UNIT-3

OPTICS

._.GS._.
 OUTLINES
• Huygens' Principle: Fundamental principle for wave propagation.
• Superposition of Waves: Basic principle for understanding interference and diffraction.
• Explanation of constructive and destructive interference.
• Applications in thin film interference, such as soap bubbles and oil films.
• Young’s double slit experiment.
• Newton’s rings,
• Michelson Interferometer
• Anti-reflection coating.
• Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction– diffraction due to ‘n’ slits- plane transmission grating.
• Rayleigh criterion for limit of resolution - resolving power of grating.
“Light brings us the news
of the universe”

- William Henry Bragg

 OPTICS

Geometrical Optics Physical Optics

Ray optics Wave optics

Reflection Interference
Refraction Diffraction
 WAVE OPTICS

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory (1675)

 Every Light source emits tiny particles called corpuscles. (elastic, rigid &
massless, different shapes & sizes)
 Corpuscles travel in straight line. Corpuscles travel with different speed in
different medium (denser >rarer = water>air)
 Different colour of light have different shapes and size of corpuscles.
Success of theory Failure of theory

1) Rectilinear propagation 1) Interference of light

2) Reflection of light (elastic collision of 2) Diffraction
corpuscles) 3) polarisation
3) Refraction (bending of light)
 WAVE OPTICS

In the same era, Dutch scientist Huygen’s wave theory of light (1678)

 Light is a mechanical wave

 Which requires a medium
 From Sun  Earth …… How light can travel ?
 Eather’s Theory : A very dilute & highly elastic medium called Ether is
spread everywhere.
 Light is longitudinal wave.
 Huygen’s theory can explain
1) Rectilinear propagation
2) Reflection
3) Refraction
4) Interference
5) Diffraction
 WAVEFRONT

Propagation of disturbance in the medium (space) is known as WAVE.

1) Wavefront : It is the locus of all points of a medium which are vibrating

in the same phase.

2) The direction of propagation of wave is always perpendicular to

wavefront. (wavefront ⊥ wave)

3) Types of wavefront:
I. Point source of light  Spherical wavefront
II. Source at infinite  plane wavefront
III. Linear source  cylindrical wavefront
 WAVEFRONT

 Lines perpendicular to the wavefront and inducting the direction of

propagation of the wave are called RAYS.
 HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE
1) Every point on a wave front acts as a secondary disturbances, which
emits their own wavelets called secondary wavelets. Secondary
wavelets spread in all directions with speed of wave.

Source of
secondary disturbance

Secondary wavelet

New wavefront

2) The common tangent on secondary wavelets in forward direction gives

new wavefront.
■ The inner arc represents part of the
spherical wave

■ The points are representative points

where wavelets are propagated

■ The new wavefront is tangent at each

point to the wavelet
■ At t = 0, the wave front is indicated by
the plane AA’
 The points are representative
sources for the wavelets

■ After the wavelets have moved a

distance c∆t, a new plane BB' can be
drawn tangent to the wavefronts
 PROOF FOR LAWS OF REFLECTION

AB – Incident wavefront AB wavefront is at t=0

CD – Reflected Wavefront
V - Wave speed
 D
B

vt vt

i r

A C A C

𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑡
In ∆ABC, sin 𝑖 = 𝐴𝐶 In ∆ADC, sin 𝑟 = 𝐴𝐶

∴ sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟

∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟
PROOF FOR LAWS OF REFRACTION

sin 𝑖 𝑣1
=
sin 𝑟 𝑣2
𝑣1 𝑛2
=𝑛21 =
𝑣2 𝑛1

sin 𝑖 𝑛2
=
sin 𝑟 𝑛1

𝑛1 sin i = 𝑛2 sin r
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

When particle of a medium oscillates under the effect of two

or more than two waves superposing at the given particle,
according to the principle of superposition the resultant
displacement is equal to vector sum of the independent
displacements due to each wave.
The effect produced by superposition of two waves is called
interference.
𝑌1

𝑌2

𝑌𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2
 PHASE DIFFERENCE AND PATH DIFFERENCE

