Computer & Programming Fundamentals

Unit-1

Computer
A computer can be defined as an electronic device that
accepts raw data as input and processes it with a set of
instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.
It renders output after performing mathematical and
logical operations and can save the output for future use.

Generations of Computer
Generation refers to development that changes the way
computers work.
Generations of computer are mainly divided according to
the development of computer technology.

First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

•The technology behind the primary generation
computers was a fragile glass device, which was called
vacuum tubes.
• First-generation computers were used for calculation,
storage, and control purpose.
• They needed a full room and consume lot of electricity.
Main first generation computers are:
ENIAC:
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. It was
very heavy, large and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
EDVAC:
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was
designed by von Neumann.
UNIVAC:
Universal Automatic Computer

Advantages of the first-generation computer

1. These computers were in no time in terms of
calculating. They might calculate in milliseconds.
2. Vacuum tubes are the electronic components
available at that time, which were used by these
computers.

Disadvantages of the first-generation computer

1. These computers' weight was about 30 tones and
took up a lot of space as they were very big in size.
2. These computers were very costly and were non
portable.
3. Due to the presence of magnetic drums, they were
only able to store a small amount of information.
4. As the first generation of computers were used
vacuum tubes, which need a large cooling system.
 5. They consumed a large amount of energy and had
less work efficiency.
6. They needed punch cards to give input.

Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)

 Instead of vacuum tubes, the second generation of
computers was supported transistors.
 From 1956 through 1963, transistors were widely
utilized within the second generati0on of computers.
 These computers were small in size because they
used transistors in these generations of computers
that were smaller than vacuum tubes.
 In terms of speed, the second generation of
computers was faster.
 They were cheaper to create.
  Some samples of the second generation of
computers are given below:
o CDC 3600

o Honeywell 400

o UNIVAC 1108

o IBM 7094

o CDC 1604, and many more

Advantages of the second generation of computers

1. Small in size as compared to the previous generation
of computers.
2. These computers consumed less energy and did not
produce the maximum amount of heat.
3. In these computers, punch cards and Assembly
language were used to give input.
4. As compared to the first generation, it had better
portability and low cost.
5. Furthermore, these computers were faster in speed
as could calculate data in microseconds.
Disadvantages of the second generation of computers
1. It required a cooling system and constant
maintenance.
2. Also, these computers were used only for a
particular objective.

Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits(1964-

1971)
•Technology shift from huge transistors to
integrated circuits, also referred to as IC.
•The most important feature of this era’s computer
was the speed and reliability.
• IC was made from silicon and also called silicon
chips.
•Programming was now wiped out Higher level
languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code).
Some examples of third generation computers are:
o IBM 370

o PDP-8

o ICL 2900

o IBM 360

o PDP-11, and many more

Advantages of the third generation of computers
1. These computers were cheaper in cost.
2. This generation's computers used Integrated circuits
that made them small in size. Also, they were
reliable and faster in speed.
3. The use of an Integrated circuit was not only
beneficial for reducing the size of the computer; it
also enhances the performance of the computer.
4. The third generation of computers introduced a big
storage capacity.
5. In these computers, keyboard and mouse were used
to give the input rather than punch cards.
6. These generation computers were much fast in
terms of calculation; they decrease computational
time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
7. For better performance, these computers used
operating systems and used multiple programming
and the concept of time-sharing.
 Disadvantages of the third generation of computers
1. Air conditioning was required by these computers.
2. The manufacturing of IC chips required a highly
sophisticated technology.
3. IC chips are not easy to maintain.

Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-

2010)
• The large scale of integration LSI circuits built on one
chip called microprocessors.
The Microprocessor, commonly called a CPU (Central
Processing Unit), was used by the fourth generation of
computers.
•The most advantage of this technology is that one
microprocessor can contain all circuits required to
perform arithmetic, logic and control functions on one
chip.
•Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming,
time-sharing, operating speed and virtual memory made
it a more user-friendly and customary device.
Microprocessors, along with integrated circuits, helped
to introduce the laptop.
Some examples of fourth-generation computers are:
o STAR 1000

o PUP 11

o IBM 4341
 o DEC 10

Advantages of the fourth generation of computers

1. This generation computer size gets reduced and
fastest in computation, comparing to the previous
generation of computer.
2. Its heat generated is negligible and required less
maintenance.
3. In these types of computers, all kinds of high-level
language can be used.

