UNIT III – PN JUNCTION DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

[Syllabus - Energy band theory-Conductor-Insulator-Semiconductor-Doping-formation of N-type and P-type

materials-PN junction Diode-VI Characteristics- Zener diode- VI characteristics of Zener-Avalanche break
down. - Zener effect-Zener diode as voltage regulator]

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:

In solid materials, electron energy levels form bands of allowed energies, separated by forbidden bands,
valence band = outermost (highest) band filled with electrons (“filled” = all states occupied), conduction band = next
highest band to valence band (empty or partly filled), “gap” = energy difference between valence and conduction
bands = width of the forbidden band
Note:
 electrons in a completely filled band cannot move, since all states occupied (Pauli principle); only way to
move would be to “jump” into next higher band - needs energy;
 electrons in partly filled band can move, since there are free states to move to.

Classification of solids into three types, according to their band structure (Fig:1):
 Insulators: gap = forbidden region between highest filled band (valence band) and lowest empty or partly
filled band (conduction band) is very wide, about 3 to 6 eV;
 Semiconductors: gap is small  about 0.1 to 1 eV;
 Conductors: valence band only partially filled, or (if it is filled), the next allowed empty band overlaps with it.

Fig:1: Band structure and conductivity

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

1. Conductors: material capable of carrying electric current, i.e. material which has “mobile charge carriers”
(e.g. electrons, ions,..) e.g. metals, liquids with ions (water, molten ionic compounds), plasma
2. Insulators: materials with no or very few free charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most covalent and ionic solids,
plastics
3. Semiconductors: materials with conductivity between that of conductors and insulators; e.g. germanium
Ge, silicon Si, GaAs, GaP, InP
4. Superconductors: certain materials have zero resistivity at very low temperature.

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS:
1. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
2. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
 Pure semiconductors also called “Intrinsic semiconductors”.
 In pure Si and Ge, there are equally number of holes (“p type charge carriers”) as well as
conduction electrons present (“n-type charge carriers”);
 Semiconductor = material for which gap between valence band and conduction band is small; (gap
width in Si is 1.1 eV, in Ge 0.7 eV).
 at T = 0, there are no electrons in the conduction band, and the semiconductor does not conduct (lack
of free charge carriers);
 at T > 0, some fraction of electrons have sufficient thermal kinetic energy to overcome the gap and
jump to the conduction band; fraction rises with temperature;
 electrons moving to conduction band leave “hole” (covalent bond with missing electron in Fig:2 )
behind; under influence of applied electric field, neighboring electrons can jump into the hole, thus
creating a new hole, etc. ⇒ holes can move under the influence of an applied electric field, just like
electrons; both contribute to conduction.

Fig:2: Intrinsic semiconductors

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
Doped semiconductor: (also “impure”, “extrinsic”) =semiconductor with small admixture of trivalent or
pentavalent atoms;
N-Type Material:
 When phosphorus impurity is added to Si, every phosphorus atom’s four valence electrons are locked up in
covalent bond with valence electrons of four neighboring Si atoms. However, the 5th valence electron of
phosphorus atom does not find a binding electron and thus remains free to float. When a voltage is applied
across the silicon-phosphorus mixture, free electrons migrate toward the positive voltage end.
 dopant with 5 valence electrons (e.g. P, As, Sb) 4 electrons used for covalent bonds with surrounding Si atoms
 left over electron is loosely bounded and only small amount of energy is needed to lift it into conduction band
(0.05 eV in Si)
 “n-type semiconductor”, has conduction electrons, no holes (apart from the few intrinsic holes)

Antimony Atom and Doping

In these types of materials are:

1. The Donors are positively charged.
2. There are a large number of free electrons.
3. A small number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
4. Doping gives:
1. positively charged donors.
2. negatively charged free electrons
P-Type Material:
 Dopant with 3 valence electrons (e.g. B, Al, Ga, In)  only 3 of the 4 covalent bonds filled  vacancy in the
fourth covalent bond is hole.
 Trivalent impurities e.g., boron, aluminum, indium, and gallium have 3 valence electrons.
 When boron is added to Si, every boron atom’s three valence electrons are locked up in covalent bond with
valence electrons of three neighboring Si atoms. However, a vacant spot “hole” is created within the covalent
bond between one boron atom and a neighboring Si atom. The holes are considered to be positive charge
carriers.
 When a voltage is applied across the silicon-boron mixture, a hole moves toward the negative voltage end
while a neighboring electron fills in its place.
 p-type semiconductor”, has mobile holes, very few mobile electrons (only the intrinsic ones).