Suppose, any two wave equations at same time,

𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥1 at a time t, two waves propagate at
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥2 different distance

phase

So, phase difference is,

𝛿 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥2 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥1
𝛿 = 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥2 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1
𝛿 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝛿 = 𝑘Δ𝑥
2𝜋
𝛿= Δ𝑥
𝜆 2𝜋
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × (𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Phase Path 𝜆
difference difference
 COHERENCE SOURCES
Two sources are said to be coherence if they emit light wave of the same frequency.
Nearly same amplitude and are always in phase with each other.
Two sources  emit radiation of same colour  same wavelength  same frequency.
In actual practice it is not possible to have two independent sources which are
coherent. But for experimental purposes, two virtual sources formed from a single
source can act as coherent sources.
Methods have been devised where
(i) interference of light takes place be- tween the waves from the real source and
a virtual source
(ii) interference of light takes place between waves from two sources formed due
to a single source. In all such cases, the two sources will act, as if they are
perfectly similar in all respects.
 EXPLANATION OF CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

Consider a monochromatic source of light S emitting waves of wavelength 𝜆

and two narrow pinholes A and B.
A and B are equidistant from S and act as two virtual coherent sources.
Let ‘a’ be the amplitude of the waves. The phase difference between the two
waves reaching the point P, at any instant, is 𝛿.
If 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are the displacements
• 𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡
• 𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
From superposition principle at P,
• 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
• 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝛿 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝛿
• 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 (1 + cos 𝛿) + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝛿
 Taking, 𝑎 1 + cos 𝛿 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃 ……………(1)
𝑎 sin 𝛿 = 𝑅 sin 𝜃 ……………(2)
𝑦 = 𝑅 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜃 + 𝑅 co𝑠 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ………………………(3)
 This equation (3) is represent the equation of simple
harmonic vibration of amplitude R.
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding,
𝑅 2 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝜃 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝛿 + 𝑎2 1 + cos 𝛿 2

𝑅 2 (sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 θ) = 𝑎2 sin2 𝛿 + 𝑎2 1 + 2 cos 𝛿 + cos 2 𝛿

𝑅 2 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝛿 + 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos 𝛿 + 𝑎2 cos2 𝛿
𝑅 2 = 2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 cos 𝛿
𝑅 2 = 2𝑎2 1 + cos 𝛿
2 2 2
𝛿
𝑅 = 2𝑎 2 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
2 2 2
𝛿
𝑅 = 4𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
 The intensity at a point is given by square of the amplitude
𝐼 = 𝑅2
2𝛿
𝐼 = 4𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ……………………(4)
2
 𝛿
 𝐼 = 4𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2

Special Cases:
1) Constructive Interference:
When the phase difference : 𝛿 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, … … … , 𝑛(2𝜋)
or path difference : 𝑥 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, … … … , 𝑛𝜆
intensity : 𝐼 = 4𝑎2
• Intensity is maximum when the phase difference is a whole number
multiple of 2𝜋 or the path difference is a whole number multiple of
wavelength 𝜆.
 2 2𝛿
 𝐼 = 4𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2

Special Cases:
2) Destructive Interference:
When the phase difference : 𝛿 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, … … … , (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 𝜆
or path difference : 𝑥 = , , , … … … , , (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2 2 2

intensity : 𝐼 = 0
• Intensity is minimum when the phase difference is a odd number
multiple of 𝜋 or the path difference is a odd number multiple of
𝜆
wavelength .
2
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Ocean plane waves passing
through slits
Thomas Young gave the first demonstration of the interference of light waves.
Young admitted the sunlight through a single pinhole and then directed the
emerging light onto two pinholes. Finally the light was received on a screen.
The spherical waves emerging from the pinholes interfered with each other and a
few coloured fringes were observed on the screen. The amount of light that
emerged from the pinhole was very small and the fringes were faint and difficult to
observe.
The pinholes were later replaced with narrow slits that let through much more
light. The sunlight was replaced by monochromatic light. Young’s experiment is
known as double-slit experiment.
 Consider a narrow monochromatic source S and two pinhole A and B, equidistance from S.
 A and B act as two coherent source separated by a distance d.
 Let a screen be placed at a distance D from the coherent sources.
 The point C on the screen is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, the path difference
between the two waves is zero. Thus, the point C has maximum intensity.
 Consider a point P at a distance x from C.
 The waves reach at the point O from A and B.
Here, for path difference,
𝑑 𝑑
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑥 − 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑥 +
2 2

