure the resistance of a resistor using a multimeter, the appropriate
ohmmeter scale is selected and the two leads (red and black leads) of the multimeter
connected to the two ends of the resistor. The value of the resistance will be displayed
on the screen of the multimeter.

The colour bands and their corresponding values are shown in the table below.

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Depending on the size of the transistor, it can have three, four, five or six colour bands.
The last one two colour bands are for tolerance and temperature coefficients
respectively.
For a 3-band or 4-band resistor
The first two bands always denote the first two digits of the resistance value
in ohms. On a three or four-band resistor, the third band represents the
multiplier (power of 10). The fourth color band signifies tolerance. Keep in
mind that if this band is absent and you are looking at a three-band resistor, the
default tolerance is ±20%.

Resistance value is 10 × 103 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10000 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 10 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 5%

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For 5 or 6 Band Resistors
Resistors with high precision have an extra color band to indicate a third significant digit.
If your resistor has five or six color bands, the third band becomes this additional
digit of the resistance value along with bands one and two. Everything else shifts to
the right, making the fourth color band the multiplier and the fifth band the tolerance.
A six-band indicates the reliability, or the temperature coefficient (ppm/K)
specification. Using brown, the most common sixth band color, as an example, every
temperature change of 10°C changes the resistance value by 0.1%.

Resistance value 152 × 106 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 = 152 𝑀𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠 ± 0.1%

Assignment:
Determine the resistance of resistors with the following colour bands.
 Yellow,Violet, Orange, Silver
 Brown, Black, Black, Gold
 Red, Red, Gold
 Blue, Grey, White, Yellow, Silver, Black
Capacitance of a capacitor
To measure the capacitance of a capacitor using a multimeter, the knob is adjusted to
the capacitance section and the two multimeter leads connected to the two terminals of
the capacitor.
We can also determine the value of the capacitance by reading it from the writings
(code) on the body of the capacitor.
For electrolytic capacitors, their capacitance value and voltage ratings are written on the
paper enclosing the capacitor body as shown in the figure below. The value of the
capacitance is expressed in µF.
Note: 1 µF = 10−6 𝐹
In the figure below, the capacitance of the capacitor is 150µF, the maximum voltage
rating is 400V, and the maximum temperature that the capacitor can withstand is 105 0C.

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For ceramic capacitors like the one shown in the figure below, to get the capacitance of
the capacitor, we take the first two digits on the capacitor body to be the first two figures
of the capacitance. The third digit on the capacitor body is called the multiplier and is
usually written as the power of 10 and it is multiplied to the first two figures obtained
previously. The letter written together with the number on the capacitor body is used to
indicate the tolerance of the capacitor. If the number is two digits, the multiplier is
assumed to be zero. The tolerances corresponding to the respective letters are shown
in the table in the figure below. The value is expressed in Pico Farads (pF).
Note: 1 pF = 10−12 𝐹
For example, the value of the capacitance of the capacitor shown below is 10 × 104 𝑝𝐹

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Assignment
Determine the capacitance of the following capacitors. Leave your answer in farads (F).

3. TRANSISTORS
Definition of terms
A transistor is a three terminal electronic device used to amplify or switch an electronic
signal.
Saturation current (Isat) is the maximum current that flows through a transistor when
fully ON.
Cut-off voltage (Voff) is the voltage across a transistor when the transistor is fully OFF.
Load line is a graphical representation of the relationship between output current and
voltage of a transistor.
Quiescent point (Q-point) is the operating point of a transistor in an amplifier circuit
Saturation point is the point on the transistor when the transistor is fully ON.
Cut-off point is the point on the transistor when the transistor is fully OFF.

NB: A transistor is used as a switch when operated in either saturation point or cut-
off point and is used as an amplifier when operated in the Q-point

Types of Transistors
There are two broad categories/types of transistors namely:-
(i). Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
(ii). Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

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Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

A bipolar junction transistor consists of two PN junctions formed by sandwiching either

P-type or N-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

Types of BJTs

(i). NPN transistor

(ii). PNP transistor

An PNP transistor is composed of two N-type semiconductors separated by a thin

section of P-type as shown in figure (i) while a PNP transistor is formed by two P-
sections separated by a thin section of N-type as shown in figure (ii).

The figure below shows a commercial transistor and its circuit symbol

Naming of transistor terminals

A transistor has three terminals/leads namely; emitter, base, and collector.

A transistor (PNP or NPN) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on
one side is the emitter (E) and the section on the opposite side is the collector (C).
The middle section is called the base (B) and forms two junctions between the emitter
and collector.

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 (i) Emitter
It is the section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes).
It is always forward biased with respect to the base
(ii) Collector
It is the section on the other side that collects the charges.
It is always reverse biased with respect to the base.
(iii) Base
It is the middle section which forms two PN-junctions between the emitter and
collector.
The base-emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low resistance for the
emitter circuit.
The base-collector junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance in
the collector circuit.

Some Facts about the Transistor

(i) The transistor has three regions; emitter, base and collector. The base is
much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider than both as shown
in the figure below. However, for the sake of convenience, it is customary to
show emitter and collector to be of equal size.
(ii) The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very
thin so as to pass most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the collector.
The collector is moderately doped.
(iii) The transistor has two p-n junctions i.e. it is like two diodes. The junction
between emitter and base may be called emitter-base diode or simply the
emitter diode. The junction between the base and collector may be called
collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
(iv) The emitter diode is always forward biased whereas collector diode is always
reverse biased.
(v) The resistance of emitter diode (forward biased) is very small as compared to
collector diode (reverse biased). Therefore, forward bias applied to the emitter
diode is generally very small whereas reverse bias on the collector diode is
much higher.

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Working/Operation of NPN transistor
The emitter-base junction is forward bias which causes the electrons in the emitter (N-
type) to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these electrons
flow through the base (P-type), they tend to combine with holes. Since the base is lightly
doped and very thin, only a few electrons combine with holes to constitute base current
IB. The remainder electrons cross over into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC.

Working/Operation of PNP transistor

The emitter-base junction is forward bias which causes the holes in the emitter (P-type)
to flow towards the base. This constitutes the emitter current I E. As these holes flow
through the base (N-type), they tend to combine with electrons. Since the base is lightly
doped and very thin, only a few holes combine with electrons to constitute base current
IB. The remainder holes cross over into the collector region to constitute collector
current IC.

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Circuit/Schematic symbol of NPN and PNP transistors
Figure (i) below shows the circuit symbol of an NPN transistor while figure (ii) shows the
circuit symbol of a PNP transistor.

From the circuits shown above, it is evident that the emitter current is equal to the sum
of the base current and collector current.
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
BJTs Connection/Configuration Methods
There are three methods of connecting a transistor;

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 (i). Common base connection method
(ii). Common emitter connection method
(iii). Common collector connection method
Common base connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output is
taken from collector and base.
Here, base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the
name common base connection.

Emitter Current amplification factor (α) is the ratio of output current IC to the input
current IE.
𝐼𝐶
∝=
𝐼𝐸
At constant VCB

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸 =
𝑅𝐸
For silicon transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉 while for germanium transistor, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.3𝑉
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop,

Page 39 of 140
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐵
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐵
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
Example
1. In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC = 0.95mA. Calculate the value of IB
and the current amplification factor ∝.
Solution
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
1 × 10−3 = 9.5 × 10−3 + 𝐼𝐵
Thus 𝐼𝐵 = 1 × 10−3 − 9.5 × 10−4 = 5 × 10−5
𝐼𝐵 = 0.05 𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐶 0.95𝑚𝐴
∝= = = 0.95
𝐼𝐸 1𝑚𝐴
2. In a common base connection, current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter
current is 1mA, determine the value of base current.
Solution
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶
∝=
𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐶 =∝ 𝐼𝐸 = 0.9 × 1𝑚𝐴 = 0.9𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
1 × 10−3 = 0.9 × 10−3 + 𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐵 = 1 × 10−3 − 0.9 × 10−3
𝐼𝐵 = 0.1 × 10−3 𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = 0.1𝑚𝐴
3. For the common base circuit shown in the figure below, determine IC and VCB.
Assume the transistor to be of silicon (𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉).

Solution

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 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐵
Considering the input circuit, 18 = (4.87 × 10−3 × 1.2 × 103 )
+ 𝑉𝐶𝐵
𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 thus,
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸 8 − 0.7 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 18 − (4.87 × 10−3 × 1.2
𝐼𝐸 = = × 103 )
𝑅𝐸 1.5 × 103
= 4.87𝑚𝐴 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 12.15𝑉
𝐼𝐶 ≅ 𝐼𝐸 = 4.87𝑚𝐴
Common emitter connection
In this circuit arrangement, input signal is applied between base and emitter and output
signal is taken from collector and emitter.
Here, emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the
name common emitter connection as shown in the figures below.
This is the highly used transistor biasing method because of its large current gain 𝛽 and
high voltage and power gains. It has a high input impedance too which is good for
amplification purposes.

Base current amplification factor (β) is the ratio of output current IC to the input
current IB.
𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
Relationship between 𝜷 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∝
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
∝= − − − (𝑖)
𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐶
𝛽 = 𝐼 − − − (𝑖𝑖) Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (ii) to get
𝐵

From the equation 𝐼𝐶

𝛽= − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
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But 𝐼𝐸 from equation (i) is Simplifies to
𝐼𝐶 ∝ 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 ∝
𝐼𝐸 = 𝛽= =
∝ 𝐼𝐶 −∝ 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 (1−∝)
Substitute 𝐼𝐸 into equation (iii) to get ∝
𝛽=
𝐼𝐶 1−∝
𝛽=
𝐼𝐶
∝ − 𝐼𝐶
Assignment
𝜷
Show that ∝= 𝟏+𝜷

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),

𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
Common collector connection
In this circuit arrangement, input signal is applied between base and collector and
output is taken from emitter and collector. Here, collector of the transistor is common to
both input and output circuits and hence the name common collector connection as
shown in the figures below.
This is a rarely used transistor biasing method. Although it has high current gain, its
voltage gain is low (less than 1).

