1. Explain electric field stresses?

Like in mechanical design where the criterion for design depend on the mechanical strength of the material and the
stresses that are generated during their operation in High voltage application the dielectric strength of insulating
material and the electric field stresses develop in them. while the conductor carrying the current insulator prevent a
flow of current in and desired path the electric stress to which an insulating material is subjected to is numerically
equal to the voltage gradient and is equal to the electric field intensity.
E=-Δ φ -(1)
Where E is the electric field intensity. and φ is the applied voltage and Δ operator is defined as
Δ=ax ð/ ðx + ay ð/ ðy + az ð/ ðz Where ax, ay, az are components of position
Vector r=axX=ayY+azZ
As already mention the most important material use in a high voltage apparatus is the insulation the dielectric
strength of an insulating material can be define as the maximum dielectric stress reach the material can with stand it
can also be define as the voltage at which the current start increasing to very high value unless control by external
impedance of the circuit.
Electric breakdown strength of insulating material depend on a variety of parameter such a special temperature
humidity field configuration nature of applied voltage in perfection in the electric material material of electrode and
surface condition of electrode. etc and understanding of the failure of insulation will be possible by the study of the
possible mechanism by which the failure can occur.

1. Poission’s equation.
It seems there might be a typo in your question. I believe you are referring to "Poisson's equation." Poisson's
equation is a partial differential equation that describes the distribution of a scalar field in space. It is named after the
French mathematician Siméon Denis Poisson, who made significant contributions to mathematical physics.
The general form of Poisson's equation in three-dimensional space is given by:
∇2ϕ=−ρ
Here, ∇2 is the Laplacian operator, ϕ is the scalar field (for example, electric potential or temperature), and ρ is the
charge density or the source term.
In more detail:
• ∇2∇2 is the Laplacian operator, which is the divergence of the gradient of a scalar field. In Cartesian
coordinates, it is given by the sum of second partial derivatives with respect to each coordinate.
• ϕ is the scalar field, and Poisson's equation describes how this field varies in space.
• ρ represents the charge density or the source of the field. For example, in electromagnetism, ρ could be the
charge density in the case of electric potential.
The negative sign on the right side of the equation is a convention used in physics. It indicates that the Laplacian of
the scalar field is proportional to the negative of the source term. The equation is commonly used in physics,
engineering, and other fields to model the distribution of physical quantities in space.
Solving Poisson's equation allows one to determine the scalar field ϕ for a given source distribution ρ, which is crucial
in understanding various physical phenomena.

2. Explain estimation and control of electric field?

The electric field distribution is governed by the poison equation:-
∇2E=−ε0ρ ------------------------- (1)
Where O is the potential at a given point. B is the space charge density in the region and e0 is the electric permittivity
of the free space. however, in most of High voltage, apparatus space charge are not normally present and hence the
potential distribution is governed by the Laplace equation:-
In eq. 1 and 2 the operator ∆² is called a laplaceion and is a scalar with properties.
There are many method available for determining the potential distribution the most commonly used method.
1- the electrolytic tank method
2- the method using digital computers.
The potential distribution can also be calculated directly however this is very difficult except for simple geometric in
many practical case a good understanding of the problem is possible by using some simple rules to sketch the field
line and equipotential the important rule are.
1- the equipotential cut the field line at right angle.
2- when the equipotential and field line are drawn to form curvilinear square the density of the field line is an
indication of the electric stress in a given region and
 3. Explain surge voltage there distribution and control?
The design of power apparatus practically at high voltage is governed by their transient behaviour the transgend
high voltage or sorry voltage originate in power system due to lightning and switching operation the effect of
the search voltage is serve in all power apparatus the response of the power apparatus to the impulse are surge
voltage depend on the capacitor between the coil of winding and between the difference phase winding of the
multifest machine the transient voltage distribution in the winding as a wall are generally are non very non
uniform and are complicated by wave voltage oscillation set up with in the winding in actual design and
apparatus it is of course necessary to consider the maximum voltage difference occurring in each region at any
instant of time after the application of an impulse and to take into account there duration specially when they
are less than r micro second.
High voltage testing since the design of an electrical apparatus is based on the dielectric strength the design
cannot be completely relied upon unless experimentally tested I always testing is done by generating the
voltage and measuring them in laboratory.
When High voltage testing is done on component parts elaborate insulation assembly and complete full scale
prototype apparatus it is possible to build up considerable stock of design information also through expensive
search data can be very useful.