𝐵𝑃 2 − 𝐴𝑃 2 = 𝑃𝑅2 + 𝐵𝑅2 − 𝑃𝑄 2 + 𝐴𝑄 2

𝑑 2 𝑑 2
= 𝐷2 + 𝑥+ − 𝐷2 + 𝑥−
2 2

𝐵𝑃 2 − 𝐴𝑃 2 = 2𝑥𝑑
𝐵𝑃 + 𝐴𝑃 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 2𝑥𝑑
2𝑥𝑑
𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 =
𝐵𝑃+𝐴𝑃

• Noe here, BP=AP= D (Approximately)

2𝑥𝑑
𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 =
2𝐷

𝑥𝑑
Now, The path difference = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 =
𝐷
 𝑥𝑑
The path difference = 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 =
𝐷
 The distance between any two consecutive Bright or Dark fringes is known as Fringe Width.
𝜆𝐷
𝛽=
𝑑
 Therefore, alternately bright and dark parallel fringes are formed. The fringes are formed on both sides
of C.

 it is clear that the width of the bright fringe is equal to the width of the dark fringe. All the fringes are equal
in width and are independent of the order of the fringe.
𝜆𝐷
 The breadth of a bright or a dark fringes is, however, equal to half the fringe width and is equal to .
2𝑑
 THIN FILM INTERFERENCE
Newton and Hooke observed and developed the interference phenomenon due to multiple
reflections from the surface of thin transparent materials.
Everyone is familiar with the beautiful colours produced by a thin film of oil on the surface of
water and also by the thin film of a soap-bubble.
Hooke observed such colours in thin films of mica and similar thin transparent plates.
Newton was able to show the interference rings when a convex lens was placed on a plane
glass-plate.
Young was able to explain the phenomenon on the basis of interference between light
reflected from the top and the bottom surface of a thin film.
INTERFERENCE DUE TO REFLECTED LIGHT

 Let us consider a transparent film of uniform

thickness ‘t’ bounded by two parallel surfaces as
shown in Fig.
 Let the refractive index of the material be 𝜇. The
film is surrounded by air on both the sides. Let us
consider plane waves from a monochromatic
source falling on the thin film at an angle of
incidence ‘i’.
 Part of a ray such as AB is reflected along BC, and
part of it is transmitted into the film along BF. The
transmitted ray BF makes an angle ‘r’ with the
normal to the surface at the point G.
 The ray BF is in turn partly reflected back into the
film along FD while a major part refracts into the
surrounding medium along FK. Part of the reflected
ray FD is transmitted at the upper surface and
travels along DE.
BC ∥ DE
(i) Geometrical Path Difference:

 Let DH be normal to BC. From points H and D

onwards, the rays HC and DE travel equal path. The
ray BH travels in air while the ray BD travels in the
film of refractive index 𝜇 along the path BF and FD.
 The geometric path difference between the two rays
is
BF+FD – BH.
(ii) Optical Path Difference:
 Optical path difference Δ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐿
𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐵𝐹 + 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐵𝐻

 In this figure we can say that, BF=FD

 So, from ∆BFG
𝐹𝐺
cos 𝑟 =
𝐵𝐹 𝑡
𝑡
cos 𝑟 = So, BF = FG = cos 𝑟
𝐵𝐹
𝑡
𝐵𝐹 =
cos 𝑟
 Now for BH:

BG = GD
Or BD = 2 BG

From ΔBDH, In ΔBFG,

𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝐺
sin 𝑖 = tan 𝑟 =
𝐵𝐷 𝐹𝐺
𝐵𝐻 = sin 𝑖 ∙ 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐺 = tan 𝑟 ∙ 𝐹𝐺
𝐵𝐻 = sin 𝑖 ∙ (2 𝐵𝐺) 𝐵𝐺 = tan 𝑟 ∙ 𝑡

 So, 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝑡 sin 𝑖 tan 𝑟

Using Snell's law: 𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟

sin 𝑖 = 𝜇 sin 𝑟

 So, 𝐵𝐻 = 2𝑡𝜇 sin 𝑟 tan 𝑟

 Optical Path Difference:

