WEATHERING

Unit 1: The concept of weathering

Page 56
Notes:
● Weathering is the process of wearing away rocks and soil due to the effects
of natural forces.
● The primary agents of weathering are temperature and water.
● There are three main types of weathering: physical, biological, and
chemical.
● Physical weathering is caused by physical forces such as frost and
temperature changes.
● Biological weathering results from the actions of plants and animals.
● Chemical weathering involves chemical changes that weaken rocks.
● Weathering is a slow process that affects the shape and composition of
rocks and soil over time.

Questions:

1. What is weathering, and what are its primary agents?

2. Name and describe the three main types of weathering.
3. Give an example of physical weathering caused by temperature changes.
4. How do plants and animals contribute to biological weathering?
5. Explain the process of chemical weathering and its impact on rocks.
6. Why is weathering considered a slow process?
7. How does weathering affect the landscape over time?

Answers:
1. Weathering is the process of wearing away rocks and soil by the action of
natural forces. Its primary agents are temperature and water.

2. The three main types of weathering are:

- Physical weathering, caused by physical forces such as frost and temperature
changes, which break rocks into smaller pieces.
- Biological weathering, resulting from the actions of plants and animals, like
tree roots growing into cracks in rocks.
- Chemical weathering, involving chemical changes that weaken rocks, such as
the dissolution of minerals in water.

3. An example of physical weathering caused by temperature changes is when

water seeps into cracks in rocks, freezes, and expands, causing the cracks to
widen and the rock to break apart.

4. Plants and animals contribute to biological weathering by actions like tree

roots growing into rock crevices, which can gradually split rocks apart. Animals
can burrow into the ground, aiding in the breakdown of soil and rocks.

5. Chemical weathering occurs through chemical reactions that weaken rocks. For
instance, when minerals in rocks react with water or acids, they may dissolve or
change composition, making the rock more susceptible to erosion.

6. Weathering is considered a slow process when compared to a human lifetime

because it takes place over a long period, often thousands or millions of years,
gradually altering the landscape and rock formations.

7. Weathering affects the landscape over time by reshaping the landforms,

breaking down rocks into smaller particles, and altering the composition of soils.
This leads to the creation of valleys, canyons, and other geological features as
rocks and soil are eroded and transported by natural processes like wind, water,
and gravity.

Unit 2: Physical Weathering

Page 57
Notes
Physical Weathering:
● Involves physical forces that break up rocks.
 ● Examples: Freeze thaw action and exfoliation.

Freeze Thaw Action:

● Water collects in cracks in rocks.
● When water freezes, it expands (about 9% larger than liquid water).
● Ice puts pressure on crack walls.
● Repeated freezing and thawing weakens rocks.
● Over millions of years, it can wear away mountains in cold climates.

Exfoliation:
● Occurs in dry areas with large day-night temperature changes.
● Outer layers of rocks expand during the day and contract at night.
● Repeated expansion and contraction causes outer layers to peel off.

Local Places for Physical Weathering:

1) Freeze Thaw Action:
a) Weathering agents: Water and temperature changes.
b) Places in South Africa: Mountainous regions, like the Drakensberg
Mountains.
2) Exfoliation:
● Conditions: Dry areas with significant day-night temperature fluctuations.
● Places in South Africa: Karoo Desert, Richtersveld, and other arid regions.

Questions
1. a. What are the two weathering agents that affect freeze thaw action?
b. Name a location in South Africa where freeze thaw action occurs.

2. What are the conditions required for exfoliation to occur, and can you name a
place in South Africa where exfoliation takes place?

3. Explain exfoliation in your own words and provide an everyday example that
illustrates its effects, similar to freeze thaw action.

4. Explain how the process of freeze thaw action weakens rocks over time.

Answers:
1. a. The two weathering agents that affect freeze thaw action are water and
temperature changes.
b. Freeze thaw action takes place in locations like the Drakensberg Mountains in
South Africa.
2. Exfoliation occurs in dry areas with significant day-night temperature
fluctuations. Places in South Africa where exfoliation takes place include the
Karoo Desert, Richtersveld, and other arid regions.

3. Exfoliation is a type of physical weathering where the outer layers of rocks

expand during the day due to heat and contract at night when it cools. This
repeated expansion and contraction cause the outer layers to peel off. An
everyday example of this effect is the peeling of paint on a wall due to
temperature changes.

4. Freeze thaw action weakens rocks by the repeated expansion of water when it
freezes in cracks, creating pressure on the crack walls. Over time, this constant
freezing and thawing cause the rocks to crack and break apart.