Disadvantages of the fourth generation of computers

1. The fabrication and design of the microprocessor are
not simple.
2. In many cases, air conditioning is needed due to the
occurrence of Integrated circuits.
3. For making the Integrated circuit, advanced
technology is required.
 Fifth Generation Computers (2010 to present)
•It allows computers to behave like humans.
The fifth generation of computers is predicated on
artificial intelligence.
• It is often seen in programs like voice recognition,
area of medicines, and entertainment.
• Within the field of games playing also it’s shown
remarkable performance where computers are
capable of beating human competitors.
•The speed is highest, size is that the smallest.
The ten million electronic components have
consisted of the production of a microprocessor as
this generation is based on Ultra Large-Scale
Integration (ULSI).
Some examples are:
o UltraBook
o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook

Advantages of the fifth generation of computers

1. It has unique features and is available in several
sizes.
2. It is more reliable and has the ability to work much
faster.
 3. It offers computers that have a more friendly UI
(User Interface), including multimedia features.

Disadvantages of the fifth generation of computers

1. In these computers, very low-level languages are
required.
2. They may be harmful in terms of making human
brains doomed and dull.

Components Of Computer

Block Diagram Of Computer

There are 4 main computer components that are given
below:
o Input Unit

o Output Unit

o Memory Unit

o CPU

Input Unit
1. This unit is responsible for handling all the inputs to
the computer.
2. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside
world.
3. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
4. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing.
5. Input devices include keyboard, mouse, joystick etc.

Output Unit
1. This unit is responsible for representing the output to
the user of computer.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world
4. Output devices include monitor, printer, speakers etc.

Memory Unit
1. The data is first stored in storage unit for faster access
and processing.
2. It stores data and instructions required for processing
(received from input devices)
3. Intermediate results of processing
4. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Primary Storage
 Primary storage is used to hold running program
instructions
 Used to hold data, intermediate results, and results
of ongoing processing of job(s)
 Fast in operation
 Small Capacity
 Expensive
 Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)
 Example- RAM and ROM(non volatile)

Secondary Storage
 Used to hold stored program instructions
 Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
 Slower than primary storage
  Large Capacity and lot cheaper
 Non volatile (Retains data even without power)
 Example- CD, hard drive etc

CPU – Central Processing Unit

 It is the brain of a computer system.
 It is responsible for controlling the operations of all
other units of a computer system.
 It executes the calculations and commands required
for functioning of the computer device.
 The CPU comprises some components: the control
unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the
place where the actual executions of instructions
takes place during processing operation.
The ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison
calculations, and other logical and mathematical
processes.
Control Unit of a computer system manages and
coordinates the operations of all other components
of the computer system
Characteristics of Computer System

1. Speed
The processing speed of computer is very high.
Executing mathematical calculation, computer works
faster and more accurately than human. A computer
is a time saving device.
2. Diligence
A human cannot work for several hours without
resting, yet a computer never tires. A computer can
conduct millions of calculations per second with
complete precision without stopping. A computer
can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or
calculations.
3. Reliability
A computer is reliable. The output results never
differ unless the input varies. the output is totally
depend on the input. When an input is the same the
output will also be the same.
4. Automation
The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial
Intelligence)-based technology. A computer may
conduct tasks automatically after instructions are
programmed. By executing jobs automatically, this
computer feature replaces thousands of workers.
5. Versatility
Versatility refers to a capacity of computer.
Computer perform different types of tasks with the
same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can
perform multiple tasks at the same time this is
known as versatility. For example, while listening to
music, we may develop our project using PowerPoint
6. Memory
A computer can store millions of records. These
records may be accessed with complete precision.
Computer memory storage capacity is measured in
Bytes, Kilobytes(KB), Megabytes(MB), Gigabytes(GB),
and Terabytes(TB). A computer has built-in memory
known as primary memory.
7. Accuracy
When a computer performs a computation or
operation, the chances of errors occurring are low.
Errors in a computer are caused by human’s
submitting incorrect data. A computer can do a
variety of operations and calculations fast and
accurately.
Limitations Of Computer
1) Supercomputer
i.Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers.
ii.They are designed to process huge amount of data. A
supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a
second.
iii.Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and
engineering applications such as weather forecasting,
scientific simulations and nuclear energy research.
Characteristics of SuperComputers:
o It produces excellent results in animations.

o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and

critical medical tests.

o It can study and understand climate patterns and

forecast weather conditions.

o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at

the beginner level for their training.

o It has played a vital role in managing the online

currency world such as stock market and bitcoin.

o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases

and in producing accurate results in brain injuries,

strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately

analysing data obtained from exploring the solar

system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
 o It also used in a smog control system where it
predicts the level of fog and other pollutants in the
atmosphere.