𝑥 = 𝜇 𝐵𝐹 + 𝐹𝐷 − 𝐵𝐻
𝑡 𝑡
𝑥= 𝜇 + − 2𝜇𝑡 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑟
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
1 sin2 𝑟
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 −
cos 𝑟 cos 𝑟
cos2 𝑟
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡
cos 𝑟
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟

(iii) Correction on account of phase change at reflection:

 When a ray is reflected at the boundary of a rarer to denser medium, a path change of 𝜆/2 occurs for the
ray BC.
 There is no path difference due to transmission at D.
 Including the change in path difference due to reflection, the true path difference

λ
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 −
2
 CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMA (BRIGHTNESS) AND MINIMA (DARKNESS)

 Maxima occur when the optical path difference 𝑥 =  Minima occur when the optical path difference
𝑛𝜆 𝜆
 𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1
2
λ
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = 𝑛𝜆 λ 𝜆
2 𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − = 2𝑛 + 1
𝜆 2 2
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 +
2 𝜆
𝜆 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛 + 2
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 2𝑛 + 1 2
2
(Condition for Brightness)
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛 + 1 𝜆
• The phase relationship of the interfering waves does
not change if one full wave is added to or subtracted
from any of the interfering waves. Therefore
𝑛 + 1 𝜆 can as well be replaced by 𝑛𝜆.
• for simplicity in expression. Thus,
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆

(Condition for Darkness)

 ANTI REFLECTION COATING
(1) Phase condition and minimum thickness of film:

• For normal incidence: r =0 so,

cos r = 1

Path diff. : 𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡

• For destructive interference:

λ
Path diff. : 2𝜇𝑡 = 2n + 1
2

• For minimum thickness, n should be zero:

λ
• Path difference: 2𝜇𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2
λ 𝜆 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝜆
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 − + 4𝜇
2 2
𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟
 NEWTON’S RINGS
When a plano-convex lens of long focal length is placed on a plane glass
plate, a thin film of air is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and
the upper surface of the plate.
The thickness of the air film is very small at the point of contact and gradually
increases from the center outwards.
The fringes produced with monochromatic light are circular.
The fringes are concentric circles, uniform in thickness and with the point of
contact as the center.
When viewed with white light, the fringes are colored.
 With monochromatic light, bright and dark circular fringes are produced in
the air film.
Newton originally observed these concentric circular fringes and hence they
are called Newton’s rings.
 The experimental arrangement for observing Newton’s rings is shown in above Figure.
 S is a source of monochromatic light at the focus of the lens L.
 A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate at 45°. The glass plate reflects a part of the
incident light towards the air film enclosed by the plano-convex lens and the plane glass plate.
The reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a microscope.
 Interference takes place and dark and bright circular fringes are produced. This is due to the
interference between the light reflected from the lower surface of the plano-convex lens and
the upper surface of the glass plate.
 Part of the light incident on the system is reflected from the glass-to-air boundary, say from point
D. The remainder of the light is transmitted through the air film. It is again reflected from the air-
to-glass boundary, say from point J.
 The two rays reflected from the top and bottom of the air film are derived through division of
amplitude from the same incident ray CD and are therefore coherent. The rays 1 and 2 are close
to each other and interfere to produce darkness or brightness.
 The condition of brightness or darkness depends on the path difference between the two
reflected light rays, which in turn depends on the thickness of the air film at the point of
incidence.
CONDITION FOR BRIGHT AND DARK RINGS

𝜆
 The optical path difference between the rays is given by ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 − .
2
 Since 𝜇 = 1 for air and cos r =1 for normal incidence of light,

𝜆
∆= 2𝑡 − ……………………..(1)
2
CIRCULAR FRINGES
RADII OF FRINGES

 Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens, Let the thickness of the air film at Q be PQ = t. Let the
radius of the circular fringe at Q be OQ= 𝑟𝑛 .
 By the Pythagorus theorem, 𝑃𝑀2 = 𝑃𝑁 2 + 𝑀𝑁 2
𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑛2 + 𝑅 − 𝑡 2

𝑟𝑛2 = 2Rt − t 2
 As R >> t, 2Rt >> t2
𝑟𝑛2 ≅ 2Rt ……………………….(2)
𝑟𝑛2 ≅ 2Rt
SPACING BETWEEN FRINGES

 It is seen that the diameter of dark rings is given by

𝐷𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅
where n = 1,2,3, ............