4. Explain the ionization process by collision?

• The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with the simultaneous production of a positive ion
is called ionization.
• In this process free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule and give rise to a new electron and
a positive ion.
• Consider a low-pressure gas column in which an electric field E is applied across two plane parallel
electrodes.
• Any electron starting at the cathode will be accelerated more and more between collisions with other gas
molecules during its travel toward the anode
• the energy (ᵋ) gained during this travel between collisions exceeds the ionization potential Vi then ionization
takes place.
This process can be represented as:
e- +A'e>vi --> e- + A+e- …….. (1)
Where, A is atom , A+ is positive ion, and , e- is the electron.
Few of the electrons produced at the cathode by some external means.
• Ultra-violet light falling on the cathode, ionize neutral gas particles producing positive ions and additional
electrons.
• The additional electrons then, themselves make ‘ionizing collisions’, thus the process repeats itself.
• This represents increase in electron current.
• Positive ions also reach the cathode.
• On bombardment on the cathode gives rise to secondary electrons
5. Towsend’s current growth equation?
Assuming n0 electrons are emitted from the cathode and when one electron collides with a neutral
particle, a positive atom and electron formed. This is called an ionization collision. Let  be the average
number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per centimeter travel in the direction of the field where it
depends on gas pressure p and E/p, and is called the Townsend’s first ionization coefficient or primary
ionization coefficient. At any distance x from the cathode(cathode is at x=0) when the number of electrons,
nx , travel a distance of dx they give rise to ( n dx  x ) electrons. Then, the number of electrons reaching
the anode at x=d, nd will be n0 = nx (eqn. 1.2)
dnx/dx = a`nx or nx = n0e’ax (eqn.1.3). and nd = n0e`ad at x=d. (eqn. 1.4)
the no. of new electron created, on the average, by each electron is e`ad – 1 = nd-n0/no (eqn. 1.5)
therefore the average current in the gap, which is equal to the number of electron travelling per second will
be
I=I0e`ad where Io is the initial current at cathode
This current being dependent on I0 does not represent self sustaining discharge.
 6. Towsend’s criterion for breakdown in electronegative gasses?
One process that gives high breakdown strength to a gas is the electron attachment in which free electrons
get attached to a neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions. Since negative ions like positive ions are
too massive to produce ionization due to collisions, attachment represents an effective way of removing
electrons which otherwise would have led to current growth and breakdown at low voltages. The gases in
which attachment plays an active role are called electronegative gases. Two types of attachment are
encountered in gases as; a) Associative or Direct attachment: An electron directly attaches to form a
negative ion. → − AB + e AB b) Dissociative attachment: The gas molecules split into their constituent
atoms and the electronegative atom forms a negative ion. − AB + e → A + B A simple gas for this type is
the oxygen and others are sulphur hexafluoride(SF6), Freon, carbon dioxide and fluorocarbons. In these
gases, ‘A’ is usually sulphur or carbon atom and ‘B’ is oxygen atom or one of the halogen atoms or
molecules. The Townsend current growth equation is modified to include ionization and attachment with such
gases. The current reaching the anode, canbe written as,

8. Explain streamer theory?

According to the Townsend theory;
-firstly, current growth occurs as a result of ionization process only.
But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the
gas pressure and the geometry of the gap;
- secondly, the mechanism predicts time lags of order of 10-5 s, but
practically it was observed to occur at a very short time of 10-8 s.
- Also the Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused form of
discharge, that actually discharges were found to be filamentary and
irregular. Townsend mechanism failed to explain all these observed
phenomena and as a result The Streamer theory was proposed.
The theory predicts the development of a spark discharge directly
from a single avalanche in which the space charge develop by the
avalanche itself is said to transform the avalanche into a plasma
steamer. In the Fig 1.7, a single electron starting at the cathode by
ionization builds up an avalanche that crosses the gap. The electrons
in the avalanche move very fast compared with the positive ions. By
the time the electrons reach the anode the positive ions are in their original positions and form a positive space
charge at the anode.
This process is very fast and the positive space charge extends to the cathode very rapidly resulting in the
formation of a streamer. Comparatively narrow luminous tracks occurring at breakdown at pressures are called
streamers.
 9. Explain and describe the paschen’’s
law?
The breakdown criterion in gases is given as
γ[exp (αd)-1]=1
………………………………………….(18)
Where the coefficients α and γ are the
function of E/p, i.e,
(α/p)= f1 (E/p)
α= p * f1 (E/p) and
γ= f2 (E/p) also
E=V/d
Substituting for E in the expressions for α and
γ and rewriting eqn. 12

This equation shows a relationship between V and pd, and implies that the breakdown voltage varies as the
product
pd varies. Knowing the nature of f1 and f2 we can rewrite eqn.18 as
V=f(pd) …………………………………(20)
This equation is known as Paschen’s Law
PASCHEN’S CURVE :- It is seen that the relationship between V and pd is not linear and has a minimum
value for any gas. Fig no.9 is located at the side od paschen’s law equation
This means that a breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the product p, the gas
pressure and d, the electrode gap for a particular gas and for a given electrode material