Unit 3: Chemical Weathering

Page 58 and 59
Notes
Chemical Weathering
● Chemical weathering changes the chemical composition of rocks and
weakens them.
● Key reactions in chemical weathering: carbonation, hydrolysis, and
oxidation.

1) Carbonation

● Rainwater contains carbon dioxide (CO2), forming carbonic acid (H2CO3).

● Carbonic acid reacts with rocks containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
turning it into soluble calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2).
● Soluble calcium bicarbonate dissolves in water and is washed away.
● Carbonation is more pronounced in colder climates and can damage
buildings.

2) Oxidation
● Oxidation occurs in rocks and iron-containing objects, leading to rust.
● Water contains oxygen that reacts with iron in rocks, forming iron oxide.
● Oxidation weakens rocks and objects.
 3) Hydrolysis
● Hydrolysis involves water and silicate minerals in rocks like sandstone and
granite.
● Silicate minerals absorb water and turn into clay, which is soluble and can
wash out of rocks.
● This process can make rocks unstable and lead to their gradual
disintegration.

Stalactites and Stalagmites

● Underground caves can form due to the dissolution of rocks by acidic
water.
● Calcium carbonate deposits can create stalactites on cave roofs and
stalagmites on cave floors.

Effects of Carbonation
● Carbonation can be observed in old buildings where carbonic acid in
rainwater dissolves calcium carbonate in cement, potentially causing
structural damage.

Questions:
1. What are the key chemical reactions involved in carbonation?
2. How does cold climate affect the intensity of carbonation?
3. Explain the process of oxidation and its impact on rocks.
4. Describe hydrolysis and its role in the weathering of rocks.
5. How do stalactites and stalagmites form in caves?
6. What are the effects of carbonation on buildings?
7. Give examples of rocks or objects that can experience oxidation.

Answers:
1. The key chemical reactions involved in carbonation are:
- CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (Carbon dioxide mixes with water to form carbonic acid)
- H2CO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(HCO3)2 (Carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate to
form soluble calcium bicarbonate)

2. In colder climates, rainwater can absorb more carbon dioxide, resulting in the
formation of stronger carbonic acids. These stronger acids can lead to more
rapid carbonation, making carbonation more intense in colder climates.
3. Oxidation is a chemical process where water contains oxygen that reacts with
iron in rocks or metal objects, forming iron oxide. This changes the chemical
structure of the rock or metal, making it weaker and more susceptible to breaking
down.

4. Hydrolysis is a sequence of chemical reactions involving water and silicate

minerals in rocks like sandstone and granite. Silicate minerals absorb water and
change into clay, which is soluble and can wash out of rocks. This process can
make the rocks unstable and lead to their gradual disintegration.

5. Stalactites form on cave roofs as calcium carbonate-rich water drips down and
deposits minerals, while stalagmites form on cave floors as calcium
carbonate-rich water drips and deposits minerals from above.

6. The effects of carbonation on buildings can include the dissolution of calcium

carbonate in cement due to carbonic acid in rainwater. Over time, this can
weaken the cement and potentially lead to structural damage or collapse.

7. Examples of rocks or objects that can experience oxidation include iron-rich

rocks, metals exposed to the elements, and objects like old metal fences or
vehicles left outdoors.

Activity 2:

1. Definition of Chemical Weathering:

Chemical weathering is the alteration of rocks and minerals through chemical
reactions, leading to their breakdown.

2. Minerals and Chemical Weathering Processes:

- Granite: Hydrolysis
- Iron: Oxidation
- Limestone: Carbonation

3a. Chemical Weathering Process of Carbonation:

Carbonation is when rainwater, with dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2), turns into
carbonic acid (H2CO3), which reacts with rocks like limestone (CaCO3), converting
it into soluble calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2). This soluble compound washes
away, causing rock breakdown.

3b. Why Carbonation is Greater in Cold Climates:

Carbonation is more intense in cold climates because cold rainwater can
absorb more CO2, forming stronger carbonic acids (H2CO3) that accelerate the
process.

4. Examples of How Chemical Weathering Benefits People:

 - **Soil Formation:** Chemical weathering creates fertile soils for agriculture.
- **Mineral Resources:** It exposes valuable minerals for mining.
- **Construction Materials:** Breaks down rocks into usable materials.
- **Cave Formation:** Forms caves for tourism and research.

Unit 4: Biological Weathering

Page 60
Notes
Topic: Biological Weathering

● Definition: Biological weathering involves weathering caused by living

organisms such as plants, animals, and people.

Types of Biological Weathering:

1. Animal Activity:
● Animals like worms, moles, and porcupines burrow and dig in soil,
weakening it and exposing rocks to further weathering.