2.Mainframe computers
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds
or thousands of users simultaneously. They can support
multiple programs at the same time. These features of
mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which
need to manage and process a high volume of data.
Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:
o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of

transactions in a second in the banking sector.

o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to

50 years after proper installation.

o It gives excellent performance with large scale

memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload

among other processors and input/output terminals.

o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during

processing in mainframe computers. If any error

occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the
performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other

ongoing exchange of information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:
o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a

record of their millions of patients in order to

contact them for treatment or related to their
appointment, medicine updates or disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence
departments to share a large amount of sensitive
information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to

store, manage and retrieve data related to their

courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees
and affiliated schools and colleges.
o In retail sector, retail companies have a huge
customer base and branches use mainframe
computers to handle and execute information
related to their inventory management, customer
management and huge transactions in short
duration.

3) Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of
two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users
at one time. Mini computers are used in institutes and
departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and
inventory management. A minicomputer lies between
the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.
Characteristics of minicomputer:
o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit

anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.

o It is very fast compared to its size.

o It remains charged for a long time.

o It does not require a controlled operational

environment.
Applications of minicomputers:
o Process control: It was used for process control in

manufacturing. It mainly performs two primary

functions that are collecting data and feedback. If
any abnormality occurs in the process, it is detected
by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are
made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small

organizations to collect, store and share data. Local

hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the
records of their patients and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a

communication device in larger systems by serving

as a portal between a human operator and a central
processor or computer.
4) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It
is a general-purpose computer that is designed for
individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and
output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are
examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for
personal work that may be making an assignment,
watching a movie, or at office for office work.
Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is smallest in size among all types of computers.

o A limited number of software can be used.

o It is designed for personal work and applications.

Only one user can work at a time.

o It is less expansive and easy to use.

o It does not require user to have special skills or

training to use it.

o It is capable of multitasking such as printing,

scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.

1) Analogue Computer
 Analogue computers are designed to process
analogue data.
 Analogue data is continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values.
  Analogue computers are used where we don't need
exact values always such as speed, temperature,
pressure and current.
 Analogue computers directly accept the data from
the measuring device without first converting it into
numbers and codes.
 They measure the continuous changes in physical
quantity and generally render output as a reading on
a scale.
 Speedometer and mercury thermometer are
examples of analogue computers.

2) Digital Computer
 Digital computer is designed to perform calculations
and logical operations at high speed.
 It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits
or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with
programs stored in its memory to produce the
output.
 All modern computers like laptops, desktops
including smartphones that we use at home or office
are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
o It allows you to store a large amount of information

and to retrieve it easily whenever you need it.

 o You can easily add new features to digital systems
more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems
just by changing the program without making any
changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement
in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is
not affected by noise, temperature, humidity, and
other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
 Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and
digital computer.
 It is fast like an analogue computer and has memory
and accuracy like digital computers.
 It can process both continuous and discrete data.
 It accepts analogue signals and convert them into
digital form before processing.
 It is widely used in specialized applications where
both analogue and digital data is processed.
 For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps
that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price.
Advantages of using hybrid computers:
o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-

parallel configuration of the analogue subsystem.

o It produces precise and quick results that are more

accurate and useful.

o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in

real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

1.General Purpose Computer

 A general-purpose computer system is one that can
be programmed to perform a wide range of
functions.
 Writing a word processing letter, document
preparation, recording, financial analysis, printing
papers, constructing databases, and computations
are all activities that general computers can perform
with precision and consistency.
 These computers are often smaller
 They have less storage space, and are less expensive.