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Current amplification factor (𝜸) is the ratio of output current IE to the input current IB.
𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
𝐼𝐵
Relationship between 𝜸 and ∝
𝐼𝐸 From equation (ii), make 𝐼𝐶 the subject
𝛾= − − − (𝑖)
𝐼𝐵 and substitute it in equation (iii)
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 =∝ 𝐼𝐸
∝= − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
From equation 𝐼𝐸 −∝ 𝐼𝐸
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
𝐼𝐸 (1−∝)
→ 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
1
Substitute 𝐼𝐵 in equation (i) to get 𝛾=
1−∝
𝐼𝐸
𝛾= − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
Transistor Load line analysis
Load line is a line joining the saturation point to the cut-off point showing the
relationship between output current and voltage of a transistor.
Saturation point is the point when the transistor is fully on. At this point, the transistor
acts as a closed switch.
Cut-off point is the point when the transistor is fully off. At this point, the transistor acts
as an open switch.
Operating point (Q) is the operating point of a transistor in an amplifier circuit. It is the
point that gives the values of IC and VCE when no signal is applied to the input circuit of
the transistor.

Page 43 of 140
To get the cut-off and saturation points, we use the output circuit loop and apply the
Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 − − − (𝑖)
At Saturation Point
At saturation, the transistor is fully closed/ON (acts like a conductor/wire). Thus there is
no voltage drop across the transistor at this point, that is 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0𝑉.
Thus equation (i) becomes
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
𝑅𝐶
At Cut-off Point
At cut-off, the transistor is fully open/OFF (acts like an open circuit). Thus there is no
current through the transistor at this point, that is 𝐼𝐶 = 0𝐴.
Thus equation (i) becomes
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸
The load line is thus drawn as shown in figure (ii) above. From the figure, point A is the
saturation-point while point B is the cut-off point.
To get the operating point, the value of 𝐼𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶𝐸 is found using equation (i) also. As
seen in figure (ii) above, the operating points varies depending on the base current 𝐼𝐵 .
This is true because 𝐼𝐶 depends on 𝐼𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐸 .
Example
In the circuit diagram shown in the figure below, if VCC = 12V and RC = 6 kΩ, draw the
d.c. load line. What will be the Q point if zero signal base current is 20µA and β = 50?

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Solution
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 12
𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = 2𝑚𝐴
6 × 103
At saturation
At cut-off point
𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 12𝑉
𝑅𝐶
Operating point Q is, we find 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶
50 =
20 × 10−6
𝐼𝐶 = 50 × 20 × 10−6 = 1𝑚𝐴
To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 , we substitute 𝐼𝐶 in the equation 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
12 = (1 × 10−3 × 6 × 103 ) + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 6𝑉
The operating point is thus 6V, 1mA.
The dc load line and the operating point Q are shown in the figure below

BJT Biasing Methods

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Biasing is the process of applying external dc voltage to an electronic component to set
it to the correct operating condition.
There are four basic transistor biasing methods:
 Base resistor bias method
 Emitter bias method
 Collector-feedback resistor bias method
 Voltage-divider bias method
Base Resistor Bias Method
In this method, a high resistance RB (several hundred kΩ) is connected between the
base and +ve end of supply for NPN transistor and between base and negative end of
supply for PNP transistor as shown in the figure below.

Circuit analysis
𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶
𝐼𝐵 =
𝛽
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit (loop),
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝐵 =
𝐼𝐵
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit (loop),
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

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 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑅𝐶 =
𝐼𝐶
Example
The figure below shows biasing with base resistor method.
(i) Determine the collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE. Neglect
small base-emitter voltage. Given that β = 50.
(ii) If RB in this circuit is changed to 50 kΩ, find the new operating point

Solution
i. Considering the input circuit loop
𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit
2 = 100 × 103 𝐼𝐵 + 0 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
2 9 = 1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝐼𝐵 = = 0.02𝑚𝐴
100 × 103
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (1 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 ) = 7𝑉
𝐼𝐶
50 = The operating point is 7V, 1mA
0.02 × 10−3
𝐼𝐶 = 50 × 0.02 × 10−3 = 1𝑚𝐴
ii. To get the new operating point we repeat the above steps
𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝐼𝐶
50 =
0.04 × 10−3
2 = 50 × 103 𝐼𝐵 + 0
𝐼𝐶 = 50 × 0.04 × 10−3 = 2𝑚𝐴
2
𝐼𝐵 = = 0.04𝑚𝐴 To get 𝑉𝐶𝐸 we use the output circuit
50 × 103
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Page 47 of 140
9 = 2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 The new operating point is 5V, 2mA
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 9 − (2 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 ) = 5𝑉
Assignment
Draw the dc load line and show the two operating points for the above circuit
Emitter Bias Method
This circuit differs from base-bias circuit in two important respects. First, it uses two
separate dc voltage sources; one positive (+ VCC) and the other negative (– VEE).
Normally, the two supply voltages will be equal. For example, if VCC = + 20V (dc), then
VEE = – 20V (dc). Secondly, there is a resistor RE in the emitter circuit.

Circuit analysis
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop
𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 − − − (𝑖) 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐶 𝐼
Thus 𝐼𝐵 = 𝛽𝐸 . Substitute it in equation (i)
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
to get
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐸 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 𝐼𝐸 =
𝛽 𝐵 𝑅𝐵
+ 𝑅𝐸
𝛽
𝐼𝐸
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 But 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶
𝛽 𝐵
𝑅𝐵 Thus
(𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐵 ) = 𝐼𝐸 ( + 𝑅𝐸 ) 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝛽 𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐵
+ 𝑅𝐸
𝛽

Page 48 of 140
Applying Kirchhoff’s law at the output 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐸
circuit loop
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 − 𝑉𝐸𝐸 − − − (𝑖𝑖)
But 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶
Collector Feedback Resistor Bias Method
In this method, one end of RB is connected to the base and the other end to the
collector as shown in the figure below.
Circuit Analysis
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the
input circuit loop
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the
output circuit loop
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Voltage Divider Bias Method

This is the most widely used method of providing biasing and stabilization to a
transistor.
In this method, two resistances R1 and R2 are connected across the supply voltage
VCC and provide biasing. The emitter resistance RE provides stabilization.
The name ‘‘voltage divider’’ comes from the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2. The
voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base emitter junction. This causes the base
current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions.

Circuit Analysis

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The biasing voltage across R2 is given by
𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝐶
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the input circuit loop
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law at the output circuit loop
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸
But 𝐼𝐸 ≅ 𝐼𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶 (𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐸 )
Solved examples
Refer to the handwritten PDF document for this section and “Principles-of-Electronics”
by MEHTA pp 200-229.
Application of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
 Used as amplifiers
 Used as a switch
 Used in impedance marching circuits
 Used in voltage regulation
 Used in oscillators to generate waves signals
 Used in amplification of Radio Frequency (RF) signals
Silicon versus Germanium
Although both silicon and germanium are used in semiconductor devices, silicon is the
most preferred semiconductor in the manufacture of electronics.
Reasons why silicon is highly used semiconductor material compared to
germanium
 It has a low leakage current at room temperature
 It has low variation of leakage current with temperature (i.e It has high thermal
stability)
 It has a wide range of working/operating temperature
 It has a high PIV (peak inverse voltage) ratings
 It is readily available and cheaper than germanium
 It has high breakdown voltage ratings

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Field Effect Transistors (FET)
FETs are voltage controlled devices unlike BJTs which are current controlled devices.
Differences between BJTs and FETs
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
(i). They are current controlled (i). They are voltage controlled
devices devices
(ii). They have low input impedance (ii). They have high input impedance
(iii). They have high noise level (iii). They have low noise level
(iv). Current conduction is due to two (iv). Current conduction is due to one
types of charge carriers; holes and type of charge carrier; either holes
electrons of electrons but not both
(v). Low thermal stability (v). High thermal stability
(vi). Slow switching speed (vi). Fast switching speed

Types of FETs
(i). Junction field effect transistors (JFETs)
(ii). Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs)

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Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
A junction field effect transistor (JFET) is a three terminal semiconductor device in
which current conduction is by one type of charge carrier i.e. either electrons or holes
but not both.
Types of JFETs
(i). P-channel JFET
(ii). N-channel JFET
Construction of a JFET
A JFET consists of a p-type or n-type silicon bar containing two PN-junctions at either
side as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting channel for the charge carriers. If
the bar is of N-type, it is called N-channel JFET as shown in figure (i) and if the bar is of
P-type, it is called a P-channel JFET as shown in figure (ii). The two PN-junctions
forming diodes are connected internally and a common terminal called gate (G) is taken
out. Other terminals are source (S) and drain (D) taken out from the bar (channel) as
shown.

A JFET has three terminals namely Gate (G), Source (S), and Drain (D).
JFET polarities
Regardless of the type of JFET, the voltage between the gate and source is such that
the gate is reverse biased as shown in figure (i) and (ii) below. This is the normal way of
JFET connection.

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Working of a JFET
When a voltage is applied between drain and source terminals and voltage on the gate
is zero as shown in figure (i), the two PN-junctions at the sides of the bar establish
depletion layers. The electrons will flow from source to drain while current will flow from
drain to source through a channel. When a reverse voltage VGS is applied between the
gate and source as shown in figure (ii), the width of the depletion layers is increased.
This reduces the width of conducting channel, thereby increasing the resistance of the
channel and decreasing the current through the channel. Therefore, by changing the
size of gate voltage, the width of the channel and current through it changes.

Schematic (circuit) symbol of a JFET

The figure below shows the circuit symbols of the two types of JFETs.