2. Plant Activity:
● Grasses and other plants can disturb rocks and grow through concrete.
● Plant roots penetrate cracks in roads, pavements, and rocks, exerting
pressure and causing cracks to expand.
● Large tree roots can split rocks and pull rocks out of the ground if trees are
blown over in strong winds.

3. Lichen Activity:
● Lichens are small plant organisms made up of algae and fungi that grow
on rocks.
● Lichen roots penetrate between rock grains, loosening them over time.
● Lichens produce acid that breaks down minerals in rocks, causing chemical
weathering.

Effects of Biological Weathering:

● Lichens growing on sandstone can weather away approximately one
centimeter of rock in 100 years.
● Over millions of years, lichens can significantly alter rock formations.
Questions:
1. What is biological weathering, and what are its primary causes?

2. How do plant roots contribute to biological weathering, and what types of

cracks can they penetrate?

3. Explain how lichens contribute to biological weathering through chemical

processes.

4. What is the approximate rate at which lichens weather away sandstone, and
why is this significant over a long period?

5. What are the main types of biological weathering, and how do they impact
rocks and soil?

6. Why are lichens particularly effective at weathering rocks, and what role does
their acid production play?

Answers
1) Biological weathering is the process of weathering caused by living organisms,
including plants, animals, and people.

2) Plant roots can penetrate cracks in roads, pavements, and rocks, exerting
pressure and causing cracks to expand. They can even split rocks and pull them
out of the ground when trees are blown over.

3) Lichens produce acid that breaks down minerals in rocks, causing chemical
weathering. Their roots also penetrate between rock grains, loosening them over
time.

4) Lichens can weather away about one centimeter of sandstone in 100 years. This
rate becomes significant over millions of years as it can significantly alter rock
formations.

5) The main types of biological weathering are animal activity, plant activity, and
lichen activity. They impact rocks and soil by weakening them, causing cracks to
expand, and chemically breaking down minerals in rocks.
6) Lichens are effective because their roots penetrate between rock grains, slowly
loosening them. Their acid production further breaks down minerals in rocks,
contributing to weathering.

Unit 5: Impact of human activities

on weathering
Page 61
Notes
Study Notes: Impact of Human Activities on Weathering

Introduction:
● Human activities can significantly increase physical, chemical, and
biological weathering, leading to changes in the Earth's landscape.
● The following key factors illustrate how people contribute to increased
weathering.

Key Factors:

1. New rocks exposed to weathering by roads:

● Roads expose fresh rock surfaces to weathering due to constant exposure
to the elements.
● Question: What impact do roads have on rock weathering?

2. Vegetation removed and soil exposed by machines:

● Machinery used in agriculture and construction can strip away vegetation,
exposing soil and rocks to weathering.
● Question: How does the removal of vegetation contribute to increased
weathering?

3. Human activities add chemicals to the air, soil, and water

● Chemical pollutants released into the environment can alter the chemical
composition of soil, water, and the atmosphere.
● Question: What are some examples of chemicals that humans release into
the environment?

4. Dams take up land which could have been used for farming:
 ● Dams occupy land that could be utilized for agricultural purposes, leading
to changes in local ecosystems.
● Question: How does the construction of dams affect weathering indirectly?

5. Animals change the soil and rocks when they burrow, walk, and spread their
waste:
● Animal activities, such as burrowing and waste deposition, physically and
chemically impact the surrounding rocks and soil.
● Question: Explain how animal activities contribute to weathering.

6. Heat from fires changes the physical and chemical composition of soil:
● Fires can alter the properties of soil by subjecting it to high temperatures,
changing its physical and chemical characteristics
● Question: What changes occur in soil when exposed to heat from fires?

7. Underground tunnels weaken rocks and soil:

● The construction of tunnels can weaken the structural integrity of rocks
and surrounding soil, increasing weathering.
● Question: How does tunnel construction affect the stability of rocks and
soil?

8. Roads and railways bring pollution to the countryside:

● Roads and railways can transport pollution, which can harm the natural
environment in rural areas.
● Question: What are some consequences of pollution in rural areas caused
by transportation infrastructure?

9. Human settlements pollute the air and water:

● Human settlements release pollutants into the air and water, affecting local
ecosystems and weathering processes.
● Question: Describe the impact of human settlements on water and air
quality.

Questions
1. Which human activity exposes fresh rock surfaces to weathering?
.