10. Explain Breakdown in non uniform field and Corona discharge?

In a uniform electric field, a gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a breakdown of the gap in
the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges. On the other hand, if the field is non-uniform, an
increase in voltage will first cause a localised discharge in the gas to appear at points with the highest
electric field intensity, namely at sharp points or where the electrodes are curved or on transmission line
conductors. This form of discharge is called a corona discharge and can be observed as a bluish luminance.
This phenomena is always accompanied by a hissing noise, and the air surrounding the corona region
becomes converted to ozone. Corona is responsible for considerable power loss in transmission lines and
also gives rise to radio interference. This also leads to deterioration of insulation by the combined action of
the discharge ion bombarding the surface and the action of chemical compounds that are formed by the
corona discharge. In non-uniform fields, e.g. in point-plane, sphere-plane gaps or coaxial cylinders, the field
strength and hence the effective ionization coefficient α vary across the gap. The electron multiplication is
governed by the integral of α over the path  dx .
The electrode configuration has great influence on the characteristics of the corona discharge. The typical
configurations include point-to-plane or point-to-point, wire-towire, wire-to-plane or wire-to-cylinder, etc.
Among them, the point-to-plane (or needleto-plate) is the most typical and popular configuration. The
corona discharge with the point-to-plane configuration has been investigated widely in air under various
conditions Investigation with point-plane gaps in air have shown that when point is positive, the corona
current increases steadily with voltage. At sufficiently high voltage, current amplification increases rapidly
with voltage upto a current of about 10–7 A, after which the current becomes pulsed with repetition
frequency of about 1 kHz composed of small bursts. This form of corona is known as burst corona.
 11. Explain glow and arc discharge?
Glow Discharge(low-current, high-voltage discharge.)
A glow discharge is characterized by a diffused luminous glow. The color of the glow discharge depends on
the cathode materials and the gas used. The glow discharge covers the cathode partly and the space
between the cathode and the anode will have intermediate dark and bright regions. In a glow discharge the
voltage drop between the electrodes is substantially constant, ranging from 75 to 300 V over a current
range of 1 mA to 100 mA depending on the type of the gas. The properties of the glow discharge are used
in many practical applications, such as, voltage regulation (VR) tubes, for rectification and as an amplifier.
Corona is the name given to glow discharges at high pressure near points of high fields, usually caused by a
small radius of curvature. Points are an obvious place for corona, and this is their intention in lightning rods.
High tension conductors are another good place, but here it is very undesirable.
Arc Discharge(a high-current, low-voltage discharge)
If the current in the gap is increased to about 1 A or more, the voltage across the gap suddenly reduces to
a few volts (20-50 V). The discharge becomes very luminous and noisy (region EG). The current density over
the cathode region increases to very high values of 103 to 107 2 cm A . Arcing is associated with high
temperature, ranging from 1000C̊ to several thousands degrees celcius. The discharge contain very high
density of electrons and positive ions, and called as arc plasma. The study of arcs is important in circuit
breakers and other switch contacts. It is convenient high temperature high intensity light source. It is used
for welding and cutting of metals. It is the light source in lamps such as carbon arc lamp. High temperature
plasmas are used for generation of electricity through magneto-hydro dynamic or nuclear fusion processes.

12. Explain conduction and breakdown in liquid dielectric?

In the context of electrical insulation, liquid dielectrics play a crucial role in various applications, such as
transformers and high-voltage equipment. Two important phenomena associated with liquid dielectrics are
conduction and breakdown.
Conduction in Liquid Dielectrics:
Definition: Conduction refers to the flow of electric current through a material in response to an applied
electric field.
Mechanism: In liquid dielectrics, conduction primarily occurs due to the presence of ions or charge carriers
in the liquid. The ions may be formed through the dissociation of molecules in the liquid or the presence of
impurities.
Factors influencing conduction:
Temperature: Generally, the conductivity of liquid dielectrics increases with temperature.
Purity: Impurities in the liquid can enhance or inhibit conduction, depending on their nature.
Type of liquid: Different liquids exhibit varying electrical conductivities.
Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics:
Definition: Breakdown is the sudden and rapid increase in the current flowing through a dielectric material
when the applied electric field exceeds a certain critical value. It is associated with the breakdown of the
insulating properties of the material.
Mechanism: Breakdown in liquid dielectrics can occur through different mechanisms:
Electron Impact Ionization: High-energy electrons collide with molecules, generating additional electrons
and ions, leading to a breakdown.
Avalanche Breakdown: The creation of charge carriers (electrons and ions) triggers a chain reaction,
forming an avalanche of charge carriers and causing breakdown.
Thermal Breakdown: Excessive heat generated due to high current can cause the breakdown of the
dielectric material.
Factors influencing breakdown:
Electric Field Strength: Breakdown is more likely to occur at higher electric field strengths.
Dielectric Strength: Each liquid dielectric has a characteristic dielectric strength, which is the maximum
electric field it can withstand without breaking down.
Purity and Homogeneity: Impurities or uneven distribution of the liquid can lead to localized breakdown.
 13. What are the pure and commercial liquid? explained conduction and breakdown in pure liquid.
Pure liquids and commercial liquids are terms often used to describe the types of dielectric liquids used in
electrical systems. Let's explore the concepts of conduction and breakdown in both pure and commercial
liquids.
Pure Liquid:
Conduction in Pure Liquid:
In a pure liquid dielectric, molecules are typically uniform, and the liquid is free from impurities.
Conduction in pure liquid is generally low because there are fewer free charge carriers (ions or electrons)
available to carry an electric current.
The conductivity of a pure liquid is primarily due to the mobility of naturally occurring ions or charge carriers
that result from the ionization of a small fraction of molecules.
Breakdown in Pure Liquid:
Breakdown in pure liquid is often associated with mechanisms such as streamer formation, electron avalanche,
or thermal breakdown.
A high electric field can cause ionization of molecules, leading to the creation of charge carriers (electrons and
ions).
If the electric field is sufficiently strong, it can initiate the formation of streamers—localized channels of
ionization that grow and eventually lead to breakdown.
Commercial Liquid:
Conduction in Commercial Liquid:
Commercial liquids used as dielectric fluids often include additives to enhance their performance or provide
specific characteristics.
Additives can increase the electrical conductivity of the liquid to some extent, making it suitable for applications
where controlled conduction is required.
Breakdown in Commercial Liquid:
Breakdown in commercial liquids can be influenced by the same mechanisms as in pure liquids, but additives
may alter the breakdown characteristics.
Additives can affect the initiation and propagation of streamers, impact the electron avalanche process, or
modify the thermal stability of the liquid.
Breakdown voltage and dielectric strength may vary based on the specific composition of the commercial liquid.