2.Special Purpose Computer

 These computers are made to carry out a specific or
specialised activity.
 The scope and scale of the job depends on the size,
storage capacity, and cost of such computers.
 The purpose of these computers is to do a certain
task.
 Weather prediction, planetary science, farming,
engineering, meteorology, satellite operation, traffic
control, and pharmaceutical science research all
utilize these computers.
Uses Of Computer System
1.Business
Computers can be seen in almost every business.
Computers are almost part of a business setup because
they increase productivity. In businesses, computers are
used to store and manage accounts and personal data,
maintain projects, track status, and make reports and
presentations. Computers also help people analyze their
investment, expenses, profits, sales etc.
2.Science
In science, research and engineering, computers are best
suited for collecting, analyzing, categorizing, and storing
the data. Computers enable scientists from different
locations to work together on the same project.
Computers play role in launching, maintaining,
controlling spacecraft, operating and other technologies.
3.Government
In government sector, they are used to perform various
functions in different departments and improving their
services' quality, efficiency, and productivity. Some
examples of such services are city planning, traffic
control, law enforcement, infrastructure developments,
and tourism. The primary purposes of using computers
are data processing tasks, maintaining citizens' database,
and promoting a paperless environment. Computers are
playing crucial role in country's defense system. They
help in missile development, rocket, satellite launches.
4.Health and Medical
Computers are changing the methods of diagnosis in
hospitals. They are used for maintaining patients'
information, records, live monitoring of patients, X-rays.
Computers help monitor heart rate, and blood pressure,
etc. Computers enable doctors to exchange patient's
data easily with other medical specialists. Advanced
surgical devices are based on robotics that helping
surgeons to conduct operations and surgeries remotely.
5.Education
Computers are broadly getting used in the education
field. They help people to get different educational
materials such as images, videos, e-books in one place.
All such information can be accessed through Internet.
Computers are best suited for online classes, online
tutoring, online examinations, and creating assignments
and projects. They can also be used to maintain and
monitor student performance and other information.
6.Industry
Computers are used in industries to perform various
tasks such as maintaining inventory, interior designing,
designing samples, communicating over video
conferencing etc. Online marketing has made it easier for
people to buy products in rural areas. Computers have
enabled people from different levels of different
locations to participate easily in stock marketing.
7.Banking
Most countries use online banking systems where
customers can access their data directly using computers
and the Internet. People can check their account balance,
transfer money, and pay online bills, including credit
cards. Banks use computers to perform transactions and
store customer data, transaction records, etc. Banks have
reduced the number of manual errors, number of
employees, and costs to a great extent by using
computers. ATMs are example of computers that are
helping people to withdraw and deposit the money.
8.Entertainment
Computers nowadays are one of the best mediums for
entertainment. Computers can be used to watch movies,
play games, listen to music, etc. People can also enjoy
recording their videos with webcam and apply several
entertaining AI effects. Several Photo editor programs
are also available with fabulous powerful features.
9.Training
Most companies use computers to provide training to
their employees. Computer-based training helps
companies save their time, money and increase
productivity. Computer-based training can be used to
train employees for large distances in various locations.
This will eliminate travel time and costs, making training
process more comfortable and smoother.
10.Arts
Computers have become part of art, photography,
dance, and culture. Computers with advanced features
allow users to draw their projects directly on it. Besides,
people can use computers to digitize their photos. There
are several photo editor software that can help people
edit and customize their photos. The dance's movements
and steps can be shown live with animations' help.
11.Sports
In today's developed world, computers are being used in
almost every sport. In sports, computers are mainly used
to maintain scoreboards, records, and other statistics.
They are used to analyze player movements and make
various in-game decisions. Computers help to make
complex in-game decisions (especially in umpiring),
which cannot be seen by human eyes.
12.Robotics
Robotics is one of the emerging fields of technology that
uses computers for science and engineering and
designing machines. These machines can be virtual and
physical that can reduce or eliminate human workload.
Additionally, some machines can perform heavy tasks
that humans cannot complete, or that may take a long
time to complete. Car manufacturing was one of the first
examples where robots helped to assemble car parts and
perform many other heavy tasks. Robots are beneficial in
many fields, such as exploring areas where conditions are
difficult for humans, helping military, helping law
enforcement and helping health professionals, etc.
13.Safety and Security
Computers are capable of working together with
different equipment, tools and technologies. When it
comes to safety, computers are widely used with
security camera. Every private and government
organizations are equipped with security cameras to
monitor people and goods. These cameras are helping
security intelligence agencies to identify terrorists or
criminals in public places. Computers attached with a
fingerprint scanner and face-recognition technology have
made it harder for fraudsters to use fake identities and
take government benefits using someone else's identity.
Security systems have become so powerful with
introduction of computer technology and the Internet.
14.Publishing
Computers are one of the first choices when it comes to
publication. Computers are mainly used for designing
newsletters, novels, posters, magazines, newspapers etc.
They are suitable for almost every type of publication.
Computers used in both types of publishing methods,
either its hard-copy or e-books. Computers play a vital
role in blogging and writing articles on websites.
15.Weather Forecasting
It is almost impossible for humans to predict the weather
without using a computer. The weather forecasting
process involves complex computation and monitoring of
data from satellites and many other technological
devices. The computer has made it a little easier to
predict weather conditions because it can process
information from different sources and make complex
calculations related to it, which are necessary for
forecasting. Computers process enormous amounts of
meteorological information during weather forecasting.
16.Communication
Computers have become primary sources of
communication. Modern computers come with built-in
webcam and microphone to make use of communication
easier. People can use software like Skype and Hangout
to connect with people over Internet. Because of
videoconferencing feature, people can connect with
audio and video. Computers help families connect to
relatives, businesses to organize meetings, companies to
take interviews at different locations. Older
communications methods like emails are also used.
Human being Vs Computer System
Human being :-
1. Human have feelings, emotions.
2. Have mind , extra intelligence.
3. Can do work by themselves without any command.
4. Can understand the correct and wrong things.
5. Can learn and forget things.
6.Humans are living organisms
Computer :-
1. It has no feeling.
2. It doesn't have intelligence.
3. They follows command.
4. Not able to understand correct and wrong things.
5. Sharp memory store everything.
6. Computers are electronic devices