2. How do chemicals released by human activities affect the environment?

3. What environmental impact do dams have, indirectly related to weathering?

4. Explain how animal activities contribute to weathering.

5. What changes occur in soil when exposed to heat from fires?

6. How does tunnel construction affect rocks and soil?

7. What consequences can pollution from roads and railways have in rural areas?

8. How do human settlements affect air and water quality?

Answers
1) Road
2) Chemical pollutants can alter the chemical composition of soil, water, and
the atmosphere.
3) Dams occupy land that could be used for farming, altering local
ecosystems.
4) Animals burrow, walk, and deposit waste, physically and chemically
impacting rocks and soil.
5) Fires can alter soil's physical and chemical characteristics due to high
temperatures.
6) Tunnel construction can weaken the structural integrity of rocks and soil.
7) Pollution can harm the natural environment in rural areas.
8) Human settlements release pollutants into the air and water, impacting
local ecosystems and weathering processes.

Activity 3

1. Identifying Types of Weathering:

a. Physical weathering example: Point 7 - Underground tunnels weaken rocks
and soil, leading to physical weathering as the tunnels disturb and break rocks.

b. Chemical weathering example: Point 3 - Human activities add chemicals to the

air, soil, and water, which can lead to chemical weathering as pollutants alter the
chemical composition of soil and rocks.

c. Biological weathering example: Point 5 - Animals change the soil and rocks
when they burrow, walk, and spread their waste, contributing to biological
weathering as their activities physically and chemically impact the environment.

2. Exposing Soil and Rocks:

a. Human activities expose soil and rocks through activities such as construction,
mining, deforestation, and agriculture.
 b. Exposing soil and rocks can increase physical weathering because when
these materials are exposed to the elements (wind, rain, freeze-thaw cycles), they
experience mechanical breakdown due to these natural forces.

3. Chemical Weathering from Human Activities:**

a. Human activities contribute to increased chemical weathering by releasing

pollutants into the environment. For example, industrial emissions release sulfur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which react with water vapor in the
atmosphere to form acid rain, causing chemical weathering of rocks and soil.

b. Increased chemical weathering can have detrimental effects on the

environment, including the acidification of water bodies, damage to vegetation,
and the deterioration of structures made from rocks or minerals.

4. Human Activity and Biological Weathering:**

a. The human activity that greatly increases biological weathering, as seen in the
drawing, is represented by Point 5 - Animals changing the soil and rocks when
they burrow, walk, and spread their waste.

b. The effects of this activity on Earth's surface include the physical disruption of
soil and rocks by animals' burrowing and walking, as well as the chemical
alteration of the environment due to the deposition of animal waste.

5. Influence of Human Activity on All Three Kinds of Weathering:**

- Point 2 - Vegetation removed and soil exposed by machines. This activity

influences all three kinds of weathering as follows:

- Physical weathering: Removal of vegetation and soil exposes rocks to

weathering from natural elements like wind and rain.

- Chemical weathering: The disturbance of soil and vegetation can release

organic matter and nutrients into the environment, potentially altering the
chemical composition of soil and promoting chemical weathering.

- Biological weathering: The removal of vegetation disrupts ecosystems,

impacting the activities of organisms like plants and animals, which can
contribute to biological weathering.
EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Unit 1:
Difference between weathering
erosion and deposition

Page 62
Study Notes: Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition

Introduction:
● Weathering, erosion, and deposition are interconnected processes that shape the
Earth's surface.
● Weathering breaks down rocks and soil, erosion involves the movement of materials,
and deposition builds up Earth's surface.

Weathering:
● Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks and soil due to the effects of weather
and environmental factors.
● Types of weathering include:
- Frost shattering
- Exfoliation
- Carbonation
- Oxidation
- Biological weathering
● Weathering mostly occurs in one place with minimal movement, primarily driven by
gravity.

Erosion:
● Erosion is the process involving the movement of materials, such as rocks, soil, and
sediments, from one location to another.
● Agents of erosion are water, wind, and ice.
● Examples of erosion include:
- Ice erosion
 - River erosion
- Wind erosion
● Erosion always involves material transport, in contrast to weathering which is localized.

Deposition:
● Deposition is the process of accumulating and depositing materials on the Earth's
surface.
● It occurs as a result of the material produced by weathering and erosion.
● Examples of deposition features include sand dunes, beaches, scree slopes, and river
deltas

Key Figures:
1. Weathered and eroded material is eventually deposited on the land.
2. Different kinds of weathering affect Earth's surface.
3. Water, wind, and ice erode the surface of Earth.

Questions
1. What is the primary difference between weathering and erosion?

2. Name two types of weathering processes.

3. Which agents are responsible for erosion processes?

4. Give an example of a deposition feature mentioned in the study notes.

5. Explain the relationship between weathering, erosion, and deposition

Answers
1.Weathering breaks down rocks and soil in one place, while erosion involves the movement of
materials from one location to another.