Boron Atom and Doping

These are materials which have Pentavalent impurity atoms (Donors) added and conduct by "electron" movement
and are called, N-type Semiconductors.
In these types of materials are:
1. The Acceptors are negatively charged.
2. There are a large number of holes.
3. A small number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.
4. Doping gives:
negatively charged acceptors.
positively charged holes.

Advantages of doped semiconductors:

 can”tune” conductivity by choice of doping fraction
 can choose “majority carrier” (electron or hole)
 can vary doping fraction and/or majority carrier within piece of semiconductor
 can make “p-n junctions” (diodes) and “transistors”
EFFECT OF HEAT AND LIGHT:
1. IN CONDUCTORS, heat causes the atoms to vibrate – vibration causes
decrease in flow of electrons – so increase resistivity – positive temperature
coefficient
2. UNDOPED SEMICONDUCTOR – no free electron – temperature increases
more electron hole pair generation –so current increase – resistivity decrease -
negative temperature coefficient

CONDUCTION SYSTEMS IN SEMICONDUCTOR

1. Drift current
2. Diffusion current

Drift current: Carriers drift by electric field

When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor material, the charge carriers attain a certain drift
velocity. This combined effect of movement of the charge carriers constitutes a current known as "drift current". Drift
current due to the charge carriers such as free electrons and holes is the current passing through a square centimeter
area perpendicular to the direction of flow.

Diffusion current: Carriers diffuse to the area at lower carrier concentration

HIGH concentration  LOW concentration

Holes diffuse from higher concentration area to lower one. No external electric field across the semiconductor
is required for the diffusion of current to take place. This is because diffusion takes place due to the change in
concentration of the carrier particles and not the concentrations themselves. The carrier particles, namely the holes and
electrons of a semiconductor, move from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. Hence, due
to the flow of holes and electrons there is a current. This current is called the diffusion current.
Diffusion current versus drift current

Diffusion current Drift current

Diffusion current occurs even though there isn't an Drift current depends on the electric field
electric field applied to the semiconductor. applied on the p-n junction diode.
It depends on constants Dp and Dn, and +q and −q, It depends upon permittivity.
for holes and electrons respectively but it is
independent of permittivity.
Direction of the diffusion current depends on the Direction of the drift current depends on the
change in the carrier concentrations, not the polarity of the applied field.
concentrations themselves.

PN JUNCTION:
The interface in-between p-type and n-type material is called a pn-junction.
FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION:

 p-n junction = semiconductor in which impurity changes abruptly from p-type to n-type ;
 diffusion” = movement due to difference in concentration, from higher to lower concentration;
 in absence of electric field across the junction, holes “diffuse” towards and across boundary into n-type and
capture electrons;
 electrons diffuse across boundary, fall into holes (“recombination of majority carriers”); formation of a
“depletion region” (= region without free charge carriers) around the boundary;
 charged ions are left behind (cannot move):
# negative ions left on p-side  net negative charge on p-side of the junction;
# positive ions left on n-side  net positive charge on n-side of the junction
# electric field across junction which prevents further diffusion.