JFET connection methods

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  Common gate connection method
 Common source connection method
 Common drain connection method
The common source connection is the widely used method because it provides high
input impedance, god voltage gain, and moderate output impedance.
The above methods can be analyzed similar to those of BJTs.
JFET Biasing Methods
 Gate/battery biasing method
 Self/Source biasing method
 Voltage divider biasing method
Gate/Battery biasing method
Input circuit analysis
𝑉𝐺𝐺 = 𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆
Since 𝐼𝐺 = 0 for the JFET
𝑉𝐺𝐺 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆
Output circuit analysis
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆
Where
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 [1 − ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝐹𝐹)

Self/Source biasing method

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 𝑉𝐺𝐺 = 𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
Since 𝐼𝐺 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐺𝐺 = 0 for the JFET
𝑉𝐺𝑠 = −𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
Output circuit analysis
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
Where
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 [1 − ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝐹𝐹)
Input circuit analysis

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Voltage divider biasing method
Input circuit analysis
𝑉2 = 𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑉𝐺𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
Since 𝐼𝐺 = 0 for the JFET
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝐺𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
𝑅2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐷𝐷
Output circuit analysis
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
Where
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 [1 − ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝐹𝐹)

Page 56 of 140
D.C and A.C Load line analysis
Done similar to those of BJTs

Page 57 of 140
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷𝑆 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
At saturation, 𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 0
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 + 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
At Cut-Off, 𝐼𝐷 = 0
𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝑆

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Applications of JFET
 Used as amplifiers
 Used as a switch
 Used in impedance marching circuits
 Used in voltage regulation
 Used in oscillators to generate waves signals
 Used in amplification of Radio Frequency (RF) signals
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
Unlike a JFET that can only work in the depletion mode only (reducing the width of the
conduction channel), a MOSFET can be operated in two modes, that is, the depletion
mode (decreasing the width of the conduction channel) and the enhancement mode
(increasing the width of the conduction channel).
Types of MOSFETs
(i). D-MOSFET
(ii). E-MOSFET
Depletion-type MOSFET (D-MOSFET)
The D-MOSFET can be operated in both the depletion-mode and the enhancement-
mode. For this reason, a D-MOSFET is sometimes called depletion/enhancement
MOSFET.
Types of D-MOSFET
(i). N-channel D-MOSFET
(ii). P-channel D-MOSFET
Enhancement-type MOSFET (E-MOSFET)
The E-MOSFET can be operated only in enhancement-mode.
Types of E-MOSFET
(i). N-channel E-MOSFET
(ii). P-channel E-MOSFET
Construction of D-MOSFET
It consists of a P-type or N-type silicon bar/channel containing an N-type or P-type
substrate at the right hand side as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting
channel for the charge carriers. If the bar is of N-type, it is called N-channel D-MOSFET
as shown in figure below and if the bar is of P-type, it is called a P-channel D-MOSFET.
The gate (G) terminal is deposited on a thin layer of silicon (IV) oxide which is
deposited at one side (left hand side) of the channel. Other terminals are source (S)

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and drain (D) taken out from the bar as shown. The substrate is internally connected to
the source terminal.

Construction of E-MOSFET
It consists of a P-type or N-type silicon bar (channel) containing a N-type or P-type
substrate at the right hand side that extends across the channel thus dividing the
channel into two parts as shown in below. The bar forms the conducting channel for the
charge carriers. If the bar is of N-type, it is called N-channel E-MOSFET as shown in
figure below and if the bar is of P-type, it is called a P-channel E-MOSFET. The gate
(G) terminal is deposited on a thin layer of silicon (IV) oxide which is deposited at one
side (left hand side) of the channel. Other terminals are source (S) and drain (D) taken
out from the bar/channel as shown. The substrate is internally connected to the source
terminal.

Circuit symbol of the types of MOSFETs

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Figure (i) below shows an N-channel E-MOSFET while figure (ii) shows a P-channel E-
MOSFET.

Operation of D-MOSFET
Depletion Mode for N-channel D-MOSFET
Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through the N-
channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage (VGG) is increased,
the gate terminal become negatively charged thus repelling the electrons in the N-
channel. The repelled electrons leaves behind holes near the gate terminal and the P-
layer grows towards the gate terminal. As more gate source voltage is applied, the P-
layer (substrate) eventually cuts the channel in two parts thus depleting the flow of
electrons (current) through the channel.

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Enhancement Mode for N-channel D-MOSFET
Considering the circuit shown below, the current is initially flowing through the N-
channel from the drain to the source. When the gate source voltage (V GG) is increased,
the gate terminal become positively charged thus attracting the electrons in the N-
channel. The attracted electrons fill in the holes in the P-layer (substrate) thus
decreasing the size of the substrate and increasing the width of the channel. Thus,
more current flows through the channel.

Operation of N-channel E-MOSFET

This type of MOSFET only operates in the enhancement mode.
Initially when there is no gate source voltage applied at the gate, no current can flow
through the channel of the MOSFET. When a positive gate source voltage (VGS) is
applied, electrons gets attracted from the N-channel to fill the holes in the P-substrate
near the gate terminal and current starts to flow through the N-channel. As more gate
voltage is applied, more electrons gets attracted to the gate terminal leading to
increasing width of the channel and thus the current through the channel increases
(conduction of the N-channel is enhanced).

MOSFET biasing methods

 Gate/battery biasing method
 Self/source biasing method
 Voltage divider biasing method
 Zero biasing method

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The first three methods are similar to those of JFETs while the fourth method is widely
used in D-MOSFETs
Zero biasing method

Applications of MOSFTETs
 Used in switching circuits
 Used in power control circuits
 Used in amplifier circuits
 Used in DC motor drives
 Used in oscillator circuits
Important Terms Used in FETs
(i). Shorted-Gate Drain Current (IDSS):- Is the drain current when the gate is short-
circuited to the source (when VGS = 0).
(ii). Pinch Off Voltage (VP):- is the minimum drain-source voltage (VDS) when the
drain current is constant.
(iii). Gate-Source Off Voltage (VGS,OFF):- is the gate-source voltage when the drain
current is zero (when ID = 0).
The relationship between the three quantities is
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 [1 − ]
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝐹𝐹)

Where, 𝑰𝑫 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 and 𝑽𝑮𝑺 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.
Transfer characteristics of FETs
The figure below shows the transfer characteristics for FETs

Page 63 of 140
Solved examples

Page 64 of 140
 4. SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Special semiconductor devices are electronic components designed for specific
functionalities beyond the basic tasks of traditional diodes and transistors. These
devices are used in various applications like voltage regulation, signal processing,
power control, and light emission.
Some of the special semiconductor devices include:-
Zener diodes, Light emitting diodes (LED), photodiodes, schottky diodes, laser diodes,
varactor diodes, and thyristors.
In this topic, we will focus on thyristors
Thyristors
Thyristors are also known as breakdown devices because their operation depends on
the avalanche breakdown of the devices.
Types of special semiconductor devices (Thyristor family members)
(i). Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
(ii). Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
(iii). TRIAC (Triode of AC)
(iv). DIAC (Diode of AC)

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 (v). Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)
(vi). Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
It is a four-layer (PNPN) device with three junctions J1, J2, and J3.
The device has three terminals namely gate (G), Anode (A) and Cathode (K) as
shown below. Figure 20.1 (ii) shows the symbol of SCR.
Construction of SCR
A SCR is a four layers, three junction (J1, J2, and J3), P-N-P-N semiconductor
switching device. It has three terminals; anode, cathode, and gate. The outer P-layer
forms the anode, A (positive terminal) while the outer N-layer forms the cathode, K
(negative terminal) and they are heavily doped. The middle N and P-layers are lightly
doped and the gate terminal, G is connected to the P-layer of the thyristor as shown
below.

NB: The SCR is constructed such that junctions J1 and J3 are forward bias while J2 is
reverse bias.
Working of Thyristor (SCR) Using Its Static V-I Characteristics
To understand the working principles of SCR, we will discuss its three different operational
modes; the reverse blocking mode, forward blocking mode (off-state),and forward conduction
mode (on-state) depending on the polarity of the voltage applied to the anode and the pulse given
to the gate terminal of the SCR.
Operation of SCR in reverse blocking mode
When the SCR is reverse biased, junctions J1 and J3 will be reverse biased while J2 will be
forward biased. A small leakage current flows through the device in the reverse direction. If the
reverse voltage is increased behold the reverse breakdown voltage (VBR), an avalanche
breakdown occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly which then damages of
the device.

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Figure 4.2 (a) Reverse blocking mode thyristor connection (b) Elementary circuit for
obtaining thyristor V-I characteristics (c) Static V-I characteristics of a thyristor.
Operation of SCR in forward blocking mode
When the SCR is connected in forward bias, junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased while
junction J2 is reverse biased. Because the gate is not connected, the thyristor is off but a small
forward leakage current flows through it. When the forward voltage is increased beyond the
forward breakover coltage (VBO), the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche
breakdown and the SCR starts allowing current to flow in the forward direction.

Figure 4.2 Forward blocking mode thyristor connections

Operation of SCR in forward conduction mode
When the SCR is forward bias and a positive voltage applied to the gate terminal, junctions J1,
J2, and J3 are forward biased and the SCR starts allowing current to flow in the forward direction
at a voltage less than the breakover voltage. The SCR starts conducting earlier when the gate
current/voltage is high than when the gate current/voltage is low.

Figure 1.23 Forward conduction mode thyristor connections

Page 67 of 140
Important Terms Used In Thyristors
(i). Breakover voltage:- is the minimum forward voltage at which the thyristor will turn on
when the gate is open, (usually between 50V and 500Vfor most commercial thyristors).
(ii). Peak reverse voltage (PRV):- is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to a
thyristor without conducting in the reverse direction.
(iii). Holding current (IH):- is the maximum anode current below which the thyristor will be
turned off from an on-state when the gate is open.
(iv). Latching current (IL):- is the minimum anode current required to keep a thyristor in the
on-state after the gate is open.
(v). Trigger current (Ig):- is the minimum gate current required to turn on a thyristor.
(vi). Forward rating current:- is the maximum forward current that a thyristor can conduct
without getting damaged.

Thyristor turn-on/triggering methods

(i). Forward voltage triggering
(ii). Gate triggering
(iii). dv/dt triggering (voltage rate triggering)
(iv). Temperature triggering
(v). Light triggering

Forward voltage triggering

In this method, a forward voltage greater than the forward breakover voltage is applied to the
thyristor to make it turn on.
Gate triggering

In this method, a positive voltage/current is applied to the gate terminal of the forward biased
thyristor to turn it on.
dv/dt (rate) triggering

In this method, an SCR is assumed to be a capacitor whereby the forward junctions J1 and J3 act
as the capacitor plates while the reverse biased junction J2 acts as dielectric material. As the
forward voltage is increased, the voltage across junction J2 increases like a charging capacitor
until avalanche breakdown occurs on the junction and the SCR turns on.
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 Where v is the blocking voltage across J2.

Temperature triggering

In this method, the temperature of the thyristor is increased which makes the reverse biased
junction J2 break down and the thyristor turns on.

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Light triggering

This method is used for light-activated SCR (LASCR). When sufficient light intensity is directed
towards the gate terminal of a forward biased LASCR it makes it turn on.

Two-Transistor Model (Analogy) of a Thyristor (SCR)

The principle of thyristor operation can be explained with the use of its two-transistor analogy.
Figure 1.27 shows the two-transistor model of a thyristor.