Computer Memory
Computer memory is the storage area used to store data,
information or instruction temporarily or permanently. It
stores all the inputs before processing and the output are
stored after processing of data.

Types of Various Units of Memory

 Bit

 Nibble

 Byte
  Kilo Byte
 MegaByte
 Giga Byte
 Tera Byte
 Peta Byte
 Exa Byte

Primary or Main Memory

 Primary memory is also known as the computer
system's main memory that communicates directly
within the CPU, and the Cache memory.
  When a program or data is activated to execute, the
processor first loads instructions or programs from
secondary memory into main memory, and then the
processor starts execution.
 Accessing or executing of data from primary memory
is faster because it has a cache or register memory
that provides faster response, and it is located closer
to the CPU.
 The primary memory is volatile, which means the
data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a
power failure occurs.
 It is costlier than secondary memory, and the main
memory capacity is limited as compared to
secondary memory.
The primary memory is further divided into two parts:
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

 RAM is one of the faster types of main memory
accessed directly by the CPU.
 It is the hardware in a computer device to
temporarily store data, programs or program results.
 It is used to read/write data in memory until the
machine is working.
  It is volatile, which means if a power failure occurs or
the computer is turned off, the information stored
in RAM will be lost.
 All data stored in computer memory can be read or
accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

o SRAM

o DRAM

DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random-Access Memory) is a

type of RAM that is used for the dynamic storage of data
in RAM. In DRAM, each cell carries one-bit information.
The cell is made up of two parts: a capacitor and
a transistor. The size of the capacitor and the transistor
is so small, requiring millions of them to store on a single
chip. Hence, a DRAM chip can hold more data than an
SRAM chip of the same size. However, the capacitor
needs to be continuously refreshed to retain information
because DRAM is volatile. If the power is switched off,
the data store in memory is lost.

Characteristics of DRAM
1. It requires continuously refreshed to retain the data.
2. It is slower than SRAM
3. It holds a large amount of data
4. It is the combination of capacitor and transistor
5. It is less expensive as compared to SRAM
6. Less power consumption
SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory) is a type
of RAM used to store static data in the memory. It means
to store data in SRAM remains active as long as the
computer system has a power supply. However, data is
lost in SRAM when power failures have occurred.
Characteristics of Static Ram
1. It does not require to refresh.
2. It is faster than DRAM
3. It is expensive.
 4. High power consumption
5. Longer life
6. Large size
7. Uses as a cache memory

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a memory device or storage medium that is used
to permanently store information inside a chip. It is a
read-only memory that can only read stored information,
data or programs, but we cannot write or modify
anything. A ROM contains some important instructions
or program data that are required to start or boot a
computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the
stored information cannot be lost even when the power
is turned off or the system is shut down.

Types Of ROM
1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):
MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory
whose program or data is pre-configured by the
integrated circuit manufacture at the time of
manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction
stored within the MROM chip cannot be changed by
the user.
2.PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the
user can write any type of information or program
only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in
which the user can write the desired content or
program only once using the special PROM
programmer or PROM burner device; after that, the
data or instruction cannot be changed or erased.
3.EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory):
It is the type of read only memory in which stored
data can be erased and re-programmed only once in
the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory chip
that holds data when there is no power supply and
can also store data for a minimum of 10 to 20 years.
In EPROM, if we want to erase any stored data and
re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the
ultraviolet light for 40 minutes to erase the data;
after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.
4.EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable
Read Only Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and
programmable read only memory used to erase
stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and
re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory
 whose data cannot be erased or lost; even the
power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data can
be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand
times, and the data erase one byte at a time.