FORWARD BIASING:
If a positive voltage is applied to the p-type side and a negative
voltage to the n-type side, current can flow (depending upon the magnitude of
the applied voltage). This configuration is called "Forward Biased". At the p-
n junction, the "built-in" electric field and the applied electric field are in
opposite directions. When these two fields add, the resultant field at the
junction is smaller in magnitude than the magnitude of the original "built-
in" electric field. This results in a thinner, less resistive depletion region. If
the applied voltage is large enough, the depletion region's resistance
becomes negligible. In silicon, this occurs at about 0.6 volts forward bias. From 0 to 0.6 volts, there is still
considerable resistance due to the depletion region. Above 0.6 volts, the depl etion region's resistance is very small
and current flows virtually unimpeded.
In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking the energy required for
charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage increases,
current starts to flow across the junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which appreciable current
starts to flow through the diode. The barrier potential varies for different materials.
REVERSE BIASING:
 If a negative voltage is applied to the p-type side and a positive
voltage to the n-type side, no (or exceptionally small) current flows. This
configuration is called "Reverse Biased. At the
p-n junction, the "built-in" electric field and the applied electric field are in the
same direction. When these two fields add, the resultant larger electric field is
in the same direction as the "built in" electric field and this creates a
thicker, more resistive depletion region. If the applied voltage becomes
larger, the depletion region becomes thicker and more resistive. In reality,
some current will still flow through this resistance, but the resistance is so high that the current may be considered to
be zero. As the applied reverse bias voltage becomes larger, the current flow will saturate at a constant but very small
value. This is approximately 10-12 amperes per cm2 of p-n junction area.
Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the electric field produced by the ions to cancel
out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias
conditions. This saturation current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the depletion region.
Saturation current is sometimes referred to as scale current because of it’s relationship to junction temperature.

Fig: IV curve of the silicon p-n junction diode.

The current-voltage relation or IV curve of a silicon p-n junction is shown in Figure. In reverse bias, the p-n
junction exhibits extreme electrical resistance and only very small current flows. If the reverse bias voltage becomes
too large then the junction will breakdown and current will flow. It is possible to design silicon p-n junctions in such a
way that the breakdown voltage is at a specific desired value. Such p-n junctions are called zener diodes and are used
as voltage references or overvoltage protectors in electrical circuits. In forward bias, the p-n junction exhibits an
exponential lowering of resistance with applied voltage. From 0 to 0.5 volts, the silicon p-n junction is quite resistive.
When the applied voltage approaches 0.6 volts, the exponential nature of the junction causes the resistance to drop
dramatically. The silicon p-n junction diode appears to be an electrical switch that "turns on" when 0.6 volts is
applied. Because electrical current flows only when it is forward biased, the diode appears to be an electrical one-way
valve.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS:
As the temperature changes, so does the knee voltage (also referred to as the offset voltage or the turn-on
voltage). This voltage decreases or increases as the temperatures rises above or falls below the room temperature. The
change in the knee voltage is almost linear as long as the diode current is held constant and is given by the following
equation:

In fact, it has been found that the reverse saturation current doubles for every 10oC rise in the temperature.
The approximate relationship between the temperature and the reverse saturation current is given as follows:

1. IS doubles for every 5 degree C rise in temperature.

2. Voltage decreases 2mV/ degree C for a given current.
3. Current increases with temperature for a given voltage.

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND PARAMETERS:

• VD = Bias Voltage
• ID = Current through Diode. ID is Negative for
Reverse Bias and Positive for Forward Bias
• IS = Saturation Current
• VBR = Breakdown Voltage
• Vf = Barrier Potential Voltage
• VF = Forward voltage drop
• IF = forward current
• VR = Reverse Voltage drop
• IR= Reverse current
IDEAL DIODE:
A diode is a two-terminal device:
Anode: the positive terminal
 Cathode: the negative terminal
1. Forward biased  turned on - short
2. Reverse biased turned off – open

The Real Diode (Practical Diode)

A practical diode does offer some resistance to current flow when forward biased.
• Since there is some resistance, there will be some power dissipated when current flows through a
forward biased diode. Therefore, there is a practical limit to the amount of current a diode can conduct
without damage.
• A reverse biased diode has very high resistance.
• Excessive reverse bias can cause the diode to conduct.
A practical diode neither conducts in the forward direction with zero resistance nor does it offer infinite
resistance in the reverse direction.
(a) Forward Direction
In this case, we have to take two factors into account. One is that forward current does not start flowing until
the voltage applied to the diode exceeds its threshold or knee voltage VK (0.3V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si). Hence, a
practical diode is shown as equivalent to an ideal diode in series with a small oppositely-connected