14. Explain various theories of breakdown in liquid?

Breakdown in liquid insulation involves the breakdown of the dielectric strength of the liquid, leading to
electrical failure. Several theories attempt to explain the mechanisms behind breakdown in liquid dielectrics.
Here are some of the key theories:
Streamer Theory: According to the streamer theory, breakdown in liquids is initiated by the formation of
streamers—localized ionization channels that propagate through the liquid dielectric. Streamers are formed due
to the ionization of atoms or molecules in the liquid under the influence of a strong electric field.
Electron Avalanche Theory: The electron avalanche theory suggests that breakdown occurs through the
multiplication of charge carriers (electrons) due to impact ionization. High-energy electrons collide with neutral
molecules, liberating additional electrons and ions, resulting in an avalanche of charge carriers.
Thermal Breakdown Theory: Thermal breakdown theory is based on the idea that the electric field causes
localized heating in the liquid dielectric. As the temperature rises, the dielectric strength decreases, and
breakdown occurs when the thermal stress exceeds the dielectric's ability to withstand it.
Cavitation Theory: Cavitation theory suggests that breakdown is associated with the formation and collapse of
gas bubbles in the liquid dielectric. The collapse of these bubbles generates shock waves and increases local
temperature and pressure, promoting breakdown.
Recombination Theory: Recombination theory proposes that breakdown occurs due to the recombination of
charge carriers. Under the influence of a strong electric field, free electrons and ions combine, releasing energy
and leading to breakdown.
It's important to note that breakdown in liquid dielectrics is a complex process, often involving a combination of
these mechanisms.
 15. Explain breakdown due to Treeing and tracking?
Electrical breakdown due to treeing and tracking are phenomena associated with the insulation systems in electrical
components and devices. Treeing:
Definition: Treeing is a phenomenon that occurs in solid dielectric materials, such as polymers used in insulation
systems. It is a progressive formation of tree-like structures within the insulation material.
Cause: Treeing is typically initiated by the presence of impurities, voids, or defects in the insulation material. High
electric field stress across the insulation can cause partial discharges, leading to the formation and growth of
microscopic channels or paths within the material.
Progression: Over time, these channels may grow and branch out, resembling the branches of a tree. As the tree-like
structures develop, they can weaken the insulation, eventually forming a conductive path that may lead to electrical
breakdown. Tracking:
Definition: Tracking is another form of insulation breakdown, but it involves the development of a conductive path on
the surface of an insulating material.
Cause: Tracking is often initiated by the presence of contaminants, moisture, or conducting particles on the surface of
the insulating material. When exposed to high electric field stress, these contaminants can initiate a conductive path
across the surface of the insulation.
Progression: As the conductive path forms, it can become more pronounced and extend over time. Tracking can lead
to the formation of carbonized or conductive material on the surface, increasing the risk of electrical breakdown.

16. Explain describe the solid insulating material?

Solid insulating materials play a crucial role in electrical systems by providing insulation and isolation between
conductive elements.
Characteristics of Solid Insulating Materials:
Dielectric Strength: Solid insulating materials should have a high dielectric strength to withstand electric field stress
without undergoing electrical breakdown. Dielectric strength is a measure of the material's ability to resist electrical
breakdown under an applied voltage.
Thermal Stability: Solid insulating materials must be thermally stable to withstand elevated temperatures without
degradation. This is particularly important in applications where electrical components generate heat during
operation.
Mechanical Strength: Mechanical strength is essential to ensure that the insulating material can withstand
mechanical stress, vibrations, and other physical forces without undergoing physical damage. It helps maintain the
structural integrity of the insulation.
Chemical Resistance: Solid insulating materials should be resistant to chemical reactions with the environment or
other materials they may come into contact with. This ensures long-term stability and reliability in diverse operating
conditions.
Low Permeability: Insulating materials should have low permeability to prevent the penetration of moisture, gases,
or other contaminants. This helps maintain the insulation properties over time.