Secondary Memory
 Secondary memory is a permanent storage space to
hold a large amount of data.
 Secondary memory is also known as external
memory that representing the various storage media
(hard drives, USB, CDs, flash drives and DVDs) on
 which the computer data and program can be saved
on a long term basis.
 It is cheaper and slower than the main memory.
 Unlike primary memory, secondary memory cannot
be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Instead of that, secondary memory data is first
loaded into the RAM (Random Access Memory) and
then sent to the processor to read and update the
data.
 Secondary memory devices also include magnetic
disks like hard disk and floppy disks, an optical disk
such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes.
Features of Secondary Memory
o Its speed is slower than the primary/ main memory.
o Store data cannot be lost due to non-volatile nature.
o It can store large collections of different types, such
as audio, video, pictures, text, software, etc.
o All the stored data in a secondary memory cannot be
lost because it is a permanent storage area; even the
power is turned off.
o It has various optical and magnetic memories to
store data.
Secondary Storage Devices
Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations
of primary storage
Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit
of storage is very low
Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent
basis
Also known as auxiliary memory
Sequential Access Storage Device
1.It is a class of data storage devices that read stored
data in a sequence.
2.Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded
by sequencing through other locations
3.Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in
which it is stored Access time varies according to the
storage location of the information being accessed
4.Suitable for sequential processing applications where
most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
5.Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage

Magnetic Tape
1.Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
2.Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface
3.Devices that record and play audio and video using
magnetic tape are tape recorders and videotape
recorders.
4.A device that stores data on magnetic tape is known as
a tape drive.
5.A magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first
loaded on a tape drive for reading/writing of data on it.

Advantages
1.Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many
tapes as required can be used for storing very large data
sets
2.Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
3.Tapes can be erased and reused many times
4.Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in
weight
5.Easy to handle and store.
6.Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space
7.Compact size and light weight
8.Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily
portable from one place to another
9.Often used for transferring data and programs from
one computer to another that are not linked together
Disadvantages
1.Due to their sequential access nature, they are not
suitable for storage of those data that frequently require
to be accessed randomly
2.Must be stored in a dust-free environment because
specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors
3.Must be stored in an environment with properly
controlled temperature and humidity levels
4.Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting
in loss of stored data
5.Should be properly labeled so that some useful data
stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake
Direct Access Storage Devices
A direct-access storage device (DASD) is another name
for secondary storage devices that store data in discrete
locations with a unique address, such as hard disk drives,
optical drives and most magnetic storage devices. A
direct access storage device is a type of device that
supports direct access to stored data.
Magnetic disks:
i. A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses a
magnetization process to write, rewrite and access
data.
ii. It is covered with a magnetic coating.
iii. Data can be modified or can be deleted easily in the
magnetic disk memory.
iv. It also allows random access to data.
v. Hard disks and floppy disks are common examples of
magnetic disks.
a. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is a flexible disk with a
magnetic coating on it, and it is packaged inside a
protective plastic envelope. These are among the
oldest portable storage devices that could store up
to 1.44 MB of data, but now they are not used due
to very little memory storage.
b. Hard Disk Drive (HDD):
i.Hard disk drive comprises a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one over the other almost ½
inches apart around a spindle.
ii.stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage with one or more rigid rapidly
rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
iii.The platters are paired with magnetic heads,
usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which
read and write data to the platter surfaces.
iv.Data is accessed in a random-access manner,
meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored
and retrieved in any order.
v.HDDs are a type of non-volatile storage
 vi.A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from
and write data to the disks.
vii.A typical modern HDD has a capacity in terabytes
(TB)

Advantages:-
1.These are economical memory
2.Easy and direct access to data is possible.
3.It can store large amounts of data.
4.It has a better data transfer rate than magnetic tapes.
5.It has less prone to corruption of data as compared to
tapes.

Disadvantages:-
1.These are less expensive than RAM but more
expensive than magnetic tape memories.
2.It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.
3.These are not suitable for sequential access.
Optical Disk
An optical disk is an electronic data storage medium that
can be written to and read from using a low-
powered laser beam. Most of today's optical disks are
available: compact disks (CDs), digital versatile disks
(DVDs).
 Optical disks rely on a red or blue laser to record and
read data. Most of today's optical disks are flat,
circular.
 Data is written to an optical disk in a radial pattern
starting near the center.
 An optical disk drive uses a laser beam to read the
data from the disk.
 An optical disc can store more data and has a longer
lifespan
 All modern formats use the same basic sandwich of
materials structure.
 The base is formed by using a hard-plastic substrate,
and a reflective layer of metallic foil is used for
encoding the digital data.
 Next, a layer of clear polycarbonate protects the foil
and allows the laser beam to pass through to the
reflective layer.
 Uses
o Used to transfer data to various devices.
o They are used to deliver the software to others.
o They help users to hold large amounts of data, like
videos, photos, music, and more.
o Also, optical media are used to get back up from a
local machine.
CD-Compact Discs
Computers can read and write to CDs and DVDs using a
CD writer or DVD writer drive.
Drives such as CD-R (compact disc recordable) and DVD-R
(digital versatile disc recordable) drives that read and
write information to discs are known as MO (magneto-
optic).
MO drives, such as CD-R and DVD-R drives, are used to
read and write information to discs (magneto-optic)