Applications of PN Junction Diode

 Used as Switch
 Used in Wave Shaping circuits
 Used as rectifiers in many electric circuits
Zener diode

A normal p-n junction diode does not operate in breakdown

region because the excess current permanently damages the diode.
Zener diode is heavily doped than the normal p-n junction diode.
Hence, it has very thin depletion region. Therefore, Zener diodes
allow more electric current than the normal p-n junction diodes. A
zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the Zener breakdown region.
Zener diodes acts like normal p-n junction diodes under forward biased condition. The name Zener diode was
named after the American physicist Clarance Melvin Zener who discovered the Zener effect. Zener diodes are the
basic building blocks of electronic circuits. In Zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to cathode and
cathode to anode. Symbol of Zener diode is given below

There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a Zener diode:

 Zener breakdown.
 Avalanche breakdown

 Avalanche breakdown

The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes at high reverse voltage. When high
reverse voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the free electrons (minority carriers) gains large amount of
energy and accelerated to greater velocities. The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with the atoms
and knock off more electrons. These electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this
continuous collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are generated. As a result, electric current in
the diode increases rapidly. This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroys the normal diode.
However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche
breakdown region. Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

 Zener breakdown
The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes because of their narrow depletion region.
When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion region generates strong
electric field. When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches close to Zener voltage, the electric field
in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band. The valence electrons which
gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion region will breaks bonding with the parent atom.
The valance electrons which break bonding with parent atom will become free electrons. These free electrons
carry electric current from one place to another place. At Zener breakdown region, a small increase in voltage will
rapidly increases the electric current.
VI characteristics of Zener diode

The VI characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in the

below figure. When forward biased voltage is applied to the
Zener diode, it works like a normal diode. However, when
reverse biased voltage is applied to the Zener diode, it works
in different manner.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to a Zener

diode, it allows only a small amount of leakage current until
the voltage is less than Zener voltage. When reverse biased
voltage applied to the Zener diode reaches Zener voltage, it
starts allowing large amount of electric current. At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly
increase the electric current. Because of this sudden rise in electric current, breakdown occurs called as Zener
breakdown. However, Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown that does damage the device.

The Zener breakdown voltage of the Zener diode is depends on the amount of doping applied. If the diode
is heavily doped, Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltages. On the other hand, if the diode is lightly doped,
the Zener breakdown occurs at high reverse voltages. Zener diodes are available with Zener voltages in the range
of 1.8V to 400V.

Advantages of Zener diode

 Power dissipation capacity is very high
 High accuracy
 Small size
 Low cost
Applications of Zener diode
 Used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
 Used in switching operations
 Used in clipping and clamping circuits.
 Used in various protection circuits

Key differences between Avalanche & Zener Breakdown

 The breakdown which occurs because of the collision of the electrons inside the PN-junction is called
avalanche breakdown, whereas the Zener breakdown occurs when the heavy electric field is applied across
the PN- junction.
 The avalanche breakdown occurs in the thick region, whereas the Zener breakdown occurs in the thin
region.
 After the avalanche breakdown, the junction of the diode will not regain its original position, whereas after the
Zener breakdown the junction regains its original position.
 The existence of the electric field is more on the Zener breakdown as compared to the avalanche
breakdown. Because the mechanism of Zener breakdown occurs in the heavily doped region.
 The avalanche breakdown produces the pairs of electrons and holes because of the thermal effects,
whereas the Zener diode produces the electrons.
 The avalanche breakdown occurs in low doping material, whereas the Zener breakdown occurs in high
doping material.
 The avalanche breakdown voltage causes because of high reverse potential because it is lightly doped whereas
the Zener breakdown is because of low reverse potential.
 The temperature coefficient of the avalanche breakdown is positive, whereas the temperature
coefficient of Zener breakdown is negative.
 In avalanche breakdown, the mechanism of ionization occurs because of collision of electrons, whereas in
the Zener breakdown ionization occurs because of the electric field.
 The avalanche breakdown voltage is directly proportional to the temperature, whereas the Zener
breakdown voltage is inversely proportional to the temperature.
 The voltage of Zener breakdown is less than the Avalanche breakdown.