 The diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square root of the natural numbers.
Therefore, the diameter of the ring does not increase in the same proportion as the order of
the ring, for example, if n increases as 1,2,3,4, ...........the diameters are
𝐷1 = 2 𝜆𝑅
𝐷2 = 2 2𝜆𝑅
= 2(1.4) 𝜆𝑅
𝐷3 = 2(1.7) 𝜆𝑅
𝐷4 = 2 2 𝜆𝑅
 Therefore, the rings get closer and closer, as n increases. This is why the rings are not
evenly spaced.
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT
• In the arrangement used, S is a source of sodium light. A parallel beam of light from the lens L is reflected
by the glass plate inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizontal. A plano-convex lens of large focal length.
• Newton's rings are viewed through the travelling microscope focussed on the air film. Circular bright and
dark rings are seen with the centre dark. With the help of a travelling microscope, measure the diameter
of the n th dark ring.
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID

 The experiment is performed when there is an air film between the plano-convex lens and
the optically plane glass plate. These are kept in a metal container C. The diameter of the n
th and the (n+m) th dark rings are determined with the help of a travelling microscope.
 For air,
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 2
= 4 𝑛 + 𝑚 𝜆𝑅 ; 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑚𝜆𝑅
 This liquid is poured in the container C without disturbing the arrangement. The air film between the
lower surface of lens and the upper surface of the plate is replaced by the liquid. The diameters of
the 𝑛𝑡ℎ ring and (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝑡ℎ ring are determined.

 For the liquid, for dark rings

2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Or
2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
But,
𝑟2
𝑡=
2𝑅

2𝜇𝑟 2
= 𝑛𝜆
2𝑅
Or
𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝑟2 =
𝜇
So,
4𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝐷2 =
𝜇
MICHELSON’S INTERFEROMETER

Albert Abraham Michelson

 Types of fringes : 1) Circular fringes
2) Localized fringes

1) CIRCULAR FRINGES :

 When the two mirrors are perfectly perpendicular, the images of

the two mirrors are seen through the glass plate There may be
an air film between them.
 Circular fringes are observed with monochromatic light with the
condition that the images of the two mirrors are exactly parallel
 For an extended source, two images of the source will be
observed due to the two mirrors
 If the images of the two mirrors are separated by a distance d,
the separation between the images of the two sources will be 2d
 The path difference between the two beams from them will be 2𝑑 cos 𝜃.
 The light that comes from M2 and goes to T undergoes rare-to-dense reflection and therefore a -phase
change occurs. In view of this, the total path difference between the two beams is given by
𝜆
Δ = 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 +
2
𝜆
• The condition for obtaining brightness: 2𝑑 cos 𝜃 + = nλ ; n = 0,1,2,3…..
2
 For a given mirror separation d, a given wavelength  and order n, angle  is constant. This means that
the fringes are of circular shape. They are called fringes of equal inclination.
a) When mirror M1 coincides with the virtual image M’2, d = 0
𝜆
so the path difference is, Δ = , hence centre of the field will be dark
2

𝜆 𝜆
b) If one of the mirrors is now moved through a distance , d=
4 4
the path difference is λ and therefore a maximum is obtained.

𝜆 3𝜆
c) If d= , the path difference is
2 4

𝜆
• If one of the mirror is displaced through , a new ring appear at the centre.
2
2) LOCALIZED FRINGES :
 When the images of the two mirrors are inclined, straight line fringes are observed
 They are as shown in the figure

 It can be seen from the figure that when the images of the two mirrors are inclined and when they do
not intersect at the mid point, the fringes are curved.
 They are convex towards the thin edge of the wedge.
 Such fringes are not observed for large values of the path differences
WHITE LIGHT FRINGES :

 With while light also, the fringes are seen

 But, they are seen only when the path
difference is small
 In the fringe pattern, various colors overlap
and so only a few of them become visible
 The central fringe is dark while the others
are colored
 This type of fringes are useful in the
standardization of meter