Figure 4.3 Thyristor (a) schematic diagram, (b) and (c) two-transistor model

Working of a Thyristor Using Two-Transistor Analogy

When there is no positive voltage applied to the gate w.r.t the cathode K, transistor Q2 will be in
off-state thus no current that flows through its collector which also makes transistor Q1 off since
the collector of transistor Q2 forms the base of transistor Q1. When a positive gate voltage is
applied w.r.t the cathode K, transistor Q2 turns on and current flows through its collector which
consequently turns on transistor Q1. Thus the anode current will flow from the anode through the
two transistors to the cathode as shown in figure 4.3 (c) above.

Deriving The Anode Current Equation For The Two-Transistor Model of a Thyristor

In the off-state of the thyristor, collector current IC is related to emitter current IE as

𝐼𝐶 = 𝛼𝐼𝐸 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂 − − − (1) Where α is the common-base current gain and ICBO is the common-
base leakage current of the collector-base junction of the transistor.

For transistor Q1;

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𝐼𝐶1 = 𝛼1 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 − − − (2) But IE1 = Ia (Anode Current)

Thus 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝛼1 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1

Similarly for Q2;

𝐼𝐶2 = 𝛼2 𝐼𝑘 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2 − − − (3) Where Ia = Ik (cathode current)

The sum of the two collector currents given by equations (2) and (3) is equal to the external
circuit current Ia entering the anode terminal A.

Therefore, 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2

𝐼𝑎 = 𝛼1 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 + 𝛼2 𝐼𝑘 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2 − − − (4)

When the gate current Ig is applied, then the cathode current 𝐼𝑘 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑔 which can be
substituted in equation 4 above to get;

𝐼𝑎 = 𝛼1 𝐼𝐸1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 + 𝛼2 (𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑔 ) + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2

Making Ia the subject, we have;

𝛼2 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂1 + 𝐼𝐶𝐵𝑂2
𝐼𝑎 = − − − −(5)
1 − (𝛼1 + 𝛼2 )

Thus according to the above equation, the value of the anode current depends greatly on the
values of 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 that depends on the emitter current IE.

Conditions Which Must Be Satisfied For Turning-On An SCR (Thyristor) With A Gate
Signal.
(i). The thyristor must be forward biased. That is, the anode must be positive w.r.t the
cathode.
(ii). The gate pulse width must be more than the turn-on time of the thyristor.
(iii). The magnitude of gate current must be more than the minimum gate current required to
turn-on the thyristor.
(iv). The magnitude of the gate current must be less than the maximum gate current allowed,
otherwise the gate circuit gets damaged.
(v). The gate triggering circuit must be synchronized with the ac supply.

Applications of SCR
(i). It is used as a static contactor/switch for various electrical devices
(ii). Used to control power delivered to loads such as heating elements
(iii). Used to control the speed of dc shunt motors
(iv). Used to dim light bulbs depending on the light intensity
(v). Used in control of welding machines

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 (vi). Used in high power ac rectification in dc power transmission
(vii). Used in battery chargers
(viii). Used in power inverters
(ix). Used in regulated power supplies
(x). Used in heater controls
(xi). Used in relay controls

Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

A UJT is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device.
Construction of UJT
The structure of UJT consists of an N-type silicon base to which P-type emitter is embedded. It
has three terminals, namely the emitter E, base-one B1 and base-two B2. Between the two bases
B1 and B2, the unijunction behaves like an ordinary resistance. RB1 and RB2 are the internal
resistances respectively from bases B1 and B2 to eta-point A as shown in figure 4.4 (b). The
emitter is heavily doped to provide enough charge carriers during device’s operation and is
embedded nearer base B2 than B1 as shown in figure 1.45 (a).
Note: normally, B2 is positive w.r.t B1.

Figure 4.4 UJT (a) Construction details (b) basic structure (c) symbolic representation and (d)
its equivalent circuit

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 Operation of a UJT

Figure 4.5 (a) Unbiased UJT (b) forward biased UJT

When positive voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1 with the emitter terminal open, a
voltage gradient is established along the N-type base. Since the emitter is located nearer base B2
than B1, more than half of the VBB will appear between the emitter and B1. When a positive
voltage (higher than 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 where VD = 0.7V for silicon) is applied at the emitter, the PN-
junction becomes forward biased. At this condition, holes from the heavily doped P-layer are
injected into the N-type base. These attract electrons. Since B2 is positive w.r.t B1, the electrons
move towards B2 and consequently electric current will flow from B2 to B1 through the N-type
base as shown in figure 4.5 (b).
UJT circuit analysis

Figure 4.6 UJT biasing circuit

When a voltage VBB is applied across the base terminals B1 and B2, the potential of point A w.r.t
B1 is given by
𝑅𝐵1 𝑅𝐵1
𝑉𝐴𝐵1 = × 𝑉𝐵𝐵 = × 𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2 𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 is called the stand-off voltage
𝑅𝐵1 𝑅 𝑉𝐴𝐵1
Where 𝜂 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 𝐵1 = is called the intrinsic stand-off ratio and 𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2 is
𝐵1 +𝑅𝐵2 𝐵𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐵
the inter-base resistance
To forward bias the pn-junction, the emitter voltage 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉𝑝 ≥ 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 . This is called the
peak-point voltage of the UJT, 𝑉𝑝 .

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Example
1. The intrinsic stand-off ratio for a UJT is determined to be 0.6. If the inter-base resistance
RBB is 10kΩ, what are the values of RB1 and RB2?
Solution
𝑅𝐵1
𝜂=
𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑅𝐵1
0.6 =
10 × 103
𝑅𝐵1 = 0.6 × 10 × 103 = 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝛀 𝑜𝑟 𝟔𝒌𝛀
𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵1 + 𝑅𝐵2
𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅𝐵𝐵 − 𝑅𝐵1 = 10𝑘Ω − 6𝑘Ω = 𝟒𝒌𝛀
2. A UJT has 10V between the bases. If the intrinsic stand-off ratio is 0.65, find the value of
stand-off voltage. What will be the peak-point voltage if the forward drop in the PN-
junction is 0.7V?
Solution
𝑉𝐴𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 0.65 × 10 = 6.5𝑉
𝑉𝑝 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 = 6.5 + 0.7 = 7.2𝑉
3. The figure below shows a UJT circuit. The parameters of the UJT are η=0.65 and
RBB=7kΩ. Find (i) RB1 and RB2 (ii) VB1B2 and Vp.

Figure 4.7 UJT circuit in action

Solution
𝑅
(i) 𝜂 = 𝑅 𝐵1
𝐵𝐵

𝑅𝐵1 = 𝜂𝑅𝐵𝐵 = 0.65 × 7 × 103 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟓𝒌𝛀

𝑅𝐵2 = 𝑅𝐵𝐵 − 𝑅𝐵1 = 7𝑘Ω − 4.55𝑘Ω = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝒌𝛀
𝑅𝐵1𝐵2 7×103
(ii) 𝑉𝐵1𝐵2 = 𝑅 × 𝑉𝑠 = 100+400+7×103 × 12 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝑽
1 +𝑅2 +𝑅𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝑝 = 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 = (0.65 × 11.2) + 0.7 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟖𝑽

V-I Characteristics of UJT

Figure 4.7 shows the curve between emitter voltage and emitter current of UJT at a given voltage
between the bases.

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Cut-off region
Initially, in the cut-off region, as emitter voltage VE increases from zero, a slight leakage current
flows from base B2 to the emitter IEO. Above a certain value of VE, forward current IE begins to
flow, increasing until the peak voltage Vp and current Ip are reached at point P.

Figure 4.7 Static V-I characteristics of a UJT

Negative resistance region
At the peak point, the emitter voltage 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝑝 ≥ 𝜂𝑉𝐵𝐵 + 𝑉𝐷 , the emitter starts to inject holes
into the lower base region 1. Because of the increased number of charge carriers in the base
region, resistance RB1 of E-B1 junction decreases. As a result, the potential of eta-point A, figure
1.47 (d), falls and therefore current IE, due to voltage VE, increases. Thus, the device exhibits a
negative resistance region as shown in figure 1.49.
Saturation region
At the valley point, the entire base region is saturated and resistance RB1 does not decrease
anymore. A further increase in emitter current IE is accompanied by an increase in VE.
The negative resistance region between peak point and valley point gives a UJT the switching
characteristics for use in SCR triggering circuits.
Applications of UJTs
(i). Used as a sine wave generator
(ii). Used in triggering/switching circuit for SCR
(iii). Used as a saw-tooth wave generators
(iv). Used in time delay circuits in TV receivers
(v). Used as a relaxation oscillator

TRIAC (Triode of a.c)

A TRIAC is a three-terminal, bidirectional semiconductor device used for controlling AC power. It allows
current to flow in both directions when triggered, making it highly useful for controlling AC loads like
motors, heaters, and dimmers.

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It behaves like two SCR connected parallel and opposite to each other as shown in the figure
below.

Operation of TRIAC

Forward conduction (MT2 positive w.r.t MT1)

When forward voltage is applied, small leakage current starts flowing. If the forward voltage is
increased beyond the breakover voltage of the triac or a positive pulse is applied to the gate
terminals, the triac turns ON and current starts flowing.

Reverse conduction (MT1 positive w.r.t MT2)

When reverse voltage is applied, small leakage current starts flowing. If the reverse voltage is
increased beyond the breakover voltage of the triac or a positive pulse is applied to the gate
terminals, the triac turns ON and current starts flowing.

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Applications of triac
(i). Used as a switch for ac loads
(ii). Used in phase control circuits
(iii). Used in light control (dimmers)
(iv). Used in motor speed control
(v). Used in heat control
(vi). Used in snubber circuits to protect devices against voltage spikes

DIAC (Diode of AC)

A DIAC is a two-terminal, bidirectional semiconductor device that conducts current only after a certain
breakdown voltage is reached, in either direction. Unlike a regular diode that conducts only in one
direction, a DIAC can conduct in both directions, making it ideal for AC applications.

Figure 4.8 (a) Cross-sectional view (b) circuit symbol and (c) V-I characteristics of a diac
Operation of DIAC

Forward conduction (MT2 positive w.r.t MT1)

When forward voltage is applied, small leakage current starts flowing. If the forward voltage is
increased beyond the breakover voltage of the triac or a positive pulse is applied to the gate
terminals, the triac turns ON and current starts flowing.

Reverse conduction (MT1 positive w.r.t MT2)

When reverse voltage is applied, small leakage current starts flowing. If the reverse voltage is
increased beyond the breakover voltage of the triac or a positive pulse is applied to the gate
terminals, the triac turns ON and current starts flowing.