2.Frost shattering and oxidation.

3.Water, wind, and ice.

4.Sand dunes
5.Weathering breaks down rocks, erosion moves the resulting material, and deposition
accumulates it on the Earth's surface.

Unit 2: Rivers - Features of erosion

and deposition along a river
course
Page 63
Notes
Study Notes: Rivers - Features of Erosion and Deposition

Introduction:
● Rivers play a crucial role in shaping landscapes through erosion and deposition
processes.
● River erosion occurs as rivers flow over land, carrying a load of weathered material.
● The river's load consists of sand, stones, and silt, which wear away the land as they
move.
● Most rivers flow into other rivers as tributaries, and some form deltas where they meet
the sea.

Features of Erosion and Deposition in the Upper Course:

● In the upper course of a river, where the land is steep, rivers flow faster and can
transport larger loads.
● Heavy rains can move large boulders, and as they travel downstream, they become
smaller due to wear and tear.
● The movement of boulders and rocks along the river bed leads to downward erosion,
forming deep valleys with steep sides.

Waterfalls and Rapids:

● Waterfalls are sudden drops in a river's gradient, while rapids are sections where water
flows faster without a significant height drop.
● The formation of a waterfall:
1. The river flows over bands of harder and softer rocks.
2. The river undercuts the harder rock, leaving an overhang.
 3. Softer rock erodes more quickly.
4. The overhanging rock collapses into a plunge pool.
5. A plunge pool forms below the waterfall.

● Waterfalls and rapids can occur at any part of a river's course.

Gorges and Canyons:

● Gorges and canyons are deep valleys created by downward river erosion.
● Gorges are often associated with waterfall formation; as a waterfall retreats upstream, it
carves a gorge
● Canyons usually form when rivers flow faster due to increased water, lowered sea levels,
or land uplift.

Key Figures:
1. The load in a river changes along its course from large boulders in the upper course to silt in
the lower course.
2. Waterfalls and rapids formation.
3. A waterfall in the Oribi Gorge in KwaZulu-Natal.

Questions
1. What is the river's load, and how does it contribute to erosion?

2. How does the velocity of a river change in its upper course, and what does this result in?

3. Explain the formation of a waterfall.

4. What is the difference between gorges and canyons?

5. Name one feature of deposition in a river's lower course.

Answers
1. The river's load consists of sand, stones, and silt, which wear away the land as they move
downstream.
2. Rivers flow faster in the upper course, leading to the transport of larger loads and downward
erosion, forming deep valleys with steep sides.

3. A waterfall forms when a river flows over bands of harder and softer rocks, causing the harder
rock to undercut and collapse, creating a plunge pool below.

4. Gorges are often linked to waterfall formation, while canyons form when rivers flow faster
due to factors like increased water, lowered sea levels, or land uplift.

5. River deltas.

Features of erosion and

deposition in the middle and
lower course of a river
Page 65
Study Notes on River Erosion and Deposition:

Features of Erosion and Deposition:

Middle and Lower Course of a River:

● In the middle and lower course of a river, you'll notice distinct features due to erosion
and deposition.

Meanders:
● Meanders are large bends in a river's course, common in these sections.
● They are formed by both erosion and deposition.

Erosion:
● Inside of the bend: Erosion occurs on the inside of the bend, where the river flows more
slowly.
● Outside of the bend: Fast-flowing water on the outside of the bend erodes the bank.

Deposition:
● Inside of the bend: Deposition occurs on the inside of the bend, where the river flows
more slowly.
● The river deposits sediments here.
Ox-Bow Lakes:
● As erosion continues, it pushes the bend of the meander downstream.
● This narrows the gap between different meanders, called the meander neck.
● The river will eventually erode through the meander neck to form a new channel.
● Deposition will cut off the original meander, leaving it as an ox-bow lake.
● Ox-bow lakes eventually dry up and become meander scars.

Questions
1. What are meanders, and how are they formed?

2. Where does erosion occur within a meander?

3. Where does deposition occur within a meander?

4. What is a meander neck?

5. How are ox-bow lakes formed?

Answers
1.Meanders are large bends in a river's course formed by both erosion and deposition.

2. Erosion occurs on the outside of the bend, where the river flows fast.

3.Deposition occurs on the inside of the bend, where the river flows slowly.

4. A meander neck is the narrowed gap between different meanders.

5. Ox-bow lakes are formed when the river erodes through the meander neck, cutting off the
original meander, which eventually dries up.