DVD- Digital Versatile Discs

DVD stand for Digital Versatile Disk and are evolution
from CD drives, have significantly more performance and
capacity than CD while maintaining same physical
dimensions.
Advantages of Optical Disk
Cost- Only plastics and aluminum foils are used in the
production of an optical disk, which makes their
manufacturing cost less expensive.
Durability- It is not caused to data losses due to any
power failure. Hence, it can run a long time.
Simplicity- With the help of using optical disks, the
process of backup of data is much easier.
Portability- Optical disks are very portable. They can be
used in different computers and devices and transported
to different places as they can be placed inside bags.

Disadvantages of Optical Disk

Security- Optical disks need to keep safe from the hands
of thieves. Hence, it may provide insecurity and due to its
size, there are more prone to lose and theft.
Reliability- Unlike flash drives, any plastic casings can be
caused to damage optical disks. Therefore, they make
the disk unreadable as they are prone to scratching the
disks. The data stored on an optical disk cannot be
recovered anymore.
Capacity- While comparing with any other forms of
storage medias, it has less storage capacity. Storage
capacity of optical disk is 4.7GB.
Duplication- Like a USB flash drive, it is not easy to make
a duplicate copy by using an optical disk. There is needed
a separate software and hardware in order to process of
burning.

S.NO CD DVD

While the storage

The storage capacity
1. capacity of DVD is 4.7
of CD is 700 MB.
GB to 17 GB.

While in DVD, the

In CD, the recording or
recording or metal layer
2. metal layer is situated
is situated in middle of
on the top of disk.
disk.

There is only single pit While there are double

3.
layer in CD. layers of pits in DVD.
S.NO CD DVD

In CD, there is 1.6 While in DVD, there is

micrometer space 0.74 micrometer space
4.
between the spiral’s between the spiral’s
loops. loops.

In CD, the data While in DVD, the data

5. transfer rate is 1.4 MB transfer rate is 11
to 1.6 MB/sec. MB/sec.

It stands for Compact It stands for Digital

6.
Disk Versatile Disk

The thickness of CD is While the thickness of

7.
1.2 mm. DVD is 0.6 mm.
Features Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Definition The primary memory of a computer is Secondary memory defines to additional

the main memory that is utilized to storage devices that are utilized to store
store data temporarily. data permanently.

Accessibility It is directly accessible by the It is not directly accessible via the processor.
processor.

Nature of It is both volatile and non-volatile It is a non-volatile memory in nature.

Memory memory.

Other names It is also known as the main memory It is also known as the secondary or auxiliary
of the system. memory of a computer system.

Formation It is composed of semiconductors. It is composed of magnetic and optical

materials.

Data The data that must be executed is It is utilized to store data that requires
copied to the main memory. should be stored permanently.

Access Speed The speed of accessing data is faster The speed of accessing data is slower in
in primary memory. secondary memory.

Cost It is more costly than secondary It is cheaper than primary memory.

memory.

Size The size of primary memory is small. The size of secondary memory is large.

Memory It is internal memory. It is an external memory.

Types It is mainly of two types: RAM and Magnetic memory, semiconductor memory,
ROM. and optical memory are the three most
popular types of secondary memory.

Access It is accessed via the data bus. It is accessed via the input-output channel.
Cache Memory
Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than
secondary memory but still, access times of primary
memory are generally in a few microseconds, whereas
the CPU is capable of performing operations in
nanoseconds. Due to the time lag between accessing
data and acting on data performance of the system
decreases as the CPU is not utilized properly, it may
remain idle for some time. In order to minimize this time
gap new segment of memory is introduced known as
Cache Memory.
Role of Cache Memory
 It provides faster access.
 It acts buffer between CPU and main memory(RAM).
 Primary role is to reduce average time taken to
access data, improving overall system performance.