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Applications of DIAC

(i). Used as a relaxation oscillator

(ii). Used in triggering TRIAC in phase control circuits
(iii). Used in light control (dimmers)
(iv). Used in motor speed control
(v). Used in heat control
(vi). Used in snubber circuits to protect devices against voltage spikes

LASCR (Light-Activated SCR)

LASCR is turned on by throwing a pulse of light on the silicon wafer of thyristor. The pulse of
appropriate wavelength is guided by optical fibers to the special sensitive area of the wafer. If the
intensity of the light exceeds a certain value, the thyrsistor turns on. It can also be activated by a
positive pulse applied to the gate or a combination of light and gate pulse.

Figure 4.9 (a) circuit symbol and (b) V-I characteristics of LASCR

SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch)

A SCS is a four electrode thyristor. It has two gates, one anode gate (AG) like a PUT and another
cathode gate (KG) like an SCR. In other words, an SCS is a four layer, four terminal pnpn

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device, with anode (A), cathode (K), anode gate (AG), and cathode gate (KG) as shown in figure
1.38 (a). SCS can be turned on by either gate.
Figure 1.38 (b) and (c) shows the circuit symbol and the V-I characteristics of an SCS
respectively.

Figure 1.38 (a) Schematic diagram (b) circuit symbol and (c) V-I characteristics of an SCS

PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor)

A PUT is a PNPN device like an SCR. But the major difference is that gate is connected to n-
type material near the anode as shown in figure 1.36 (a).
They are used mainly in time-delay, logic and SCR trigger circuits.

Figure 1.36 (a) Schematic diagram (b) circuit symbol and (c) V-I characteristics of a PUT

SUS (Silicon Unilateral Switch)

A SUS is similar to a PUT but with an inbuilt low-voltage avalanche diode between the gate and
cathode as shown in figure 1.37 (a). Because of the presence of the diode, SUS turns on for fixed
anode-to-cathode voltage unlike an SCR whose trigger voltage and /or current vary widely with
changes in ambient temperature. Figures 1.37 (b) shows the circuit symbol and (c) shows the
equivalent circuit of a SUS.
SUS is mainly use in timing, logic and trigger circuits.

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 Fingure 1.37 (a) Schematic diagram (b) circuit symbol (c) equivalent circuit and (d) V-I
characteristics of an SUS

5. RECTIFIERS
In this topic, we will discuss the construction and operation of DC power supplies.
Most of the electronic devices and circuits require a dc source for their operation. Dry
cells and batteries are one form of dc source. They have the advantage of being
portable and ripple-free. However, their voltages are low, they need frequent
replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional dc power supplies. Since
the most convenient and economical source of power is the domestic ac supply, it is
advantageous to convert this alternating voltage (usually, 220 V rms) to dc voltage
(usually smaller in value).
This process of converting ac voltage into dc voltage is called rectification and is
accomplished with the help of a rectifier, filter, and voltage regulator circuit. These
elements put together constitute dc power supply.
There are two types of dc power supplies: unregulated dc power supply, and
regulated dc power supply.
Unregulated Power Supply
An unregulated power supply is one whose dc terminal voltage is affected significantly
by the amount of load. As the load draws more current, the dc terminal voltage
becomes less.
Regulated Power Supply
It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage remains almost constant regardless of
the amount of current drawn from it. An unregulated supply can be converted into a
regulated power supply by adding a voltage regulating circuit to it.
The figure below shows a basic block diagram of a regulated dc power supply

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A typical dc power supply consists of five stages as shown in Fig. 55.1.
1. Transformer
Its job is either to step up or (mostly) step down the ac supply voltage to suit the
requirement of the solid-state electronic devices and circuits fed by the dc power supply.
It also provides isolation from the supply line–an important safety consideration.
2. Rectifier
It is a circuit which employs one or more diodes to convert ac voltage into pulsating dc
voltage.
3. Filter
The function of this circuit element is to remove the fluctuations or pulsations (called
ripples) present in the output voltage supplied by the rectifier. Of course, no filter can, in
practice, gives an output voltage as ripple-free as that of a dc battery but it approaches
it so closely that the power supply performs as well.
4. Voltage Regulator
Its main function is to keep the terminal voltage of the dc supply constant even when
(i) Ac input voltage to the transformer varies (deviations from 220 V are common); or
(ii) The load varies.
Usually, Zener diodes and transistors are used for voltage regulation purposes. Again, it
is impossible to get 100% constant voltage but minor variations are acceptable for most
of the jobs.
5. Voltage Divider
Its function is to provide different dc-voltages needed by different electronic circuits. It
consists of a number of resistors connected in series across the output terminals of the
voltage regulator. Obviously, it eliminates the necessity of providing separate dc power
supplies to different electronic circuits working on different dc levels.
Rectifier
A rectifier is a circuit that converts ac power (voltage) to dc power (voltage).
Rectification is the process of converting ac power to dc power.

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Types of rectifiers
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave center-tap rectifier
 Full wave bridge rectifier
Single-phase half-wave rectifier
Working
During the positive half-cycle, point A is positive while B is negative and the diode D is
forward-biased and load current flows through the diode D. During the negative half-
cycle, point A is negative while B is positive and the diode D is reverse-biased and load
current does not flow through the diode D. The above process is repeated during the
next half cycles as shown by the waveform below.

Advantages
 Simple/easy to design
 Cheap to construct
Disadvantages
 Low output power
 High ripple factor
 Low efficiency
Circuit analysis for half wave rectifier
Average/mean load voltage, Vdc RMS load voltage, Vrms
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝜋 √2
Average load current, Idc
𝐼𝑚 RMS load current, Irms
𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
𝐼𝑚
Or 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = = Or
𝑅 𝜋𝑅
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 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚 A.C Output power, Pac
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
𝑅 𝑅√2 2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅=
D.C Output power, Pdc 𝑅
2
2
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅=
𝑅
Rectifier efficiency, 𝜂, is the ratio of output power to the input power of the rectifier
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Ripple factor, r, is the ratio of ac component to the dc component of the load current or
voltage

2 2 2 − 𝑉2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑐
𝛾=√ 2 = √ 2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐

Peak Inverse Voltage, PIV, is the maximum voltage across the diode when in reverse
bias
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚
Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF, is the ratio of the d.c power delivered to the load
to the a.c power rating of the secondary coil of the transformer.
𝑃𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = = 0.287 ( )
𝑃𝑎𝑐, 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

Solved examples

Page 82 of 140
Page 83 of 140
Full-wave center-tap (mid-point) rectifier
Working

During the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, A is positive while B is negative w.r.t
O and diode D1 is forward bias while D2 is reverse bias. Therefore, load current will
flow through the D1. During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, B is positive
while A is negative w.r.t O and diode D2 is forward bias while D1 is reverse bias. The
load current now flows through D2. The above process is repeated during the next half
cycles as shown in the waveform above
Advantages
 High efficiency compared to half wave rectifiers
 High output power compared to half wave rectifier
 Low ripple factor

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  Better transformer utilization compared to half wave rectifier
 Cheaper to construct compared to bridge rectifier
Disadvantages
 Difficult to locate the center tap of the transformer
 The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage (PIV)
 Low transformer utilization compared to bridge rectifier
 The center tap transformer is more expensive than simple transformers
NB. The peak inverse voltage, PIV = 2Vs
Full-wave Bridge rectifier
Working

During the positive half cycle of supply voltage, M is positive while N is negative and
diodes D1, D3 are forward bias while diodes D2, D4 are reverse bias. Therefore, the
load current flows through D1 and D3. During the negative half cycle of the supply
voltage, N is positive while M is negative and diodes D2, D4 are forward bias while
diodes D1, D3 are reverse bias. Therefore, the load current now flows through D2 and
D4. The above process is repeated during the next half cycles as shown by the
waveform above.
Advantages of full-wave bridge rectifier
(i) The need for center-tapped transformer is eliminated.
(ii) High output power than the other rectifiers
(iii) The diodes used do not need to have high
Disadvantages of full-wave bridge rectifier
(i) More expensive because it requires more diodes than half wave rectifier
(ii) Complex to design compared to half wave rectifier
(iii) As during each half-cycle of ac input two diodes conducts in series, the
voltage drop in the internal resistance is high compared to that of center-tap
rectifier.

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Circuit analysis for full wave rectifiers
Average/mean load voltage, Vdc RMS load current, Irms
2𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
𝜋 2
Average load current, Idc Or
2𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = =
𝜋 𝑅 2𝑅
Or D.C Output power, Pdc
𝑉𝑑𝑐 2𝑉𝑚 2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = = 2
𝑉𝑑𝑐
𝑅 𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅 =
𝑅
RMS load voltage, Vrms
A.C Output power, Pac
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
2 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅 =
𝑅

Rectifier efficiency, 𝜂, is the ratio of output power to the input power of the rectifier
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Ripple factor, r, is the ratio of ac component to the dc component of the load current or
voltage

2 2 2 − 𝑉2
𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑐 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑑𝑐
𝛾= = = √ 2 = √ 2
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑐

Peak Inverse Voltage, PIV, is the maximum voltage across the diode when in reverse
bias
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚
Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF, is the ratio of the d.c power delivered to the load
to the a.c power rating of the secondary coil of the transformer.
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑃𝑎𝑐, 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝑅𝐿
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 0.572 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑡𝑎𝑝 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓

𝑎𝑛𝑑

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 𝑅𝐿
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 0.812 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑓

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

Solved examples

Page 87 of 140
Filter Circuits
As shown in the above waveforms, for full-wave and half-wave rectifiers, there is
oscillating factor which is not needed by dc components operated by the dc supply.
Therefore, smoothing or filtering is needed to remove (reduce) the ripple effect and
regulation to stabilize the output voltage.
A filter circuit is a device which removes the ac component of rectifier output but
allows the dc component to reach the load.
A filter circuit is generally a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors (C).
NB: A capacitor passes ac readily but does not pass dc at all while on the other
hand, an inductor opposes ac but allows dc to pass through it.

Page 88 of 140
Types of Filter Circuits in Power Supplies
The most commonly used filter circuits are
 Capacitor filter,
 Choke input filter
 Capacitor input filter or π-filter.
Capacitor Filter
It consists of a capacitor C placed across the rectifier output in parallel with load R L.