17. Explain application of insulating material in rotating machine?

Insulating materials play a crucial role in the design and operation of rotating machines, such as electric motors and
generators. Here are some key applications of insulating materials in rotating machines:
Slot Insulation: In electric motors and generators, there are slots in the stator where the coils are placed. Insulating
materials are used to line these slots to prevent the coils from coming into direct contact with the stator core or
adjacent coils.
Coil Insulation: Insulating materials are used to cover individual coils within the stator or rotor. This prevents short
circuits between adjacent turns of the coil.
End Insulation: At the ends of the coils, insulation is applied to prevent contact with the machine's frame or core.
This is crucial for preventing electrical faults and maintaining the integrity of the winding.
Rotor Insulation: Rotors in electric machines also require insulation to prevent short circuits between rotor windings
and between the rotor and stator.
Bearings and Bushings Insulation: Bearings and bushings are insulated to prevent the flow of electric current
through the shaft, which could otherwise lead to damage or bearing failure.
Insulation in Commutators and Slip Rings: In machines with commutators or slip rings, insulation is applied to
prevent short circuits between adjacent segments.
Thermal Insulation: Some insulating materials also provide thermal insulation, helping to manage the heat generated
during the operation of the machine.
 18. Explains a Surge diverter and its function with neat sketch?
A surge diverter, also known as a surge arrester or lightning arrester, is a protective device designed to
safeguard electrical and electronic equipment from transient voltage spikes or surges. These surges can be
caused by various factors, such as lightning strikes, switching operations, or faults in the power system. The
primary function of a surge diverter is to provide a low-impedance path for these transient overvoltages to
be safely conducted to the ground, thereby preventing damage to connected devices.
Function of Surge Diverter:
Voltage Diversion: When a surge occurs, the surge diverter provides a
low-impedance path for the excessive voltage to be diverted away
from the protected equipment.
Fast Response Time: Surge diverters are designed to respond quickly
to transient overvoltages, offering a rapid path to ground to limit the
voltage rise across the protected equipment.
Protection of Equipment: By diverting the excess energy to the
ground, surge diverters protect sensitive equipment such as
computers, communication devices, and other electronic systems from potential damage.
Grounding: Proper grounding is a critical aspect of surge diverter function. The surge diverter is always
connected to a reliable ground, ensuring that the excess energy is safely conducted away from the
protected equipment and into the ground.

19. Explain propagation of lighting voltage and current wave on transmission line?

The propagation of lightning voltage and current waves on a transmission line involves the
interaction between the electromagnetic fields generated by the lightning and the characteristics
of the transmission line. Lightning-induced surges can travel along power lines and potentially
affect the connected electrical infrastructure. Here's an overview of the propagation process:

1. Initiation of Lightning Strike:

• Lightning is a natural phenomenon that involves the discharge of atmospheric electricity between
clouds or between a cloud and the ground. When a lightning strike occurs, it generates a high-
amplitude and high-frequency electromagnetic pulse.
2. Electromagnetic Wave Generation:
• The lightning discharge produces both voltage and current waves. These waves consist of rapidly
changing electric and magnetic fields.
3. Electromagnetic Fields and Transmission Lines:
• Transmission lines, which are conductive paths for electrical power, are designed to carry alternating
current (AC) at specific frequencies (usually 50 or 60 Hz). Lightning-induced waves can have much
higher frequencies, causing them to interact with the transmission line in unique ways.
4. Traveling Wave Phenomenon:
• Lightning-induced waves on a transmission line exhibit characteristics of traveling waves. As the
waves propagate along the transmission line, they experience reflections, refractions, and
interactions with the line's impedance.
5. Reflections and Refractions:
• When the lightning-induced waves encounter impedance mismatches along the transmission line,
reflections can occur. These reflections contribute to the overall behavior of the wave, and they can
cause standing waves or interference patterns.
• Refractions occur when the waves encounter changes in the transmission line's properties. These
changes may include variations in line impedance, capacitance, and inductance.
6. Attenuation:
• Lightning waves experience attenuation as they travel along the transmission line. Attenuation
refers to the gradual reduction in the amplitude of the wave due to energy losses in the transmission
medium.
 20. What are the traveling wave? explain various cause of generation of traveling Wave.
Traveling waves are disturbances or oscillations that propagate through a medium, transferring energy from one
point to another without a net movement of the medium itself. These waves can occur in various physical systems,
including mechanical waves (e.g., sound waves), electromagnetic waves (e.g., light waves), and waves in other types
of media.
There are several causes of the generation of traveling waves, depending on the specific type of wave and the
medium through which it propagates. Here are some common causes:
1. Mechanical Waves:
• Disturbance in a Medium: Mechanical waves, such as sound waves or seismic waves, are generated
when a disturbance is introduced to a medium. For example, sound waves result from the vibration
of air molecules or other materials.
• Vibrations and Oscillations: Waves can be generated by the oscillation of particles within a medium.
For instance, water waves are created by the oscillation of water molecules caused by wind or other
disturbances.
2. Electromagnetic Waves:
• Accelerated Charges: Electromagnetic waves, including light waves, are generated by the
acceleration of charged particles. This could be the motion of electrons in an antenna creating radio
waves or the oscillation of electrons in atoms generating light waves.
• Changing Electric and Magnetic Fields: Changes in electric and magnetic fields can induce each other,
giving rise to electromagnetic waves. This is the basis for the generation of radio waves, microwaves,
and other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
3. Seismic Waves:
• Earthquakes and Tectonic Activity: Seismic waves are generated primarily by the movement of
tectonic plates and the release of energy during earthquakes. The vibrations and disturbances in the
Earth's crust propagate as seismic waves.
4. Electrical Transmission Lines:
• Voltage and Current Changes: In electrical transmission lines, traveling waves can be generated due
to changes in voltage and current. These waves are a result of the distributed capacitance and
inductance along the transmission line.