Advantages of Cache Memory

1. Faster access: Faster than main memory. It resides
closer to CPU, typically on same chip.
 2. Reducing memory latency: Memory access latency
refers to time taken for processes to retrieve data
from memory. It takes less time to access data.
3. Lowering bus traffic: Accessing data from main
memory involves transferring it over system bus. Bus
is shared resource and excessive traffic can lead to
congestion and slower data transfers. By utilizing
cache memory, processor can reduce frequency of
accessing main memory resulting in less bus traffic
and improves system efficiency.
4. Increasing effective CPU utilization: Cache memory
allows CPU to operate at a higher effective speed.
CPU can spend more time executing instruction
rather than waiting for memory access. This leads to
better utilization of CPU’s processing capabilities.
5. Enhancing system scalability: Cache memory helps
improve system scalability by reducing impact of
memory latency on overall system performance.
Disadvantages Of Cache Memory
1. Cache memory is smaller, a large amount of data
cannot be stored
2.It is very costly as it is fast memory to access t data.
Whenever CPU needs any data it searches for
corresponding data in the cache (fast process) if data is
found, it processes the data according to instructions,
however, if data is not found in the cache CPU search for
that data in primary memory(slower process) and loads it
into the cache. This ensures frequently accessed data are
always found in the cache and hence minimizes the time
required to access the data.
Cache Performance
 On searching in the cache if data is found, a cache hit
has occurred.
 On searching in the cache if data is not found, a
cache miss has occurred.
Performance of cache is measured by the number of
cache hits to the number of searches. This parameter of
measuring performance is known as the Hit Ratio.
Hit ratio=(Number of cache hits)/(Number of searches)
Flash Memory
1.Flash memory is secondary memory and so it is not
volatile which means it persists the data even if there is
not an electrical supply provided.
2.This flash memory works on the principle of EEPROM.
EEPROM stands for Electrical Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory.
3.Flash Memory can be erased multiple times and update
the data or program integrated into it.
4.So it gives flexibility to the updation of the program but
ROM has no such type of feature.
Features of Flash Memory
 Non-volatile: There is no loss of date when there is
no electricity supply.
 Fast access times: It supports solid-state technology
so it has faster access time.
 Large storage capacity: Flash memory devices can
store large amounts of data, from a few GB
(Gigabytes) to several TB(Terabytes).
 Low power consumption: It uses less amount of
electricity to read the data.
 Flexibility towards Erase and write
operations: Flash memory can be erased electrically
multiple times and read multiple times so flexibility
towards read/write operation is more.
Working of Flash Memory
 Writing the data into flash memory: Flash memory
is made up of small-small memory cells which are
made up of floating-gate transistors. All memory
cells are organized in the sequential order called an
array of memory cells. Data can be stored to
the hardware in the form of 0 and 1 only. So to store
data into the flash memory we should give electric
supply to add the pattern of 0 and 1 into the flash
memory and once this pattern is embedded on to
the chip then corresponding data is also stored in
flash memory. If we want to erase data from flash
memory then we have to do it by supplying electrical
impulse to make all bits of memory cell to 0.
 Reading the data into flash memory: To read the bit
which can contain 0 or 1 we have to apply voltage to
the gate of transistor, and whatever the current flow
in the circuit is measured and by using that
measurement we are good to go to identify the bit
present in the cell.
Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory is used in the computer memory to
increase the storage capacity of main memory. It is a
logical storage unit of a computer that creates an illusion
to execute a large program that may not be completely
placed in main memory. It allows user to load or store
data program or files larger than size of main memory.
Advantages of Virtual Memory
1. Virtual Memory allows the users to run more than
one application at once.
2. It enhances the degree of multiprogramming.
3. Virtual Memory is a logical unit of computer memory
that increases main memory capacity by storing or
executing a large size program than main memory.
4. It increases the CPU utilization in virtual memory.
5. It is required whenever the system does not have
much space to store any big programs or files.
Disadvantages of Virtual Memory
1. It can slow the process of application in the system.
2. It may take more time to switch between
applications.
3. It reduces the stability of the system.
S. Parameter Cache Memory Virtual Memory
N. Difference

1. Definition Cache Memory is the high Virtual Memory is a logical unit of

speed of computer memory computer memory that increases
that reduces the access the capacity of main memory by
time of files or documents storing or executing programs of
from the main memory. larger size than the main memory in
the computer system.

2. Memory Unit Cache Memory is defined Virtual Memory is not defined as a

as a memory unit in a memory unit.
computer system.

3. Size Its size is very small as Its size is very large as compared to
compared to Virtual the Cache Memory.
Memory.

4. Speed It is a high-speed memory It is not a high-speed memory as

as compared to Virtual compared to the Cache Memory.
Memory.

5. Operation Generally, it stores The virtual memory keeps those

frequently used data in the data or programs that may not
cache memory to reduce completely be placed in the main
the access time of files. memory.

6. Management Cache Memory is Whereas the virtual memory is

controlled by the hardware control by the Operating System
of a system. (OS).

7. Mapping It does not require a It requires a mapping structure to

mapping structure to map the virtual address with a
access the files in Cache physical address.
Memory.