Operation
The pulsating direct voltage of the rectifier is applied across the capacitor. As the
rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load.
At the peak point, the capacitor is charged to the peak value Vm of the rectifier voltage.
Now, the rectifier voltage starts to decrease and the capacitor starts discharging through
the load before recharging again to peak value during the next rising rectifier voltage.
This process is repeated and the output voltage waveform is as shown above.
NB: The capacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low cost, small size,
little weight and good characteristics. For small load currents (say upto 50 mA), this
type of filter is preferred. It is commonly used in transistor radio battery eliminators.
Choke input filter
The figure below shows a typical choke input filter circuit. It consists of a choke L
connected in series with the rectifier output and a filter capacitor C across the load. Only
a single filter section is shown, but several identical sections are often used to reduce
the pulsations as effectively as possible.

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Operation
At terminal 1, the choke offers high opposition to the passage of ac component but
negligible opposition to the dc component. Therefore, the choke blocks the ac
component of the load current and allows the dc component of the load current to pass.
At terminal 3, the capacitor offers high opposition to the passage of dc component but
negligible opposition to the ac component. Therefore, the capacitor blocks the dc
component of the load current and allows the ac component of the load current to pass
to ground. Therefore, only dc component reaches the load.
Capacitor input filter or π-filter
The figure below shows a typical capacitor input filter or π-filter. It consists of a filter
capacitor C1 connected across the rectifier output, a choke L in series and another filter
capacitor C2 connected across the load. Only one filter section is shown but several
identical sections are often used to improve the smoothing action.

Operation
Capacitor C1 offers low resistance to ac component and infinite resistance to the dc
component of the load current. Therefore, capacitor C1 passes the ac component of the
load current to ground while the dc component continues its journey to the choke L. The
choke L offers high resistance to the ac component and low resistance to the dc
component of the load current. Therefore, the choke blocks the ac component of the
load current that remained after capacitor C1 and allows the dc component of the load
current to proceed to the load. Capacitor C2 passes the remaining ac component of the
load current to ground but blocks the dc component which then proceeds to the load as
pure dc current.

The figures below shows simple circuits of how the filter circuits are incorporated to the
rectifier circuit.

Page 90 of 140
Voltage Multipliers
A voltage multiplier is a circuit which produces a greater dc output voltage than ac input
voltage to the rectifiers.
Multipliers are required in many circuit applications where it is necessary to have high
voltages with low currents as for electron accelerating purposes in a cathode-ray tube
(CRT).
We will consider the following circuits:
 Half-wave voltage doubler,
 Full-wave voltage doubler,
 Voltage tripler,
 Voltage quadrupler
We can use diodes and capacitors to build voltage multipliers.
For example, a voltage doubler will provide a dc output that is twice the peak input ac
voltage, a voltage tripler will provide a dc output that is three times the peak input ac
voltage and so on.
While voltage multipliers provide dc output that is much greater than the peak input ac
voltage, there is no power amplification and law of conservation of energy holds good.
When a voltage multiplier increases the peak input voltage by a factor n, the peak input
current is decreased by approximately the same factor.

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Half-Wave Voltage Doubler

Operation
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (not D2) and charges C1
to peak value of secondary voltage (V m) with the polarity as shown in figure (a). During
the negative half-cycle, D2 conducts (not D1) and charges C2. The voltage across C2 is
the sum of peak supply voltage and the voltage across C1 (C1 will be discharging to
C2). At this point the voltage across the capacitor C2 and hence across the load will be
twice that at the secondary coil of the transformer. During the next positive half-cycle,
D2 is open and C2 will discharge through the load while C1 charges to peak voltage
and the above process is repeated for the subsequent half cycles.
Note: This circuit has very poor regulation and its ripple content is also high. This circuit
has a common connection between the line and load (which a full-wave doubler does
not have).
Full-Wave Voltage Doubler

Operation
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, D1 conducts (but not D2) and charges
capacitor C1 to the peak voltage Vm with the polarity as shown. During the negative
half-cycle, D2 conducts (but not D1) charging C2 to Vm. As far as the load is
concerned, voltages across C1 and C2 are in series-aiding. If there is a load connected

Page 92 of 140
across the output (across the two capacitors), then load voltage VL = 2Vm as shown in
figure (a).
Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits

Operation
During the first positive half-cycle, C1 charges to Vm as diode D1 conducts. During
negative half-cycle, C2 is charged through D2 to 2Vm (i.e. to the sum of voltage across
C1 and peak input voltage Vm). During the second positive half-cycle, D3 conduct and
voltage across C2 charges C3 to same voltage 2Vm (C1 cannot charge C3 because it is
shorted by D1). During the negative half-cycle, diodes D2 and D4 conduct allowing C3
to charge C4 to the same peak voltage 2Vm. If is seen from Fig. 55.34 that voltage
across C2 is 2V m, across C1 and C3 is 3V m and across C2 and C4 is 4V m. If
additional diodes and capacitors are used, each capacitor would be charged to a peak
voltage of 2Vm.
When voltage is taken across diode D3, its value would be triple that of the supply
(tripler) and if voltage is taken across diode d4, its value would be four times that of the
supply (quadrupler).
Note: The basic idea in a voltage multiplier is to charge each capacitor to the peak input
a.c. voltage and to arrange the capacitors so that their stored voltages will add.
Voltage Stabilization
In many electronic applications, it is desired that the output voltage should remain
constant regardless of the variations in the input voltage or load. In order to ensure this,
a voltage stabilizing device, called voltage stabilizer is used.

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 6. AMPLIFIERS
Definition of terms used in amplifiers
Amplifier:- is an electronic device that increases the amplitude of a signal without
changing its other properties such as frequency or waveform.
Gain:- is the ratio of amplitude/power of output signal to the amplitude/power of the
input signal.
Measured in decibels (dB)
Noise:- is the unwanted electrical signal that interferes with the output signal of an
amplifier.
Distortion:- is the undesired changes in the waveform of the amplified signal.
Impedance Matching:- is the process of ensuring the input/output impedance of the
amplifier aligns/matches with that of the source/load for maximum power transfer.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies over which an amplifier operates effectively.

Types of amplifiers
(i). RC coupled amplifiers
(ii). Transformer coupled amplifiers
(iii). Small signal amplifiers
(iv). Voltage amplifiers
(v). Current amplifiers
(vi). Power amplifiers
(vii). Wideband amplifiers
(viii). Tuned amplifiers
(ix). Operational amplifiers (Op-Amp)
NB: Based on transistor configuration/connection method, transistor amplifiers
can be classified into:
(i). Common base (CB) amplifier
(ii). Common emitter (CE) amplifier
(iii). Common collector (CC) amplifier

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Operation of a transistor as an amplifier
A transistor operates as an amplifier when operated in the operating (quiescent) point
(Q-point) of its characteristic curve. It uses a small signal fed into its input circuit (base-
emitter circuit) to control a large current/signal in the output circuit (collector-emitter
circuit). The small current applied to the input circuit turns the transistor on and puts in
into the Q-point thus allowing large amount of current to flow in the output circuit. When
a signal is applied to the input circuit together with the biasing current, the signal gets
amplified by the transistor and appears at the output circuit as an amplified signal as
shown in the figure below.

Note:
 R1, R2 and RE form the biasing circuit and provide the biasing and stability
needed for the amplifier.
If not used, proper biasing would not occur and the amplifier would not be
stable thus faithful amplification would not occur.
 Cin is the input capacitor and is used to couple the input signal to the transistor
and prevent the source resistance from appearing across R2 which could change
the biasing condition of the amplifier.
If not used, source resistance would appearing across R2 thus changing
the biasing condition of the amplifier.
 CE is the emitter bypass capacitor used to provide low resistance/reactance path
to the amplified a.c signal to ground.
If not used, the a.c signal would pass through RE thus causing a high
voltage drop and lower the output signal.
 CC is the coupling capacitor used to couple the transistor amplifier to the load
(e.g speaker) or to another single stage transistor amplifier.
If not used, the load resistance would appear across RE thus interfering
with the biasing condition of the amplifier).

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A.C equivalent circuit of the single stage transistor amplifier
As far as a.c signal is concerned, R1 and R2 appear parallel while the load resistor RL
and collector resistor RC appear parallel to each other as shown below.

The equivalent load resistance RAC is given by the parallel combinantion of RC and RL.

To calculate the gains of the amplifier in decibels (dB), we use the following formulas for
any type of amplifier.
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 ∙ log10 ( ) = 20 ∙ log10 (𝐴𝐼 )
𝐼𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 ∙ log10 ( ) = 20 ∙ log10 (𝐴𝑉 )
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 ∙ log10 ( ) = 10 ∙ log10 (𝐴𝑃 )
𝑃𝑖𝑛

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𝐼𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑉 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log10 (24) = 27.60 𝑑𝐵

𝐼𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:

𝐴𝐼 = 20 log10 (100) = 40 𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑉 = 20 log10 (165) = 44.35 𝑑𝐵
𝐴𝑃 = 10 log10 (16500) = 42.17 𝑑𝐵

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 (i) 𝐴𝑃 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 (𝐴𝑃 )
40 = 10 log10 (𝐴𝑃 )
40
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔(4)
10
𝐴𝑃 = 10000
(ii) 𝐴𝑃 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 (𝐴𝑃 )
43 = 10 log10 (𝐴𝑃 )
43
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔(4.3)
10
𝐴𝑃 = 19952.62

𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦: 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐺1 × 𝐺2 × 𝐺3 = 100 × 200 × 400 = 8000000

𝐴𝑉 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log10 (8000000) = 138 𝑑𝐵

Page 98 of 140
RC coupled amplifiers
They are multistage amplifiers that uses capacitors (C) for coupling between one stag of
the amplifier to the next.
The transistors act as the amplifying device, while the resistors (R) are used for biasing
of the transistor amplifier.
The output of one stage is connected to the input of the next stage using a coupling
capacitor Cc.
They are commonly used for audio amplification, small-signal amplification and
intermediate frequency amplification in radios.