21. Discuss various theories explaining the cause of natural lighting.

Natural lighting typically refers to the illumination provided by the sun during the day. The phenomenon of
natural lighting is primarily due to the processes occurring in the Earth's atmosphere and the interaction
between sunlight and various atmospheric components.
Here are some key factors and theories explaining the cause of natural lighting:
1. Sun-Earth Geometry:
• The Earth orbits around the Sun, and the tilt of the Earth's axis is a crucial factor in determining the
intensity and duration of sunlight at different locations and times of the year.
• The changing angles of sunlight throughout the day and across seasons result in varying lighting
conditions.
2. Atmospheric Scattering:
• Sunlight interacts with the Earth's atmosphere, and a significant portion of it is scattered in different
directions by air molecules and particles. This scattering is responsible for the blue color of the sky.
• The scattering of sunlight contributes to the diffuse illumination we experience during daylight.
3. Day and Night Cycle:
• The rotation of the Earth on its axis causes the day and night cycle. As different parts of the Earth
face the Sun, they experience daylight, while the opposite side is in darkness.
• The gradual change in lighting conditions during sunrise and sunset is due to the oblique angle at
which sunlight passes through the atmosphere, leading to longer atmospheric paths and increased
scattering.
4. Seasonal Variations:
• The axial tilt of the Earth (approximately 23.5 degrees) results in seasonal variations. During different
times of the year, different regions receive varying amounts of sunlight.
• This tilt, combined with the Earth's orbit around the Sun, causes the changing seasons and the
associated variations in natural lighting.
 22. Explain switching surge ? explain its effect and causing in detail.
Switching surges, also known as transient recovery voltages (TRV), are abrupt and transient overvoltages that occur
during the opening or closing of electrical switches and circuit breakers in power systems. These surges are a
consequence of the rapid interruption or establishment of current flow and are characterized by their high amplitude
and fast rise times. The primary causes include the interruption of inductive and capacitive loads, fault clearing, and
the interruption of fault currents.

When a switch opens or closes, the abrupt change in current flow induces voltage spikes. Inductive loads, such as
transformers and motors, contribute to the phenomenon by generating magnetic fields during interruption.
Capacitive loads, like long transmission lines, discharge stored energy when switches are opened. The effects of
switching surges include potential damage to insulation, increased risk of flashovers in air gaps, and electromagnetic
interference.

Causes of Switching Surges:

1. Inductive Load Switching: When a circuit with inductive loads (such as transformers or motors) is interrupted,
the collapsing magnetic field induces a voltage spike, leading to a switching surge.
2. Capacitive Load Switching: Switching off capacitive loads (like long transmission lines or cables) can cause
voltage overshoots due to the discharge of stored energy.
3. Parallel Circuit Interruption: In systems with parallel-connected devices, interruption of one branch can result
in a rapid increase in voltage in the other branches, leading to switching surges.
4. Fault Clearing: During the clearing of faults in power systems, the interruption of fault currents can produce
high transient voltages.
Effects of Switching Surges:
1. Insulation Stress: Switching surges subject power system insulation to sudden and high-voltage stresses,
potentially leading to insulation breakdown and failure.
2. Equipment Damage: The rapid and high-amplitude voltage spikes can damage or deteriorate the insulation of
connected equipment such as transformers, circuit breakers, and surge arresters.
3. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Switching surges can generate electromagnetic fields that may interfere
with nearby communication systems and sensitive electronic equipment.
4. Resonance Issues: In systems with resonance conditions, switching surges can exacerbate resonance effects,
leading to further equipment stress and potential failures.

23. Explain in detail VAN DE GRAFF Generation and neat diagram?

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator designed to produce high-voltage, low-current electricity. It
was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929. The
basic principle behind its operation involves the transfer of electric
charge from a moving belt to a large, hollow metal sphere, creating a
high electric potential on the sphere's surface. Here's a detailed
explanation of how a Van de Graaff generator works:
1)- Belt and Roller System: The generator consists of a large, insulated
metal sphere mounted on an insulating column. A flexible belt made of a
dielectric material (like rubber) is looped around two pulleys, one of
which is driven by a motor.
2)- Charge Accumulation: As the belt moves, it rubs against metal
brushes or combs, creating a separation of charges through triboelectric
effect. Electrons are transferred from the belt to the metal brushes,
leaving the belt positively charged. The metal brushes are connected to
the ground, allowing excess electrons to flow to the Earth.
3)- Charge Transport: The positively charged belt carries the positive
charge to the top of the generator. Since the belt is insulating, the charge
remains on the belt without leaking away.
4)- Discharge: When the electric potential on the sphere reaches a critical value, a spark may occur, allowing the
accumulated charge to discharge. This spark can be used for various experiments or demonstrations.
 24. Draw neat dia. for a Marx Impulse Generator and also explain working of impulse
generator?