Page 99 of 140
Voltage amplifiers
They are used to deliver high voltage to the load, such as speakers or motors.
Current amplifiers
They are used to deliver high current to the load, such as speakers or motors.
Power amplifiers
They are used to deliver high power to the load, such as speakers or motors.
They are divided into classes A, B, C and AB
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)
They are high-gain, direct-coupled (no capacitor coupling) amplifier with two inputs and
one output.
The ideal characteristics of Op-Amps are that they have infinite open-loop gain,
infinite input impedance (Zin), and zero output impedance (Zout).
Important properties of Op-Amps
(i). They have high input impedance
(ii). They have low output impedance
(iii). They have a large open-loop gain
(iv). They have both inverting and non-inverting inputs

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Schematic symbol of Op-Amp
A basic Op-Amp has five terminals; two voltage supply terminals (+V and –V), two
input terminals (Inverting input (-ve) and non-inverting input (+ve)) and one
output terminal.
NB: Note that the input terminals are marked + and –. These are not polarity signs. The
– sign indicates the inverting input while the + sign indicates the noninverting input. A
signal applied to + terminal will appear in the same phase at the output as at the input.
A signal applied to the - terminal will be shifted in phase 180° at the output.

Bandwidth of an Op-Amp
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that the amplifier can work properly.
Gain-bandwidth product (GBW) of an amplifier is given by:

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Slew rate
It is the measure of how fast the output voltage can change.
It is measured in volts per microseconds (V/µs)

Types/Applications of Op-Amps
A. Inverting amplifier
In this type of amplifier, the input signal is applied to the amplifier through the
inverting (-) terminal as shown below.

Page 102 of 140

 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖

Page 103 of 140

Page 104 of 140
 B. Non-inverting amplifier
In this type of amplifier, the input signal is applied to the amplifier through the non-
inverting (+) terminal as shown below.

Page 105 of 140

Page 106 of 140
Page 107 of 140
 C. Voltage follower
It is a special type of non-inverting amplifier where all the output voltage is fed back to
the inverting amplifier as shown in the figure below.

Thus the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage follower is 1. The most important features of the
voltage follower configuration are its very high input impedance and its very low output impedance.
These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier to be connected between high-impedance sources
and low-impedance loads

Multi-stage Op-Amp circuits

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Page 109 of 140
Summing amplifiers
A summing amplifier is an inverted Op-Amp that can accept two or more inputs.

Page 110 of 140

Applications of amplifiers
(i). Used to amplify weak signals in radios communication
(ii). Used in making public address (PA) systems
(iii). Used in home theatre systems
(iv). Used to amplify audio signals for the hearing impaired people
(v). Used to amplify signals from sensors
(vi). Used to amplify microphone sound signals in phones
(vii). Used in ultrasound to amplify biological signals
(viii). Used in motor drives for controlling industrial motors
(ix). Used to amplify satellite, radar, and sonar signals

7. OSCILLATORS
An oscillator can be defined in one of the following ways:
 It is a circuit that converts d.c energy into a.c energy at very high frequency.
 It is a circuit which generates an ac output signal without requiring any externally
applied input signal
 It is an electronic source of alternating current or voltage having sine, square or
saw-tooth or pulse shapes

Page 111 of 140

  It is an unstable amplifier
NB:
 An oscillator differs from an amplifier in that an oscillator does not require an
external signal for it to produce an output signal while an amplifier only produces
an output signal if there was an input signal fed into it.
 An oscillator differs from an alternator in the following ways:
 An alternator is a mechanical device having rotating parts whereas an
oscillator is a non-rotating electronic device.
 An alternator converts mechanical energy into a.c. energy while an
oscillator converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy.
 An alternator cannot produce high frequency oscillations (more than 50Hz)
whereas an oscillator can produce oscillations ranging from a few Hz to
several MHz

Classification of oscillators
They may be broadly divided into two groups:
(i). Sinusoidal (or harmonic) oscillators:- which produce an output having sine
waveform
(ii). Non-sinusoidal (or relaxation) oscillators:- they produce an output which has
square, rectangular or saw-tooth waveform or is of pulse shape.
Sinusoidal oscillators may be further subdivided into:
a) Tuned-circuits or LC feedback oscillators. e.g Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp
oscillators.
b) RC phase-shift oscillators. e.g Wien-bridge oscillator
c) Negative-resistance oscillators. e.g tunnel diode oscillator
d) Crystal oscillators. e.g Pierce oscillator.
e) Heterodyne or beat-frequency oscillator (BFO)
Damped and Undamped Oscillations
Sinusoidal oscillations produced by oscillators may be (i) damped or (ii) undamped.
(i). Damped/Decaying oscillators
These are oscillators whose amplitude keeps decreasing (or decaying) with time.

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The waveform for damped oscillators is shown in figure (a) below.
(ii). Undamped/Decaying oscillators
These are oscillators whose amplitude remains constant with time.
The waveform for undamped oscillators is shown in figure (b) below.
Commonly used in communication transmitters as carrier waves.

Advantages of using oscillators as opposed to mechanical devices such as

alternators
(i). An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little wear and tear
and hence longer life.
(ii). The operation of an oscillator is quite silent because there are no moving parts.
(iii). An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high
frequencies (> 100MHz).
(iv). The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
(v). It has good frequency stability i.e. frequency once set remains constant for a
considerable period of time.
(vi). It has very high efficiency
Oscillator Circuit or Tank Circuit
It is a circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency.
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L) in parallel
as shown in Fig. 14.2. The frequency of the oscillation is determined by the values of L
and C.

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Operation of sinusoidal oscillator
Starting with a charged capacitor as shown in Figure (i) above, when the switch, S, is
closed, the capacitor C will start discharging through the inductor L whereby the energy
will be stored as magnetic field as shown in Figure (ii). When the capacitor is fully
discharged, it starts recharging again in the opposite polarity as shown in figure (iii).
When fully recharged, the capacitor will discharge again through the inductor in the
opposite direction and the above process is repeated thus generating an alternating
current which decays with time as shown in the waveform below.

The resonant/natural frequency of the oscillation is given by the formula:

𝟏
𝒇𝒓 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪
NB: Therefore, we can say that the frequency of oscillation is inversely proportional to L
and C. If a large value of capacitor is used, it will take longer for the capacitor to charge
fully and also longer to discharge. This will lengthen the period of oscillations in the tank
circuit, or equivalently lower its frequency. With a large value of inductance, the
opposition to change in current flow is greater and hence the time required to complete
each cycle will be longer. Therefore, the greater the value of inductance, the longer is
the period or the lower is the frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit.

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Undamped Oscillations from Tank Circuit
A tank/oscillator circuit produces damped oscillations as discussed above. However, in practice, we need
continuous undamped oscillations for the successful operation of electronics equipment. In order to
make the oscillations in the tank circuit undamped, the following conditions must be fulfilled:

(i). The amount of energy supplied should be equal to the energy lost by the tank circuit and that
needed by the load.
(ii). The applied energy should have the same frequency as that of the oscillations in the tank circuit.
(iii). The applied energy should be in phase with the oscillations of the tank circuit i.e. it should aid
the tank circuit oscillations

Types of Transistor Oscillators

(i). Tuned collector oscillator

(ii). Colpitt’s oscillator
(iii). Hartley oscillator
(iv). Phase shift oscillator
(v). Wien Bridge oscillator
(vi). Crystal oscillator

Tuned collector oscillator

The tank circuit is made up of L1 and C1. Thus, the frequency of the oscillator is determined by the values
of these two variables.

The frequency of this type of oscillator is given by:

𝟏
𝒇=
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟏

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Colpitt’s oscillator

The tank circuit is made up of C1, C2 and L. Thus, the frequency of the oscillator is determined by the
values of these three variables.

The frequency is given by:

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Page 117 of 140
Hartley Oscillator

The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and C. Thus, the frequency of the oscillator is determined by the
values of these three variables.

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Page 119 of 140
Phase Shift Oscillator

The frequency of this oscillator is given by:

Page 120 of 140

Wien Bridge Oscillator

The frequency of the oscillator is given by:

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Crystal oscillators

Quartz crystals are generally used in crystal oscillators because of their great mechanical strength and
simplicity of manufacture.

The natural frequency of a crystal oscillator is given by:

𝐾
𝑓=
𝑡
Where K is a constant that depends upon the cut and t is the thickness of the crystal.

Working of Quartz Crystal

The crystal is placed between parallel metallic plates making it look like a capacitor with the crystal
acting as the dielectric. If an a.c voltage is applied across the plates, the crystal will start vibrating at a
frequency of the applied voltage. If the frequency of the applied voltage is equal to the natural
frequency of the crystal, resonance occurs and the crystal vibration will be at maximum value.

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Equivalent Circuit of Crystal

When the crystal is not vibrating, it is equivalent to capacitance Cm.

The Q-factor of the crystal oscillator is:

1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = √
𝑅 𝐶

Or

The frequency at which the vibrating crystal behaves as a series-resonant circuit is called series-resonant
frequency fs.

The frequency at which the vibrating crystal behaves as a parallel-resonant circuit is called parallel-
resonant frequency fp.

Page 123 of 140

Page 124 of 140
 8. WAVE SHAPING AND PULSE GENERATION
CIRCUITS
Wave shaping circuit is an electronic circuit that is used to change an input waveform
to yield a desired output waveform.
Pulse generation circuit is an electronic circuit used to generate pulses of specific
amplitude, frequency and period.
Types of wave shaping circuits
(i). Filters
(ii). Clampers
(iii). Clippers
Filters circuits
A filter is an electronic circuit that allows frequencies of a certain band to pass while
attenuating the rest.
Types of filters
(i). Low pass filter
(ii). High pass filter
(iii). Band pass filter
(iv). Band stop (Notch) filter
NB: Active filters are those that use active electronic components such as Op-
Amp while passive filters are those that use passive electronic components such
as R, L and C.
Low pass filter
These are filter circuits that allows signals of low frequencies to pass while
attenuating/blocking the signals high frequencies.
Circuit diagram of a low pass filter

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NB: Capacitor allows high frequency signals to pass through it and blocks low frequency
signals while resistor and inductor both allow low frequency signals to pass but blocks
the high frequency signals.
Response curve for a practical (fig (a)) and ideal (fig (b)) low pass filter.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

High pass filter
These are filter circuits that allows signals of high frequencies to pass while
attenuating/blocking the signals of low frequencies.
Circuit diagram of a high pass filter

Response curve for a practical (fig (a)) and ideal (fig (b)) high pass filter.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

The values of inductor L and capacitor C are given by;
𝑅
𝐿=
4𝜋𝑓𝑐
1
𝐶=
4𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑅

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 1 𝑅
𝑓𝑐 = =
4𝜋𝑅𝐶 4𝜋𝐿
Where 𝑓𝑐 is the cut-off frequency of the filter

Band pass filter

These are filter circuits that allows signals of a given band of frequencies to pass while
attenuating/blocking the signals whose frequency is below or above the given band.
Circuit diagram of a band pass filter

Response curve for a practical (fig (a)) and ideal (fig (b)) band pass filter.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

Band stop filter (Notch filter)
These are filter circuits that allows signals of both low and high frequencies to pass
while attenuating/blocking the signals whose frequency is within a given band.
Circuit diagram of a band stop filter

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Response curve for a practical (fig (a)) and ideal (fig (b)) band stop filter.