Marx Impulse Generator

A Marx Impulse Generator is a specialized high-voltage device designed to produce controlled,
high-voltage pulses for various applications, particularly in the field of high-voltage and impulse
testing. Its name is derived from its inventor, the physicist Erwin Otto Marx. The generator operates
on the principle of voltage multiplication through a series of capacitors and spark gaps.
The key components of a Marx Impulse Generator include a series of capacitors (labeled C1, C2, ...,
Cn), spark gaps (SG1, SG2, ..., SGn-1), a switch (S), and a load (L). During the charging phase, the
capacitors are connected in parallel to a charging source through the switch. Once fully charged,
the switch is opened, initiating the discharge phase.
The discharge occurs sequentially through the spark gaps. When the first spark gap (SG1) breaks
down due to the high voltage, the energy stored in the first capacitor (C1) is released, resulting in a
high-voltage pulse. This pulse triggers the next spark gap (SG2), leading to the discharge of the
second capacitor (C2). This process continues in a cascading fashion until the last spark gap (SGn-1)
is reached.
Marx generators find applications in laboratories and industries where precise control over high-
voltage pulses is essential, such as in testing the insulation strength of electrical components or
simulating lightning strikes for research purposes. Their ability to generate well-defined, controlled
pulses makes them valuable tools in understanding and testing the behavior of electrical systems
under high-voltage conditions.
Working of impulse generator.
An impulse generator is a device designed to produce high-voltage pulses for various testing and
experimental purposes. Its operation involves the rapid release of stored energy in a controlled
manner to generate a short-duration, high-amplitude voltage pulse. Typically employed in fields
like power engineering and electromagnetic compatibility testing, the impulse generator's working
principle centers around energy storage and discharge.
The generator often includes a capacitor bank, a charging system, and a spark gap. During the
charging phase, energy accumulates in the capacitors through a charging system. Once fully
charged, a spark gap breaks down due to the increasing voltage, initiating the discharge phase. This
breakdown triggers a rapid release of energy stored in the capacitors, resulting in a high-voltage
pulse. The pulse duration is kept short, creating an impulse that simulates transient events like
lightning strikes or power system switching.
Impulse generators are crucial for testing the resilience and insulation capabilities of electrical
equipment, assessing their ability to withstand sudden voltage surges.
 25. Explain measurement of high voltage generation and explain various source of obtaining high
voltage?
Measurement of High Voltage:
The measurement of high voltage is a critical aspect in various applications, including power systems, electrical
engineering, and scientific research. High voltage is typically defined as any voltage level above 1000 volts. Here are
some common methods for measuring high voltage:
1. Sphere Gaps: Sphere gaps are a simple method for measuring high voltages. The method involves creating a
spark gap between two spheres. As the voltage increases, the gap breaks down and a spark occurs. The
distance between the spheres and the characteristics of the spark can be used to estimate the voltage.
2. Dividers and Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs): High voltage dividers are used to divide the high voltage
into smaller, more manageable voltages that can be measured using standard voltage measurement
instruments. Capacitive voltage transformers are also commonly used for voltage measurement in power
systems.
3. Resistive Voltage Dividers: These dividers consist of resistors connected in series and parallel to divide the
voltage. The voltage across each resistor can then be measured and used to calculate the total voltage.
4. Digital High Voltage Meters: These meters are specifically designed to measure high voltages accurately. They
often employ digital technology and may have specialized probes and insulation to ensure safe and accurate
measurements.
Various Sources of Obtaining High Voltage:
1. Transformers: Transformers are commonly used to step up voltages in power transmission systems. High-
voltage transformers are employed to increase the voltage for efficient long-distance power transmission and
then stepped down for distribution to end-users.
2. Van de Graaff Generator: This electrostatic generator is capable of producing high voltages. It uses a moving
belt to accumulate static charge on a hollow metal sphere, generating high voltages that can be used for
various experiments.
3. Cockcroft-Walton Generator: This voltage multiplier circuit is used to generate high DC voltages. It consists of
a series of capacitors and diodes that multiply the input voltage, producing a higher output voltage.
4. Tesla Coils: Tesla coils are resonant transformers that can produce extremely high voltages at high
frequencies. They are often used for educational demonstrations and in entertainment.
5. Capacitive Voltage Multipliers: Similar to Cockcroft-Walton generators, capacitive voltage multipliers use
capacitors and diodes to multiply voltages. They are often used in applications where compact high-voltage
sources are required.
6. Impulse Generators: These generators produce short-duration, high-voltage pulses and are commonly used
in testing the insulation of electrical equipment.

26. Explain the testing of insulator and bushing?

Testing insulators and bushings is crucial to ensure the reliability and safety of electrical systems. Here's an overview
of the testing processes for insulators and bushings:
Testing of Insulators:
Dimensional Checks: Verify the dimensions of the insulator to ensure it meets the specified tolerances.
Mechanical Strength Test: Apply a mechanical load to the insulator to assess its ability to withstand mechanical
stress. This is crucial in areas with high wind or other mechanical forces.
Dielectric Strength Test: Assess the insulator's ability to withstand electrical stress without breaking down. This
involves applying a high voltage across the insulator and measuring its dielectric strength.
Power Frequency Voltage Test: Subject the insulator to power frequency voltage to ensure it can handle the typical
voltages it will encounter in service.
Testing of Bushings:
Visual Inspection: Similar to insulators, visually inspect bushings for any visible signs of damage, including cracks,
leaks, or corrosion.
Dimensional Checks: Verify the dimensions of the bushing to ensure proper fit and alignment.
Power Factor Test: Measure the power factor to assess the insulation condition of the bushing. A high power factor
may indicate insulation issues.
Partial Discharge Test: Conduct a partial discharge test to detect any partial discharges within the bushing, which can
be indicative of insulation problems.
Impulse Voltage Test: Apply impulse voltage to simulate lightning or other transient conditions. This helps ensure the
bushing can withstand sudden voltage spikes.
 27. Describe non-destructive testing of cable and transformer?