Figure (a) Figure (b)

Symbols of types of filters

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Applications of filters
(i). Used in d.c power supplies
(ii). Used in radio frequency tuning
(iii). Used in TV frequency tuning
(iv). Used in bass and treble control in sound systems
(v). Used in equalizers in sound systems
(vi). Used in removing noise from sensor signals
(vii). Used in ultrasound systems in hospitals
(viii). Used to reduce electromagnetic interference
Clipper/Limiter circuit
A clipper/limiter is an electronic circuit that clips/removes a portion of a waveform
without distorting/altering/changing the remaining part.
It is made up of at least one resistor and one diode.

Operation (of a negative clipper circuit; because it clips the negative half cycle)
Considering Figure 52.31:- Negative clipper circuit
During the positive half cycle, A is positive while B is negative and the diode is reverse
biased. Therefore, the diode blocks current and thus voltage drops across it. During the
negative half cycle, A is negative while b is positive and the diode is forward biased.
Therefore, the diode allows current to flow through it and does not cause voltage drop
across it. The resultant waveform is as shown.

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Operation
During the positive half cycle of the supply voltage, A is positive while B is negative and
the diode will be reverse biased. Therefore, current does not flow through it and thus the
whole supply voltage appears across it. During the negative half cycle, A is negative
while B is positive and the diode will be forward biased. However, the external d.c
voltage limits the flow of current through the diode thus causing the output waveform to
be clipped as shown above.

Operation
During the positive half cycle, A is positive while B is negative and the diode will be
forward biased. However, the external d.c voltage limits the flow of current through the
diode thus causing the output waveform to be clipped as shown above. During the
negative half cycle of the supply voltage, A is negative while B is positive and the diode
will be reverse biased. Therefore, current does not flow through it and thus the whole
supply voltage appears across it.

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Application of clippers
(i).Used in protecting electronic equipment against voltage spikes
(ii).Used as a voltage regulator in power supplies
(iii).
Used in creating square waves
(iv).Used in digital circuits to clip analogue signals before converting them to digital
signals
(v). Used to limit noise in electronic circuits
Clamper circuit
 A clamper is an electronic circuit that shifts the entire waveform either up or down
without distorting/altering/changing its shape.
 A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the
desired level without changing the shape of the applied signal.
A clamper circuit has at least one capacitor, one diode and one resistor.
Positive clamper circuit

Operation
Initially, the capacitor is charged. During the positive half cycle, A is positive while B is
negative and the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. The capacitor thus

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discharges through the resistor thus adding up to the supply voltage to 2Vm. During the
negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased and conducts. This makes the capacitor
to charge again in the opposite polarity.
Negative clamper circuit

Operation
During the positive half cycle, A is positive while B is negative and the diode is forward
biased and conducts. The capacitor thus charges with inverse polarity –Vm. During the
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. This makes the
capacitor to discharge through the resistor thus adding up the supply voltage to -2Vm.
Application of clampers
(i). Used in TV and radio receivers
(ii). Used in signal modulation
(iii). Used as a voltage multiplier
(iv). Used in medical equipment such as ECGs
(v). Used in stabilizing signals from cameras and medical equipment
(vi). Used in oscilloscopes to shift the baseline

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Types of Pulse Generators
(i). Astable multivibrator
(ii). Monostable multivibrator
(iii). Bistable multivibrator
Pulse generators are electronic circuits used to generates pulses of a given frequency,
wavelength and amplitude.
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to generate non-sinusoidal waveforms such
as square, rectangular or pulse waveforms.

Atsble Multivibrator
It is a type of multivibrator that has no stable state and continuously oscillates between
two states; HIGH or LOW that produces pulses without an external trigger. See the
waveform below.

Monostable Multivibrator
It is a type of multivibrator that has one stable state and one unstable state and requires
an external trigger to switch it to the unstable state before returning to its stable state.
See the waveform below.

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Bistable Multivibrator
It is a type of multivibrator which has two stable states; HIGH and LOW, and requires an
external trigger to switch it from one stable state to the other. See the waveform below.

Applications of pulse generator circuits

(i). Used in generation of square, saw-tooth and other types of waveforms
(ii). Used in flashing lights
(iii). Used in oscillator circuits in computers
(iv). Used in signal processing
(v). Used in generating clock pulses in communication systems
(vi). Used in triggering counters
(vii). Used in oscilloscopes

9. OPTO-ELECTRONICS
Opto-electronics is the study and application of electronic devices that convert
electrical energy into light and vice versa.
Types of Opto-Electronics
(i). LEDs
(ii). LCDs
(iii). Photodiodes
(iv). Lasers
(v). Masers
(vi). Plasma
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Light Emitting Diode (LED)
This is a type of diode that emits light when energized.

Working
When an LED is connected in forward bias (P connected to positive and N connected to
negative terminals of battery), current flows through the diode. This causes electrons in
the N region to be repelled by the negative charges of the battery into the P-region while
holes in the P region to be repelled by the positive charges of the battery into the N-
region. In the process, the electrons and holes recombine in the active region. Since the
electrons were at a high energy level than the holes, the excess energy is released as
light. The colour of the light emitted depends on the bandgap energy of the
semiconductor material used.
Types of semiconductor materials and colour emitted
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Infrared light.
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP): Red, yellow, or green light.
 Gallium Nitride (GaN): Blue and white light.
 Aluminum Gallium Indium Phosphide (AlGaInP): High-efficiency red and yellow.

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A layer of gold film is applied at the
bottom of the LED to reflect light to the
surface and connect to the cathode. The
semiconductor chip is mounted on a
reflective cavity and a protective dome
shaped material/lens is added on the
outside to protect the LED against
physical damage and distribute light.

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Multicoloured LEDs
These types of LEDs have three
terminals; 2 anodes and a common
cathode. The cathode is the longest
lead while the two short leads are the
anodes. This type of LED looks similar
to the ordinary LED but emits red, green
and yellow lights depending on the
operating condition. These lights can be
combined at different rations to produce
other different colours.
A blinking LED has an oscillator circuit
combined with the LED.

Applications of LEDs
(i). Used in burglar/security alarm systems
(ii). They are used in LED TVs
(iii). Used in remote controllers and data links
(iv). Used for numeric displays in hand-held devices such as calculators
(v). Used as indicator lights
(vi). Used in surgical lighting
(vii). Used in light bulbs
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A liquid crystal is a material which looks like a liquid at room temperature but has some
solid properties such as being oriented in a definite crystal pattern.
Working of LCD
An LCD works on the principle of light polarization. When light source (backlight) shines
on the liquid crystal, the first polarizer allows light waves with specific orientation to pass
through. If no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals allows the polarized light to pass
through to the second polarizer where it gets blocked. However, if a voltage is applied,
the electric field disrupts the alignment of the liquid crystals in such a way to allow light
pass through the second polarizer thus forming a visible image on the screen. Colour
filters can be added to make the LCD produce coloured images.

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Applications of LCDs
(i). Used in screens of TVs
(ii). Used in calculator screens

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 (iii). Used in screens of mobile phones
(iv). Used in screens of digital watches
(v). Used in desktop monitors
Plasma
Plasma is the fourth state of matter which consists of free electrons, ions, neutral
particles and photons.
Working of plasma
When energy is supplied to a gas, the gas atoms/molecules absorb it thus exciting them
which causes release of electrons and ionization of the gas atoms/molecules to positive
while emitting photons of light. If a significant amount of the particles are ionized, the
gas changes to plasma. The plasma becomes electrically conductive and responsive to
electric and magnetic fields.
Applications of plasma
(i). Used in cutting of metals
(ii). Used as a fusion medium in nuclear fusion reactors
(iii). Used in sterilizing surgical tools
(iv). Used in plasma TVs
(v). Used in neon signs to create colourful displays
(vi). Used in the manufacturing of micorchips/ICs
Laser diode
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
A laser diode is a device that emits light through the process of optical amplification
based on the stimulated emission of radiation.

Working
When the PN junction of the laser diode is forward biased, the electrons in the N-region
are repelled towards the P-region while the holes in the P-region are repelled towards
the N-region. As a result the two types of charge carriers (holes and electrons)
recombine in the active region (depletion region) thus emitting photons/light. As current
is increased, more photons/light is produced. Some of the photons are reflected by the
reflective surface thus colliding with other atoms to emit more photons (this is called

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light amplification). As the intensity of photons increases, it reaches a point when a
strong beam or laser light comes out of the partially reflective surface of the diode as
shown above.
Applications of lasers
(i). Used in surgery
(ii). Used in CD/DVD players/readers
(iii). Used in laser printers
(iv). Used as pointers
(v). Used in security systems
(vi). Used in barcode scanners
(vii). Used in military weapons
(viii). Used in cutting metals
(ix). Used in facial recognition and fingerprint scanners
(x). Used in laser-based speed guns/detectors
(xi). Used in drilling microscopic holes on electronic components and PCBs
Masers
MASER stands for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of radiation.
A maser is a device that amplifies microwave signals by use of stimulated emission of
radiation.
Working
Masers operate under the principle of stimulated emission of radiation. When energy is
supplied to an active medium, it excites the atoms/molecules in the medium to a higher
energy. When a microwave photon passes through the active medium, it interacts with
the excited atoms/molecules causing the atom to release an identical photon thus
causing amplification of the radiation. The amplified photons are reflect back and forth in
an enclosed microwave cavity resonator thus increasing the intensity of the radiation
further. An output couple is then used to direct the amplified microwave signal out of the
cavity for external use.
Applications of masers
(i). Used in amplifying microwave signals in satellite communication systems
(ii). Used in radio telescope to boost signals reception
(iii). Used in MRI systems in hospitals
(iv). Used in radio astronomy
(v). Used in deep-space communication

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