Non-destructive testing (NDT) of cables and transformers is crucial in ensuring the reliability
and safety of electrical power systems. NDT techniques are employed to assess the
integrity, performance, and potential defects in these components without causing any
damage. Here's an overview of non-destructive testing methods for cables and
transformers:

Non-Destructive Testing of Cables:

1. Visual Inspection:
• Purpose: To identify any visible signs of damage or wear.
• Method: Inspect cables for physical damage, abrasions, cuts, and corrosion.
2. Insulation Resistance Testing:
• Purpose: To assess the insulation condition of cables.
• Method: Measure the resistance between conductors and between
conductors and the cable shield.
3. Dielectric Withstand Test (Hipot Test):
• Purpose: To ensure the cable can withstand high voltage without breakdown.
• Method: Apply a higher-than-normal voltage to the cable and check for
insulation breakdown.
4. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR):
• Purpose: To locate faults, such as open circuits or short circuits.
• Method: Sends a pulse along the cable and analyzes the reflected signal for
anomalies.

Non-Destructive Testing of Transformers:

1. Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Test:
• Purpose: To check the turns ratio of the transformer winding.
• Method: Apply a known voltage to the primary winding and measure the
output voltage.
2. Insulation Resistance Test:
• Purpose: To assess the insulation condition of the transformer.
• Method: Measure the resistance between transformer windings and between
windings and the transformer tank.
3. Power Factor Testing:
• Purpose: To evaluate the condition of the insulation.
• Method: Measure the power factor and capacitance of the insulation.
4. Transformer Oil Analysis:
• Purpose: To assess the condition of the transformer oil and detect potential
issues.
• Method: Analyze the chemical composition of the transformer oil for
contaminants and breakdown byproducts.
 28. Layout of high voltage laboratories and test facilities?

Higher voltage laboratories.

High voltage laboratories depending on the purpose for which they are intended. And the
resources available can be classified into three types.
• Small laboratories
• medium size laboratories
• large general laboratories
Some salient features of these various type of laboratories are discussed below.
Small laboratories.
A small laboratory is one that contains d.c. or power frequency test equipment of less than 10 kW /
10 WA rating and impulse equipment of energy rating of about 10 KJ or less . Voltage ratings can be
about 300 kV for a.c. , single unit or 500 to 600 kV a.c. for cascade units , ± 200 to 400 kV d.c. and
less than 100 kV impulse voltage . Normally the equipment is meant for housing in a room or hall
of size 15m x 10m x 8 m . Sometimes the equipment ratings are limited such that they can be
accommodated in a room of height 5 m to 6 m only . Such laboratories are meant for Engineering
Colleges and Universities who decide to build such a facility with small resources for doing high
voltage tests or research or for imparting training
Medium size laboratory
In case of medium size laboratories , their main function will be for doing routine tests . i ) ground
transport , ( ii ) handling equipment like cranes etc. , iii ) rationalization of test procedures by
making instruments easily accessible , and ( iv ) Providing room for the possibility of increasing the
maximum voltage ratings etc. Such a laboratory may initially contain a power frequency testing
facility in the range of 200 to 600 kV depending on the ratings and the size of the equipment being
manufactured and proposed to be- tested , such as cables , transformers etc. , but its kVA rating
will be much higher ( 100 to 1000 kVA ) .
Large general laboratory
( 1 ) One or more h.v. test halls ,
( 2 ) Corona and pollution test chambers ,
( 3 ) Outdoor test area fen : tests on large sized equipment , transmission lines and towers etc. ,
( 4 ) Controlled atmospheric test rooms / chambers ,
( 5 ) Computer facilities , conference halls , library etc. with good office facilities , and
(6) Provision for overnight tests and stay .

Test facilities in high voltage laboratories

Higher voltage laboratory. Is expected to carry out withstand and flashover test at high voltage on
the following transmission system equipment:
• Transformer
• Lightning arrester
• Isolator and circuit breaker
• Different type of insulator
• Cable
• Capacitor
• Line hardware and accessories
• Other equipment like reactor, etc.
Different taste conducted on the above equipment are.:
• Power frequency withstand test - wet and dry.
• Impulse test.
• DC withstand test.
• Switching surge test.
• Test under polluted atmospheric condition.
• Partial discharge and RIV measurments
• In addition , high Current test at power frequency and impulse current test on transformer,
Line conductor and lightning arrester are necessary.
• Apart from the above facilities, which are needed for routine testing, the laboratories are
expected to have facilities for. Studying the electric properties of insulation on insulating
material.